1. Introduction
Access to early childhood education (ECE) may benefit young children by improving their school readiness and lifelong developmental outcomes [
1,
2]. The effect of ECE services generally relies on their quality [
3]. Among the factors contributing to quality ECE services, the quality of ECE teachers plays a pivotal role [
4,
5]. With this in mind, many countries have endeavored to enhance the quality of ECE teachers through promoting in-service training and other professional development activities [
6]. However, ECE teachers’ high turnover rate, which considerably jeopardizes teacher quality [
7,
8], has been witnessed in different countries [
9,
10]. If highly skilled teachers cannot be retained in the ECE sector, strategies exclusively focusing on professional development might yield disappointing outcomes. Moreover, the high turnover rate will hinder progress towards achieving the sustainable development goals pertaining to SDG 4.2, ensuring that “all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education”.
During the past decade, the Chinese government has increased public investment in enhancing ECE teachers’ quality. However, the high teacher turnover rate of China is hindering efforts to improve ECE personnel quality [
11,
12]. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the factors leading to ECE teachers’ turnover intention to retain high-quality teachers. Previous studies explored the relationship between teachers’ salary and turnover intention or turnover behaviors [
13,
14], and compensation is considered to be one of the most important factors contributing to ECE teachers’ decision to leave or stay [
15]. However, researchers have mainly focused on the salary level instead of on teachers’ subjective perceptions of salary, which have an important effect on employees’ work behaviors and attitudes [
16,
17]. Besides, not only low salary level but also pay inequity is a widespread concern among Chinese preschool teachers. There is a scarcity of research on pay equity and turnover intention in the context of China and the early childhood education field. However, the importance of equity may vary with changes in culture [
18,
19], and the predictive effect of pay equity on turnover intention for teachers may also differ from that for other occupations as teachers are more motivated by intrinsic factors than external ones [
20].
Addressing this research gap, this study formulates a model to investigate the influence of pay equity on turnover intention among Chinese preschool teachers, while also examining the underlying process. Based on both equity theory and a social exchange perspective, we propose that pay equity has a negative relationship with turnover intention. In addition, we posit two important mediators: POS and job satisfaction. These factors are crucial for a long-term sustainable organization. POS and job satisfaction are expected to played both an independent and a serial mediation role in this study.
1.1. ECE Teacher Turnover in China
Since 2010, the Chinese government has implemented great changes in the ECE landscape [
21]. A series of policies and regulations, including the establishment of numerous higher education institutions for preparing ECE teachers, have been issued to ensure a sufficient supply of qualified ECE teachers. Despite the achievements that have been made, there continues to be a shortage of qualified ECE teachers. This problem might arise from the high turnover rate of preschool teachers. Unfortunately, it is difficult to obtain accurate turnover rate data; thus, some researchers have focused on studying turnover intention, which is the strongest indicator predicting actual turnover behavior [
22,
23]. Previous studies have revealed that the high turnover rate of preschool teachers is a severe problem in China [
24]; thus, there is a need for more studies on Chinese preschool teachers’ turnover intention and its antecedents.
1.2. Perception of Pay Equity and Its Relationship with Turnover Intention
While there are a number of studies on the impact of pay on employees’ turnover [
14,
25,
26], these studies have reached inconsistent conclusions, potentially due to the distinction between pay level and subjective perception of salary. While people tend to assume that actual salaries and pay perceptions are identical, they are, in fact, different concepts. For example, a meta-analysis found that pay level had a weak relationship with pay satisfaction, which is a form of subjective perception of salary [
27]. Given the insufficient investigations on the relationship between subjective perceptions of salary and turnover intention, further research is warranted [
28].
Pay equity is a type of subjective perception of pay for employees. The income of Chinese preschool teachers is not only criticized for being low (even lower than that of nannies), but also for being unfair [
29]. Teachers doing the same work with an equivalent background get paid differently just because of different employment types. Those with Bianzhi (a tenured position with favorable compensation and benefits offered to those who pass the recruitment examination related to the position with Bianzhi) in public kindergartens earn as much as double or even triple what their counterparts without Bianzhi earn in the same centers [
30]. Accordingly, perception of pay equity is worthy of investigation in the context of Chinese public kindergartens.
