Exploring Wild Edible Plants in Malakand, Pakistan: Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Insights

Abstract

Human beings have used wild edible plants (WEPs) for food since ancient times. The poor and underprivileged people of the district of Malakand, Pakistan, also depend on wild edible plants (WEPs) to fulfill their food and nutrition needs. Wild edible plants (WEPs) are a potential solution for overcoming food shortages for families living in rural areas. The current study evaluated the ethnobotanical, nutritional, and elemental potential of some wild edible plants (WEPs) commonly used by local people in the district of Malakand, Pakistan. Ethnobotanical information was collected from local people through a semi-structured questionnaire. The ethnobotanical information collected about wild edible plants revealed that two wild edible species belong to the family Fabaceae, two plant species belong to the family Polygonaceae, and one plant species belongs to each family Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Malvaceae, Oxalidaceae, and Portulaceae. The plants collected were all herbs, and the parts used as edible parts were mostly leaves and young shoots. All the collected plants were predominantly used as vegetables by local people. The proximate nutritional analysis was carried out according to the official methods of AOAC (from 2016). The proximate nutritional analysis revealed that the selected WEPs are a good source of important nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, fats, and caloric energy. The proximate nutritional analysis of selected WEPs revealed that the highest (%) moisture content was calculated in Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton (90.45 ± 0.3); the highest dry matter (%) was present in Oxalis corniculata L. (21.60 ± 0.2); the highest ash (%) in Chenopodium album L. (17.80 ± 0.3); the highest crude fibers (%) in Meliolotus indicus (L.) All (16.45 ± 0.5); the highest crude protein (%) in Meliolotus indicus (L.) All (14.40 ± 0.1%); the highest crude fats (%) in Rumex hastatus Don. (3.80 ± 0.04); the highest percentage of carbohydrates in Portulaca oleracea L. (65.38 ± 0.6); and the maximum energy value was calculated for Portulaca oleracea L. (321.38 ± 0.4 Kcal/100 g). The elemental analysis of wild edible plants (WEPs) was carried out through energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). The EDX analysis showed that these WEPs consist of crucial and imperative elements such as C, O, N, P, Mg, K, S, Ca, Al, Si, Cl, Fe, Cu, Na, and Zn, which are integral parts of the human diet. Following the results of the EDX elemental analysis, Portulaca oleracea accounted for the highest concentration (%) of carbon, Oxalis corniculata accounted for the highest concentration (%) of oxygen, and Nasturtium officinale accounted for the maximum concentration of nitrogen (9.70%). The current study revealed that the research area is rich in diversity of wild edible plants (WEPs), a cheap and economical food source for locals. The study also showed that these wild edible plants (WEPs) possess all the crucial nutrients and elements imperative for human food and health. These wild edible plants (WEPs) will play a key role in a sustainable food system in the future.