Pay equity is defined as employees’ judgement of equality when they feel that their input-to-output ratio and that of others are comparable [
31]. It is, however, a complex construct. Hartmann and Slapničar indicated that it comprises distributive equity and procedural equity [
32]. Distributive equity can be distinguished as both internal equity and external equity, since people tend to utilize both internal and external referents to determine pay equity [
33,
34]. Furthermore, when employees are compensated in accordance with their own sense of worth, personal equity exists [
35,
36]. In our study, we focus on distributive equity, which refers to the equity of outcome. For one thing, the unfairness of salary distribution for kindergarten teachers in China is particularly prominent. For another thing, procedural justice effects are considered “pan-cultural”, whereas different cultures place varying importance on outcome justice [
37].
The relationship between pay equity and teachers’ turnover intention is supported by Equity Theory. This theory posits that individuals perceive fairness when their input/output ratio matches that of their referent others [
31]. If this ratio falls short of that of their comparison groups, employees may experience a sense of relative deprivation and perceive injustice. When left unaddressed, this inequity can lead to psychological distress [
31]. As such, individuals tend to seek to restore equity to alleviate this emotional distress; a common method of addressing this inequity is to adjust their input/output ratio [
31,
38]. Withdrawal attitudes and behaviors, including turnover intention, absenteeism, and actual turnover, may appear [
39,
40]. Specifically, when the equity treatment in the current organization seems impossible, employees will probably leave and search for an alternative work option which may offer a more equitable reward [
40]. There are a few empirical studies that have examined the relationship between pay equity and employees’ turnover intention in the business field [
33,
41]. Compared to other professionals, teachers might be less sensitive to salary when considering entering or leaving their position [
42]. However, pay equity is a perception of equity, which is not equivalent to pay itself. A teacher may care less about actual pay but still be concerned about pay equity. Thus, based on equity theory and empirical research in other areas, we present the first hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1. Pay inequity is negatively related to Chinese preschool teachers’ intention to leave.
1.3. Perceived Organizational Support (POS) as a Mediator
Although the relationship between pay equity and turnover intention has been the focus of some studies, the mechanisms between the two variables remain unclear. POS refers to the extent to which the organization values employees’ contributions and cares about their well-being [
43]. Social exchange theory suggests that employees and organizations are in a reciprocal relationship. Employees expect rewards from the organization that are proportionate to their contributions. Such rewards need not be excessive, but should be commensurate with the level of effort put in. When appropriate rewards are provided promptly and regularly, employees develop confidence that the organization will meet its obligations [
44]. In addition, they feel that their value is recognized, thereby increasing POS [
45]. Previous studies have revealed pay [
46], as well as fair treatment [
41,
47], as being strongly related to POS in a predictable way. According to Eisenberger et al., particularly when employees believe that the organization has high discretionary control, the favorability of working conditions have a strong relationship with POS [
48]. Therefore, our second hypothesis is as follows.
Hypothesis 2. Chinese preschool teachers’ pay equity is positively related to POS.
Guided by the norm of reciprocity, employees who perceive a fair distribution of resources and translate this perception into POS are likely to invest more effort into their work cognitively, physically, and emotionally. In contrast, the perception of unfairness could lead to feelings of unappreciation for their contributions and value, subsequently resulting in a withdrawal of their work engagement. Specifically, the POS theory posits that POS increases an employee’s effort–outcome expectancy [
43] and satisfies socio-emotional needs such as recognition, belonging, and self-esteem [
49]. It facilitates the assimilation of an individual’s organizational membership into his or her self-identity [
50]. Thus, the effort–outcome expectancy and a sense of integration of organizational membership fostered by enhanced POS may reduce their tendency to leave the organization. In empirical studies, withdrawal behaviors are identified as important outcomes of POS, such as absenteeism, turnover intention, and actual turnover behavior [
46,
51]. Accordingly, we propose our third hypothesis.