1. Introduction

Pakistan is a developing country and the world’s eleventh highest-risk country for food security [1]. Approximately 40% of families in Pakistan, especially in rural areas, are considered food insecure due to the region’s large population and recurrent natural and anthropogenic disasters that compromise local means of survival and food access [2]. The use of wild edible plants (WEPs) as food is an important local survival tactic during periods of food shortage or drought. Threats to biodiversity conservation and protection may arise from the unsustainable use of rare species or plant parts. Many studies have been conducted on the ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal aspects of wild edible plants in Pakistan. However, the traditional knowledge of wild edible plants is only partially considered in ethnobotany [3]. The pressure of a rapidly growing population and the depletion of natural resources faster in developing countries has made it imperative to think about alternate food sources for human beings. There is a dire need to diversify present-day crops with different substitute products to fulfill basic human needs for food and diet [4]. The modification of farming practices has now shed light on many plants that have been recognized, but their consumption as food has not yet been in common practice. These plants could help ensure food availability and security and add to future environmental sustainability [5]. The demand for food and nutrition has increased in developing and poor countries over the last two decades. This is due to overpopulation, food scarcity, high inflation rates, low livelihood income, less agricultural produce, loss of biodiversity, habitat degradation, and natural disasters. Apart from other food alternatives, wild edible plants (WEPs) are believed to be a cheap and inexpensive source of human food and diet [6,7]. Wild edible plants (WEPs) and vegetables are imperative and dynamic sources of essential nutrients. These plants also provide vital elements or minerals such as magnesium, potassium, calcium, iron, sulfur, zinc, etc. [8]. Wild edible plants (WEPs) have been a significant source of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nutrients for humans throughout history. They are considered an economical and accessible source of energy and nutrition, especially in developing countries and among indigenous societies. WEPs offer diverse nutrients and have been consumed for their vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and dietary fiber. In today’s food security and sustainability concerns, WEPs are being explored as a potential solution due to their ecological sustainability and nutritional value. However, proper identification, preparation, and integration into diets are crucial. While WEPs can contribute to food security, a comprehensive approach to addressing this issue should consider agricultural practices, distribution systems, and socioeconomic factors. If such sources become available, local, national, and global food authorities, including the Food and Agricultural Organization, should be notified to use them for food sustainability [5,9,10,11]. Foods such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins are essential for human health and survival. The quality and quantity of these essential nutrients and substances in plants’ bodies are crucial and significant features for defining the nutritional values, class, and taxonomy of plants and the development of these plants for future planning and sustainability [12]. Moreover, nutrients like fats, proteins, carbohydrates, fibers, and nutritional energy obtained from individual plants are part of a balanced human diet and important for human health and sustainability [13]. The proximate nutritional and elemental analysis of these WEPs shows the significance of these plants from a food and dietary perspective. The extensive practices of an area’s local people of these WEPs for food and nutrition purposes have motivated and encouraged researchers to explore the dietary and nutritive values of these WEPs [14,15]. Wild edible plants (WEPs) are considered food for famine and hunger in rural areas of developing countries. These wild edible plants (WEPs) are believed to have the potential to meet local food needs [16,17]. Wild edible plants (WEPs) are mostly collected from forests, disturbed wastelands, arable lands, and mountains. These plants provide food security and safety to low-income families in rural areas during food starvation and thus play a crucial role in food sustainability and development [18,19]. People in poor and developing countries rely on these WEPs for fruits and vegetables as they cannot afford to buy commercial fruits and vegetables in the market due to their low livelihood income and high inflation rates. Research studies on these wild edible plants (WEPs) have revealed that some fruits and vegetables have more dietary nutrients, minerals, and energy values than commercial fruits and vegetables available in the market [20,21]. The study’s purpose was to understand better the nutritional value, traditional uses, and conservation status of the WEPs found in the district of Malakand. This information can be used to inform food security and sustainability initiatives in the area and conservation efforts to ensure the continued availability of these plants.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Research Area

The research area of the district of Malakand, Pakistan, is geographically situated at 34°35′ North latitude and 71°57′ E (Figure 1). The total covered area of the district of Malakand is 952 square kilometers. Most of the area is hilly and scenic. Malakand has varied climatic conditions; summer is hot, whereas winter is slightly cooler. The soil is mostly sandy loam with rich biodiversity. People are mostly poor and depend on farming and livestock rearing for their livelihood. The main tribes that dwell here are Ranizai, Baizai, Piran, Syeds, Yousafzai, Utmankhel, and Gujjars. Most people speak Pashto, whereas the Gujjar families speak both Pashto and Gujri [22].

2.2. Field Trips and Collection of Ethnobotanical Data

Field trips were made in different seasons of 2018–2019 to collect ethnobotanical data about wild edible plants (WEPs) from the local district of Malakand, Pakistan. Verbal permission was sought from local people before formal interviews. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect ethnobotanical data from the local people. About one hundred informants from different age groups, genders, and educational backgrounds were interviewed during this survey. Most of the informants were old age elders of the area as they had more knowledge and experience of local plants and their edible uses [23,24].

2.3. Collection and Identification of Plants

WEPs were collected from different sites in the research area during field trips. The collected plants were identified with the help of the available literature and flora of Pakistan [25].

2.4. Plant Samples Preparation

The collected plant samples were carefully washed to remove dirt and plant debris. The plants or their used parts were then shade-dried at room temperature [26]. The dried plant samples were powdered in a grinder and stored at room temperature. The powdered plant samples were then subjected to proximate nutritional and elemental analyses [27].

2.5. Ethical Considerations

The ethnobotanical data regarding wild edible plant collection and their edible uses were collected in the study according to the Bioethical Committee of Islamia College Peshawar, Pakistan, to avoid or minimize any physical or emotional harm to the informants. The participants participated in the interviews on their own will and motivation. The informants were found to be enthusiastic and excited to share valuable information regarding wild edible plants and their uses.

2.6. Proximate Nutritional Analysis

The selected plant samples were subjected to proximate nutritional analysis at the Agricultural Chemistry Laboratory, Agricultural University Peshawar, Pakistan, following the official methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC, 2016) [28].

2.6.1. Moisture Content (%)

The moisture content of fresh plant samples was calculated by oven-dried method at 105 °C using the official method of AOAC, 2016, by using the formula:

$$\mathrm{M}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{t}\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{W}2-\mathrm{W}3}{\mathrm{W}2-\mathrm{W}1}\times 100$$

(1)

where

• W₁ = weight of empty crucible,
• W₂ = weight of sample and crucible,
• W₃ = weight of sample with contents after drying.

2.6.2. Ash Content (%)

The percentage of ash content (%) was calculated by igniting the dried plant’s samples in a muffle furnace at 550 °C for 4 h according to the official method of AOAC, 2016, as follows:

$$\mathrm{A}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{h}\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{W}2-\mathrm{W}1}{\mathrm{W}3}\times 100$$

(2)

where

• W₁ = weight of the crucible,
• W₂ = weight of the sample and crucible after drying,
• W₃ = weight of the sample on a dry weight basis.

2.6.3. Crude Fats (%)

The calculation of crude fats (%) was carried out by the official method AOAC, 2016, by the following formula:

$$\mathrm{C}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{f}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{s}\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{W}\mathrm{f}}{\mathrm{W}\mathrm{s}}\times 100$$

(3)

where

• Wf = weight of fats in the sample,
• Ws = weight of the sample.

2.6.4. Crude Proteins

A micro Kjeldahl apparatus was used for determining crude proteins (N %) in plant samples by using the official method of AOAC, 2016, by the given formula:

$$\left(\mathrm{N}\mathrm{\%}\right)=\frac{(\mathrm{S}-\mathrm{B})\times \mathrm{N}\times 0.014\times \mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{W}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{h}\mathrm{t} \mathrm{o}\mathrm{f} \mathrm{s}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{p}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{e}}\times 100$$

(4)

where

• D = dilution factor,
• T = titration value (S − B),
• W = weight of the sample,
• Constant value = 0.014,
• Crude protein % = N × 6.25 (factor).

2.6.5. Crude Fibers (%)

The crude fiber content (%) was calculated gravimetrically by the official method of AOAC, 2016. The following formula determined the crude fiber content (%):

$$\mathrm{C}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{u}\mathrm{d}\mathrm{e} \mathrm{f}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{b}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{s}\left(\mathrm{\%}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{W}1-\mathrm{W}2}{\mathrm{W}3}\times 100$$

(5)

where

• W₁ = weight of crucible before drying,
• W₂ = weight of crucible after drying,
• W₃ = weight of plant sample.

2.6.6. Calculation of Carbohydrates (%)

The carbohydrate content (%) was calculated by using the official method of AOAC, 2016, by the following formula:

Carbohydrates % = 100 − (Ash % + crude fibers% + crude proteins % + crude fats %).

(6)

2.6.7. Calculation of Energy Value (Ev)

The energy value (Ev) was measured by using the official method of AOAC, 2016, formula:

Ev (Kcal/100 g) = (Carbohydrates × 4 + Crude proteins × 4 + Crude fats × 9)

(7)

2.7. Elemental Analysis

The energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) of powdered plant samples was conducted using EDX (JEOL JSM 7600F; Tokyo, Japan) at the Central Resource Laboratory, University of Peshawar, Pakistan. Two grams of each powdered plant sample were used, kept on a metal pellet (JEE 420) cello-tape, and coated with gold using a vacuum evaporator (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). The scanning electron microscope (SEM) was attached to EDX (Inca, 200 Model; Oxford Company, Oxford, UK) [29].