Hypothesis 3. The POS of Chinese preschool teachers negatively predicts turnover intention.
Additionally, affective regard, communal uniqueness, and a sense of belonging are key characteristics of social exchange relationships [
52]. Organizational justice plays a crucial role in shaping social exchange relationships and then motivating employees to develop stronger attachments and higher levels of commitment to their work [
53]. Several studies have examined the mediating role of POS between fairness and work attitudes and behaviors [
50,
54]. For example, Loi et al. investigated practicing solicitors in Hong Kong and found that POS mediated the effect of justice perceptions on intention to leave [
50]. Biswas et al. found that the POS of 238 Indian managers mediated the relationship between distributive justice and employee engagement [
45]. Thus, we have the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 4. POS mediates the relationship between pay equity and turnover intention.
1.4. Job Satisfaction as a Mediator
Another possible mediator is job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is one of the most intensively studied topics in organizational research [
55]. It refers to individuals’ perceptions of their own positive emotional states as a result of their job evaluations [
56]. According to equity theory, when employees perceive inequity in their circumstances, they experience a sense of relative deprivation and consequently express dissatisfaction. The personal outcome model in organizational justice theory suggests that distributive justice is the primary factor in predicting work attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction), which are linked to personal outcomes [
57]. Previous research has confirmed that the job satisfaction of teachers, who are believed to be much more motivated by intrinsic than extrinsic factors, has a significant relationship with working conditions [
58,
59].There is empirical evidence of the positive relationship between distributive justice and teachers’ job satisfaction [
60,
61]. Consequently, we have the following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 5. Chinese preschool teachers’ pay equity positively predicts job satisfaction.
Furthermore, as the theory of planned behavior suggests, job satisfaction is a behavioral attitude and an antecedent of planned behavior intention [
62]. When employees are dissatisfied with their jobs, such behavioral attitudes may stimulate intentions to leave [
63]. A number of studies throughout these years have confirmed that job satisfaction is negatively related to turnover intention [
64,
65]. In this study, we propose as follows:
Hypothesis 6. Job satisfaction is negatively related to turnover intention.
Moreover, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that individuals experience tension when they perceive inequity and dissatisfaction, which then motivates them to address or alleviate it. Altering inputs or outputs is often the preferred solution to alleviate this tension [
66]. In extreme cases in which possibilities for modifying inputs or outputs are limited, individuals may choose to leave the organization. Numerous empirical studies have examined the mediating role of job satisfaction in turnover intention models [
67,
68,
69]. However, research that specifically examines the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between pay equity and job satisfaction is limited [
70,
71]. Therefore, based on the theoretical foundation, existing empirical evidence, and limitations of the current understanding in explaining the mediating role of job satisfaction in linking pay equity and job satisfaction, we present the following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 7. Pay satisfaction functions as an independent mediator in the relationship between pay equity and turnover intention.
1.5. Serial Mediating Role of POS and Job Satisfaction
As discussed above, POS and job satisfaction each play an independent role in mediating the relationship between pay equity and turnover intention. However, the way in which these two factors work together to influence the relationship is still unclear. As Hayes pointed out [
72], when more than one mediator is included in the mediation model, serial mediation may occur if the mediators are related to each other. POS has been shown to contribute to overall job satisfaction by a number of studies [
51,
73]. In line with social exchange theory, employees with high POS find themselves valued and cared for by the organization, and balance their relationship with the organization by developing positive attitudes and engaging in behaviors consistent with POS [
51]. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that preschool teachers who experience more positive treatment will feel more supported by the organization and, in turn, develop good work attitudes.
All in all, the final hypothesis is as follows.
Hypothesis 8. POS and job satisfaction work together to play a serial mediating role in the relationship between pay equity and turnover intention.
1.6. The Current Study
Accordingly, this research sought to investigate the current status of pay equity, and its direct and indirect relationship with the turnover intention of Chinese preschool teachers in public kindergartens. As is shown in
Figure 1, we assume that pay equity negatively predicts turnover intention. Besides, POS and job satisfaction could independently and sequentially mediate the relationship between pay equity and the turnover intention of Chinese preschool teachers in public kindergartens.