2.8. Analysis of Data

Microsoft Excel computed the ethnobotanical, proximate nutritional, and elemental analyses data (version 2016). Nutritional analysis results were expressed as mean standard deviation (±) after tests were performed in triplicate. The results were then presented in tables and figures.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Demography of Informants

Ethnobotanical data about wild edible plants (WEPs) were collected through frequent field visits to the research area. One hundred local informants were interviewed through semi-structured questionnaires, interviews, and group discussions. Based on gender, the male informants comprised 72%, whereas the female informants comprised 28%, respectively. Based on marital status, the informants were mostly married (79%), while only 21% were unmarried. The educational background of the informants showed that most of the informants were illiterate (66%), followed by primary school level (10%), middle school level (8%), secondary school level (6%), higher secondary school level (6%) and university level (4%) only. All the informants were above the age of 25 up to 86 years. Most of the informants were old people because they had more information and knowledge about local wild edible plants and their uses.

3.2. Description of Wild Edible Plants

All the collected WEPs were arranged family-wise alphabetically, as shown in

Table 1. Wild edible plants collected from the district of Malakand, Pakistan.

Taxonomic Family	Botanical Name	Vernacular Name	Part Used	Edible Uses
Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus viridis L.	Chalwai	Leaves and young shoots	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Brassicaceae	Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton	Termera	Leaves	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Chenopodiaceae	Chenopodium album L.	Sarmai	Leaves and seeds	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Fabaceae	Medicago polymorpha L.	Peshtaray	Succulent stems	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Fabaceae	Meliolotus indicus (L.) All.	Leewanai	Young shoots	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Malvaceae	Malva neglecta Wallr.	Paneerak	Leaves	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Oxalidaceae	Oxalis corniculata L.	Treewakai	Leaves	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Polygonaceae	Rumex dentatus L.	Shalkhay	Leaves	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Polygonaceae	Rumex hastatus Don.	Tharookai	Leaves and young shoots	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.
Portulaceae	Portulaca oleracea L.	Warkhari	Leaves	Young shoots and leaves are boiled as vegetables.

. The ethnobotanical data collected regarding WEPs show that these 10 plants belong to 8 families and 10 genera. The two wild edible plants belong each to the family Fabaceae and Polygonaceae, whereas the families Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Malvaceae, Oxalidaceae, and Portulaceae family have one species each. All the plants collected were herbs based on their habit. The parts used as a portion of food were mainly leaves and young shoots. In most cases, the WEPs collected were used by the locals as vegetables as shown in Figure 2.

3.3. Proximate Nutritional Analysis

The results of the current proximate nutritional analysis of WEPs are presented in

Table 2. Proximate nutritional analysis of wild edible plants.

Plant Name	MC (%)	DM (%)	Ash %	Fib (%)	CF (%)	CP (%)	Carb (%)	EV (Kcal/100 g)
Amaranthus viridis L.	88.90 ± 0.03	11.10 ± 0.4	9.95 ± 0.5	16.05 ± 0.02	2.95 ± 0.02	8.45 ± 0.3	62.60 ± 0.6	310.75 ± 0.6
Chenopodium album L.	84.20 ± 0.3	15.80 ± 0.5	17.80 ± 0.3	15.30 ± 0.3	3.70 ± 0.02	8.65 ± 0.05	54.55 ± 0.2	286.10 ± 0.2
Malva neglecta Wallr.	80.60 ± 0.2	19.40 ± 0.03	17.65 ± 0.02	15.90 ± 0.5	2.98 ± 0.01	8.70 ± 0.04	54.77 ± 0.4	280.70 ± 0.5
Medicago polymorpha L.	79.30 ± 0.3	20.70 ± 0.3	13.40 ± 0.5	15.25 ± 0.5	3.05 ± 0.04	10.35 ± 0.3	57.95 ± 0.6	300.65 ± 0.3
Meliolotus indicus (L.) All.	78.44 ± 0.5	21.56 ± 0.1	14.32 ± 0.3	16.45 ± 0.5	2.70 ± 0.04	14.40 ± 0.1	52.13 ± 0.3	290.42 ± 0.5
Nasturtium officinale W. T. Aiton.	90.45 ± 0.3	9.55 ± 0.2	13.50 ± 0.01	14.25 ± 0.5	3.05 ± 0.3	10.88 ± 0.4	58.32 ± 0.2	304.25 ± 0.5
Oxalis corniculata L.	78.40 ± 0.4	21.60 ± 0.2	15.75 ± 0.04	16.10 ± 0.5	3.10 ± 0.03	6.90 ± 0.02	58.15 ± 0.4	288.10 ± 0.3
Portulaca oleracea L.	90.20 ± 0.2	9.80 ± 0.3	10.88 ± 0.1	12.40 ± 0.05	2.90 ± 0.3	8.44 ± 0.2	65.38 ± 0.6	321.38 ± 0.4
Rumex dentatus L.	89.40 ± 0.2	10.60 ± 0.02	14.35 ± 0.4	13.45 ± 0.2	2.99 ± 0.2	9.26 ± 0.05	59.95 ± 0.4	303.75 ± 0.6
Rumex hastatus Don.	79.95 ± 0.6	20.05 ± 0.4	14.50 ± 0.3	12.90 ± 0.03	3.80 ± 0.04	9.70 ± 0.01	59.10 ± 0.5	309.40 ± 0.3

Key: MC (Moisture content); DM (Dry matter); CP (Crude proteins); CF (Crude fats); Carb (Carbohydrates); Fib (Fibers); EV (Energy value).

. The average moisture content (%) ranged between 78.40 ± 0.4% and 90.45 ± 0.3%. The highest percentage of moisture content (%) was found in Nasturtium officinale (90.45 ± 0.3%), followed by Portulaca oleracea (90.20 ± 0.2%) and Rumex dentatus L. (89.40 ± 0.2%), respectively Figure 3.

Similarly, the lowest moisture content (%) was found in Oxalis corniculata (78.40 ± 0.4%). The highest moisture content (%) in plants shows the maximum water-holding capacity of plant tissues [30]. Food containing the maximum amount of water is digested easily as water is essential for metabolic reactions in the body and prevents desiccation of body tissues [31]. The WEPs examined for moisture (%) showed enough moisture content in their tissues to fulfill human needs. The present study’s moisture (%) results are parallel and in line with previous studies [13,32,33].

The dry matter content (%) ranged from 9.55 ± 0.2% to 21.60 ± 0.2%. The highest dry matter (%) was found in Oxalis corniculata (21.60 ± 0.2%), followed by Meliolotus indicus (21.56 ± 0.1%) and Medicago polymorpha (20.70 ± 0.3%), respectively. The lowest value of dry matter (%) was found in Nasturtium officinale (9.55 ± 0.2%). The low dry matter content (%) and low crude fats content results in low energy value in plants’ bodies [31]. The dry matter content (%) of plants depends on the internal tissues of plants. The topography and altitude level may also affect the plants’ dry matter content. The dry matter content of plants increases with altitudes and vice versa [34]. The results of the present study on dry matter content are parallel and close to the findings of other researchers [35,36].

The ash content (%) in the plant body indicates the number of minerals present in the plant body [13]. The ash content (%) in the selected wild edible plants ranged between 9.95 ± 0.5% and 17.80 ± 0.3% (Figure 4). The maximum ash content (%) was calculated in Chenopodium album (17.80 ± 0.3%), followed by Malva neglecta (17.65 ± 0.02%) and Oxalis corniculata (15.75 ± 0.04%), respectively. The minimum ash content (%) was found in Amaranthus viridis (9.95 ± 0.5%). The ash content (%) calculated in the current study is similar and comparable with the results of previous studies [37,38], confirming that the investigated WEPs are a good source of essential minerals beneficial to human health. The dietary fibers encourage the development of useful microbes present in the gastrointestinal gut of humans. The crude fibers (%) ranged between 12.40 ± 0.05% and 16.45 ± 0.5%. The highest value of crude fibers (%) was found in Meliolotus indicus (16.45 ± 0.5%), followed by Oxalis corniculata (16.10 ± 0.5%) and Amaranthus viridis (16.05 ± 0.02%), respectively. The lowest crude fiber value (%) was reported in Portulaca oleracea (12.40 ± 0.05%). These findings are analogous and comparable with the results of earlier studies [37]. Proteins are useful for the growth and development of the body, enzyme production, repair of tissues, hormone production, and overall body functioning [39]. The crude proteins (%) ranged between 6.90 ± 0.02% and 14.40 ± 0.1%. The maximum proteins (%) were found in Meliolotus indicus (14.40 ± 0.1%), followed by Nasturtium officinale (10.88 ± 0.4%) and Medicago polymorpha (10.35 ± 0.3%), respectively. The minimum crude proteins (%) were found in Oxalis corniculata (6.90 ± 0.02%).