4. Discussion
Pay has increasingly gained attention in tackling preschool teachers’ turnover issue. However, previous studies focused more on the actual pay level than subjective perceptions of pay. Studies in the context of Chinese public kindergarten are even more limited. In this study, we have advanced the research by exploring the current level of preschool teachers’ pay equity and applying a serial mediating model to investigate the relationship between pay equity and turnover intention with the independent and serial mediating roles of POS and job satisfaction.
There were significant differences in pay equity among Chinese preschool teachers. Pay equity was significantly higher for preschool teachers with Bianzhi compared with those without it. Additionally, preschool teachers with higher education levels reported significantly higher levels of perceived pay equity than teachers with high school or lower education levels. According to Adams’s theory, employees with higher education levels may have higher expectations, resulting in lower perceptions of equity due to relative deprivation compared with their counterparts [
66]. However, a significant income disparity exists among preschool teachers in China, particularly between teachers with different types of employment, resulting in income gaps up to two to three times [
30]. Consequently, this situation induces a stronger sense of relative deprivation and significantly lower perceived pay equity, regardless of lower expectations, due to the extremely low-income level for teachers without Bianzhi and those with lower education levels compared to their counterparts. Another possible explanation relates to culture. As previous studies indicate, equity is not a universal construct, as is largely affected by culture and ideology [
19]. In a highly collectivist society like China, people would expect equal rewards compared to others [
83,
84]. This inclination affects their perceptions of pay equity, resulting in lower scores for teachers without Bianzhi.
This research found a negative predictive effect of pay equity on the turnover intention of Chinese preschool teachers, which is consistent with prior studies in other sectors [
33,
41]. Teachers are typically believed to be motivated more by intrinsic factors than extrinsic factors (such as salary), in comparison to other professionals [
20]. Pay equity encompasses not only monetary aspects but also considerations of justice. Teachers, who care less about pay level, may decide to leave the school due to concerns regarding justice. As the equity theory supposes, when employees perceive unfavorable treatment compared to others in similar positions, they experience tension, leading to destructive organizational behaviors including withdrawal, harassment, and turnover [
85,
86]. It is highly probable that teachers would choose to leave preschools in search of more appealing alternatives that provide equitable treatment. The findings of the current study align with previous research showing that fairness at the school level has a direct impact on teachers’ turnover intentions [
87]. Furthermore, despite some studies establishing a positive relationship between preschool teachers’ income and turnover intention [
14,
24,
25], the direct predictive effect of income on turnover intention has not been supported [
24]. This research identified a direct effect of perception of pay equity on intention to quit. The differing result may stem from the distinction of pay and pay equity. The former pertains to the actual pay level and structure, while the latter concerns the subjective evaluation and perception of pay. In accordance with the stimulus-cognition-response model, income serves as the external stimulus, while pay equity represents preschool teachers’ attitudes. Compared to pay, pay equity connects to preschool teachers’ response more directly.
This study confirmed that POS plays a mediating role between pay equity and turnover intention, supporting the existence of an indirect effect. This finding is consistent with previous studies that have investigated POS as a mediator in the social exchange process, specifically examining how work experience variables, such as distributive justice, influence work attachment variables [
45,
50,
54,
88]. In the social exchange process between preschool teachers and public kindergartens, fair treatment from preschools communicates a sense of value and care to teachers. Consequently, this fosters a stronger emotional attachment and higher level of involvement, making teachers less likely to leave their jobs. Moreover, this study revealed that job satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between pay equity and turnover intention [
70,
71,
89]. However, these findings are not entirely consistent with similar studies considering the mediating effects of job satisfaction and POS. For example, Suifan et al. discovered that job satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between distributive justice and work attitudes [
71]. This discrepancy could be attributed to various factors, such as differing definitions and dimensions of pay equity, as well as differences in the industries where studies were conducted.