These findings showed that the protein content in all these selected wild edible plants was sufficient in quantity, indicating that these plants contain essential amino acids in the context of edibility. Amino acids serve as an alternative source of energy in the body in cases when carbohydrate metabolism is impaired in glucogenesis [40]. Our findings regarding protein content (%) in WEPs align and are comparable with previous studies’ findings [18,32,41]. Carbohydrates are the main and ultimate source of energy in the body. The study revealed that carbohydrate content (%) ranged from 52.13 ± 0.3% to 65.38 ± 0.6% in these wild edible plants (WEPs). The highest percentage of carbohydrates was calculated for Portulaca oleracea (65.38 ± 0.6%), followed by Amaranthus viridis (62.60 ± 0.6%) and Rumex dentatus (59.95 ± 0.4%), respectively. The differences in carbohydrate content (%) are mainly due to factors such as sunlight and wind [42]. The current investigations showed that WEPs studied during this study contain adequate carbohydrates. These results are in line with and similar to the findings of other researchers [33,40,43,44]. Crude fats are a major energy source, and their calculation in proximate nutritional analysis is important [41]. The present study showed that the crude fats (%) ranged between 2.70 ± 0.04% and 3.80 ± 0.04%. The highest crude fats (%) were calculated in Rumex hastatus (3.80 ± 0.04%), followed by Chenopodium album (3.70 ± 0.02%), Medicago polymorpha, and Nasturtium officinale. with each plant (3.05 ± 0.04%), respectively. The minimum crude fats (%) were calculated in Meliolotus indicus (2.70 ± 0.04%). These results are in line with and parallel to the findings of earlier studies in Figure 4 [32,33].

The energy value (E.V.) of wild edible plants (WEPs) ranged between 280.70 ± 0.5 and 321.38 ± 0.4 as shown in Figure 5. The maximum energy value was calculated in Portulaca oleracea (321.38 ± 0.4 Kcal/100 g), followed by Amaranthus viridis (310.75 ± 0.6 Kcal/100 g) and Rumex hastatus (309.40 ± 0.3 Kcal/100 g), respectively. The minimum energy value (E.V.) was calculated in Malva neglecta (280.70 ± 0.5 Kcal/100 g). It has been observed and reported that the energy values of plants at lower altitudes are higher than those of plants found at higher altitudes. The results of the energy value of the present research study are in harmony and parallel with previous studies [32,45].

Pearson’s correlation study of the present proximate nutritional analysis showed a positive correlation between crude proteins–crude fats, crude proteins–moisture content, and carbohydrates–energy value, whereas a negative correlation was found between ash–carbohydrates, carbohydrates–crude fats, and energy value–fibers. The bold values in

Table 3. Pearson’s Correlation coefficient of nutrients available in wild edible plants.

Correlation	Moisture	Dry Matter	Proteins	Fats	Carbohydrates	Fibers	Ash	Energy Value
Moisture	1
Dry matter	−0.987	1
Proteins	0.0795	−0.072	1
Fats	0.021	−0.009	0.201	1
Carbohydrates	−0.151	0.160	−0.699 *	−0.301 **	1
Fibers	0.398	−0.393 **	−0.298	−0.586 **	0.079	1
Ash	−0.029	0.072	−0.202	0.292	−0.503	−0.276	1
Energy Value	−0.197	0.299	0.398	0.396	0.205	−0.597 **	−0.403 *	1

Bold R-values are significant at p < 0.01 * and p < 0.05 **.

represent significant R-values at p < 0.01 * and p < 0.05 **.

3.4. Elemental Analysis

The present EDX elemental analysis of wild edible plants (WEPs) showed that these plants are rich and important sources of essential and vital elements. The value and usefulness of elements for the human body are crucial and imperative. All elements with the atomic number 11 and above were detected in tested plant samples. The results of the existing elemental analysis explored that carbon and oxygen were the most abundant elements in all plant samples in terms of weight (%). The maximum value of carbon (%) existed in Portulaca oleracea (55.28%), followed by Rumex hastatus (54.78%) and Medicago polymorpha (54.30%), respectively. The highest value of oxygen (%) was calculated in Oxalis corniculata (36.60%), followed by Rumex hastatus (35.70%) and Malva neglecta (35.58%), respectively.

The maximum value of nitrogen (%) was present in Nasturtium officinale (9.70%), followed by Chenopodium album (7.05%) and Meliolotus indicus (6.70%), respectively. The potassium (%) was at its maximum in Chenopodium album (8.95%), followed by Rumex dentatus (8.90%) and Portulaca oleracea (8.80%), respectively. The remaining elements, such as magnesium, were at a maximum in Amaranthus viridis (1.37%), calcium (%) was at a maximum in Malva neglecta (3.05%), silicon (%) was highest in Oxalis corniculata (3.98%), and iron element was present at the highest percentage in Meliolotus indicus (0.74%). The other elements like aluminium, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, sodium, copper, and zinc were present in very minute percentages, as shown in

Table 4. Elemental Analysis of Wild Edible Plants.

Plant Names	C %	O %	N %	Mg %	Al %	Si %	P %	S %	K %	Ca %	Cl %	Na %	Fe %	Cu %
Amaranthus viridis L.	50.20	33.01	5.15	1.37	0.25	1.0	0.60	0.30	2.71	2.11	0.81	-	0.29	0.31
Chenopodium album L.	49.80	29.55	7.05	0.91	0.65	0.81	0.28	0.30	8.95	0.29	0.64	-	0.31	0.46
Malva neglecta Wallr.	52.70	35.58	-	1.10	0.48	0.69	0.29	0.82	3.15	3.05	0.51	0.49	0.30	0.84
Medicago polymorpha L.	54.30	32.11	-	0.40	-	0.55	1.06	0.34	8.05	1.99	-	-	-	1.20
Meliolotus indicus (L.) All.	49.95	35.45	6.70	0.56	0.51	1.98	0.41	0.29	0.70	2.98	-	-	0.47	-
Nasturtium officinale	50.10	29.80	9.70	0.29	0.41	1.28	0.61	0.20	2.87	2.65	0.99	0.39	0.71
Oxalis corniculata L.	49.45	36.60	-	0.96	0.99	3.95	0.31	0.54	2.75	1.25	0.85	0.91	1.15	0.29
Portulaca oleracea L.	55.28	29.95	-	0.76	0.34	0.68	0.33	0.29	8.80	1.45	0.25	0.15	0.20	1.52
Rumex dentatus L.	50.60	29.47	6.50	0.39	0.35	0.90	0.50	0.29	8.90	0.70	0.55	0.15	0.40	0.30
Rumex hastatus Don.	54.78	35.70	-	0.65	0.26	0.60	0.28	0.22	4.23	1.62	0.86	-	-	0.80

Key: C (carbon); O (oxygen); N (nitrogen); Mg (magnesium); Al (aluminum); Si (silicon); P (phosphorus); S (sulfur); K (potassium); Ca (calcium); Cl (chlorine); Na (sodium); Fe (iron); Cu (copper).

and Figure 6 and Figure 7.

Pearson’s correlation coefficients between pairs of elements were determined to find the correlations between element pairs present in these wild edible plants. The results showed strong and positive correlations in these pairs of elements, such as Si–Fe, Al–Fe, and Ca–Na. Similarly, strong negative correlations were found in Na–P, Fe–K, and Fe–Na, as shown in

Table 5. Pearson’s correlation coefficient of elements in wild edible plants.