Finally, this study also confirmed the serial mediating effect of POS and job satisfaction between pay equity and turnover intention. As previous studies have found, POS contributes to teachers’ job satisfaction [
51,
73], while job satisfaction is a primary predictor of teachers’ turnover intention [
90,
91]. Thus, the negative relationship between pay equity and turnover intention can be gradually lowered through the chain-mediating path of POS and job satisfaction among Chinese public kindergarten teachers.
4.1. Conclusions
To guarantee the sustainable development of quality ECE, it is necessary to reduce the turnover rate of ECE teachers. Despite various studies on preschool teachers’ turnover intention, there remains a scarcity of examination of the effect of pay equity, particularly in the context of China. This gap in knowledge obstructs our understanding of potential factors contributing to the mobility of preschool teachers and diverts the attention of governments and preschools from implementing appropriate strategies to stabilize the personnel in preschools. Drawing primarily from equity theory and a social exchange perspective, we formulated a model and tested it using data collected from a sample of public preschool teachers in China.
In this study, pay equity was discovered to have both a direct and indirect influence on Chinese preschool teachers’ turnover intention. POS and job satisfaction, which can reduce turnover intention and increase loyalty, thus contributing to sustainability at the organization level [
92], have been found to exert both independent and sequential mediating effects on the relationship between pay equity and turnover intention.
4.2. Limitations
This research has several limitations. First, this research primarily relied on the equity theory and social exchange theory to develop hypotheses. However, equity theory has been criticized for assuming a personal profit-maximization norm applied universally to all individuals [
93]. To address this limitation, future studies could include variables such as equity sensitivity as moderators. Second, this study did not distinguish the effect of different dimensions of pay equity. Internal equity and external equity may have different effects on teachers’ work attitudes [
33], especially in China, where people may place more importance on in-group social status as it is more closely related to social esteem [
94]. Future research could explore the relationship between different dimensions of pay equity and work attitudes. Thirdly, this study adopted a cross-sectional design. Although the model was constructed based on theories and previous research, it is important to note that a causal relationship between pay equity and turnover intention cannot be established. To further confirm the direct and indirect influences of pay equity on preschool teachers’ work attitudes, it is recommended to consider a longitudinal research design.
4.3. Implications for Practice
As suggested in this study, turnover intention can be viewed as an outcome of social exchange. It was found that pay equity had a negative predictive effect on the turnover intention of Chinese preschool teachers’ turnover in public kindergartens and the mediating roles of POS and job satisfaction. Considering that a high teacher turnover rate is detrimental to young children’s development and ECE providers [
7,
15,
95], we strongly recommend improving preschool teachers’ pay equity and POS to facilitate the sustainable development of quality education.
Policymakers and ECE service providers should ensure that their distribution procedures and policies lead to high perceptions of pay equity. The key to achieving a strong sense of pay equity lies not only in increasing teachers’ pay levels, but also in providing appropriate rewards based on their contributions to work. It is crucial to maintain a consistent input/output ratio within preschools that is comparable to other teaching professions. Currently, in China’s public preschools, income is allocated based on teachers’ employment status rather than their actual contributions [
96]. Public financial funding only covers the salaries of teachers with Bianzhi positions, while other teachers rely solely on parental fees, resulting in unstable and significantly lower incomes for those without Bianzhi positions. To address this issue, we recommend that the current public investment mechanism be reformed by estimating operating costs and allocating public funds based on the number of students, thereby ensuring that the salaries of teachers without Bianzhi positions are covered by public funds. The principle of “equal compensation for equal effort” should be incorporated into funding systems as a condition for public funding. Preschools should endeavor to utilize funding to secure teachers’ income and establish a fair distribution process that guarantees equitable outcomes.
In addition, public kindergarten principals are advised to take measures to enhance teachers’ POS. Not only fair rewards should be allocated to teachers to convey the recognition from the organization, but also open and transparent communication is suggested [
46]. Regularly sharing information, implementing a transparent reward process, and providing timely feedback will help teachers to feel valued and cared for.