Correlation	C	O	N	Mg	Al	Si	P	S	K	Ca	Cl	Na	Fe	Cu
C	1
O	−0.326	1
N	−0.160	−0.059	1
Mg	0.038	−0.442	−0.538 *	1
Al	−0.115	−0.189	−0.339	0.318	1
Si	−0.272	−0.200	−0.020	0.60	0.880	1
P	−0.255	−0.484 **	0.697	0.11	−0.027	0.391	1
S	0.212	−0.076	−0.197	0.294	−0.094	−0.150	−0.299	1
K	−0.113	−0.602 *	−0.201	0.594	−0.124	0.101	0.306	0.129	1
Ca	0.381	−0.200	0.041	0.692	0.249	−0.030	0.083	0.568	−0.196	1
Cl	−0.084	−0.282	0.287	−0.027	−0.180	−0.146	0.497	−0.039	0.069	0.409	1
Na	0.213	−0.305	0.300	0.91	0.228	0.137	−0.481 **	0.95	0.203	0.904	−0.043	1
Fe	0.112	0.487	0.082	0.3207	0.816	0.81	−0.196	−0.303	−0.478 **	−0.069	−0.478 **	−0.522 *	1
Cu	0.237	0.498	−0.795	0.417	−0.228	−0.276	−0.403	0.344	−0.241 **	−0.198	0.030	0.897	−0.194	1

Key: C (carbon); O (oxygen); N (nitrogen); Mg (magnesium); Al (aluminum); Si (silicon); P (phosphorus); S (sulfur); K (potassium); Ca (calcium); Cl (chlorine); Na (sodium); Fe (iron); Cu (copper). Significant values at p < 0.01 * and p < 0.05 **.

.

The current EDX elemental investigations of wild edible plants align with previous researchers’ findings, but slight differences exist in the number of elements detected in these wild edible plants. These elements’ quantity differences might be attributed to different environmental, soil, and altitudinal conditions. The soil composition determines the composition and quantity of elements present in these plants [46]. The presence of such essential and vital elements in wild edible plants has also been detected and reported by other researchers in their studies [47,48,49,50,51]. The study showed that these WEPs could potentially supplement crucial nutrients and elements in the food and nutrition of human beings. These findings of the existing nutritional and elemental investigation of these selected wild edible plants (WEPs) also revealed that these plants are a significant and inexpensive source of vital nutrients and essential elements for the underprivileged and poor people of the community. The local people have used these plants extensively as wild edible plants. Some research area sites have observed and noticed that these WEPs are over-exploited by the local people due to population growth, livestock rearing, unwise collection, and other anthropogenic activities. Various conservation and sustainability measures have been discussed with local people about these WEPs. To maintain the eco-balance of these important wild edible plants, the local people were advised to use these plants wisely and according to their needs so that over-exploitation may be lessened or prevented. The people have been made aware of and alerted to the importance and need for wise use of these WEPs in group discussions and interviews during field visits. As a sustainable solution to maintain an eco-balance, the local people were informed and advised to use these WEPs wisely according to their needs, collect them carefully, and propagate and cultivate these WEPs so that future generations may preserve and protect this useful asset as shown in Figure 7.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

“Exploring Wild Edible Plants in Malakand, Pakistan: Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Insights” highlights the importance of wild edible plants (WEPs) as a vital, economically feasible food source for impoverished communities, particularly in the Malakand region. According to this study, through proximate nutritional analysis, WEPs contain significant amounts of moisture, carbs, protein, fats, fiber, ash, and energy. The results of this ethnobotanical study indicate that wild edible plants (WEPs) can serve as a significant and economically viable source of food and nutrition for rural poor and underprivileged residents. Based on the proximate nutritional analysis, WEPs contained sufficient amounts of moisture, carbohydrate, protein, fat, fiber, ash, and energy. In an EDX elemental analysis of WEPs, almost all macro- and microelements necessary for human health were found in these plants. These WEPs will effectively provide food and nutrition for the poor and needy in times of rapid population growth and high inflation rates. In the future, these WEPs will play an important role in sustaining food supplies and developing ecosystems. This study, therefore, recommends that more research be conducted to examine the ethnobotanical, nutritional, elemental, phytochemical, antimicrobial, and other aspects of these WEPs at local and global levels.