Puebla City Water Supply from the Perspective of Urban Water Metabolism
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. UWM Conceptual Model and Its Energy and Carbon Nexus
2.2. Study Area Delimitation
- Non-metropolitan area within the PVA
- ○
- Ten municipalities outside the metropolitan area of the City of Puebla: Calpan, Cuautinchan, Nealtican, San Gregorio Atzompa, San Jerónimo Tecuanipan, San Matías Tlalancaneca, San Nicolás de Los Ranchos, Santa Isabel Cholula, Tianguismanalco, and Santa Rita Tlahuapan
- Metropolitan area outside of the central conurbation
- ○
- Ten municipalities in the metropolitan area of Puebla have urban settlements with no adjacency to the central conurbation.
- Conurbation II: San Martín Texmelucan, San Salvador el Verde
- Conurbation III: Chiautzingo, San Felipe Teotlalcingo
- Non-conurbated: Domingo Arenas, Huejotzingo, Ocoyucan, San Miguel Xoxtla, and Tlaltenango.
- Central conurbation
- ○
- Five municipalities contiguous to Puebla central city comprise our conurbation I: Amozoc, Coronango, Cuautlancingo, Juan C. Bonilla, San Andrés Cholula, and San Pedro Cholula.
- Puebla central city
- ○
- Puebla is a “historical” city located in the municipality of Puebla. Its surface area is approximately the same as the one covered by the water utility system called “Sistema Operador de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de Puebla” (SOAPAP). SOAPAP is the acronym for Sistema Operador de los Servicios de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado del Municipio de Puebla, a decentralized public organization of the State of Puebla whose purpose is to provide drinking water, sewerage, and sanitation services. Its jurisdiction is the municipality of Puebla and part of the surrounding municipalities; however, its functions are concessioned to a private company (a water utility). This decentralized agency regulates the private concessionaire company that provides potable water service in Puebla City.
2.2.1. Estimation of the Hydrological Cycle in PVA
2.2.2. Estimating UWM in the PVA, Excluding the Central City of Puebla
2.2.3. UWM Estimation for Puebla Central City
2.3. Estimation of Water Flows without Official Records with Monte Carlo Simulation
2.3.1. Survey Data Collection
- The first survey comprised 30 questions addressed to the general public with the objective of collecting information on water service and consumption in dwellings. It was distributed online using Google Forms to informants selected using a snowball method (we acknowledge that a probabilistic sampling method is preferable to the non-probabilistic snowball sampling we used). The survey was written in colloquial language with multiple-choice answers accompanied by images to facilitate understanding by the non-specialized public. It was structured according to different thematic axes referring to information on dwelling infrastructure, water storage habits, and the intensity of water consumption obtained through tanker trucks and bottled water. In 2021, the survey was conducted on 256 residents in the context of COVID-19 pandemic preventive measures. Using this sampling method along with online tools like Google Forms helped us overcome the challenges imposed by limited research resources and pandemic health constraints. Other studies in the same context have successfully used a similar methodology [83].
- The second survey consisted of seven questions applied on-site to five LPWCs in 2021 to gather information on their purification processes and water supply areas.
2.3.2. Monte Carlo Simulation for Water Flow Induction
2.3.3. Estimated Flow Rates Distributed by Tanker Truck in the Central City
2.3.4. Estimation of the Accumulation Capacity in City Dwellings
2.3.5. Bottled Water Flow Estimation
2.3.6. Estimating the Costs of Water Distributed in Tanker Trucks and Bottled Water
2.4. Energy Consumption and CO2e Emissions of the Water Utility
2.5. The Human Right to Water (HRW) Indicator and Efficiency (RHRW_E)
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. The UWM as an Embeded Element of the PVA Hydrological Cycle: The Biophysical Subsystem
3.2. Urban Water Metabolism in the PVA Region
3.2.1. UWM outside the Central City of Puebla
3.2.2. Water Appropriation for the Central City of Puebla
3.2.3. Water Treatment of the Water Utility in the Central City of Puebla
3.2.4. LPWCs Drinking Water Treatment in the Central City of Puebla
3.2.5. Water Distribution in Central City of Puebla
3.2.6. Tanker Trucked Transported and Bottled Water Flows in Central City of Puebla
3.2.7. Water Consumption in the Central City of Puebla
3.2.8. Water Uses in the Central City of Puebla
3.2.9. Water Excretion in the Central City of Puebla
3.2.10. Wastewater Treatment in the Central City of Puebla
3.2.11. Water Evaporation in the Central City
3.3. Approximation to the Water-Energy-Carbon Nexus in the Central City of Puebla’s Utility System
3.4. Other Material Flows Related to Urban Water Metabolism in the Central City of Puebla
Water Treatment Chemicals in the Central City of Puebla Water Utility
3.5. Elements of the Human Right to Water from the UWM Model in the Central City of Puebla
Accessibility, Affordability, and Accessibility of Water in the Central City of Puebla
3.6. Inconsistencies in the Data That Coincide with Water Related Problems
Comments on the Data Collected
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Symbol | Variable | Unit | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Qtanker-t | Flow distributed by tanker truck. | Mm3/yr | Result |
Qtanker-t,wt | Flow distributed by tanker trucks in households with water tank. | Mm3/yr | Result |
Qtanker-t,cis | Flow distributed by tanker trucks in households with cisterns. | Mm3/yr | Result |
Awt | Total accumulation capacity in dwellings with water tank. | Mm3 | Result |
Acis | Total accumulation capacity in dwellings with cistern. | Mm3 | Result |
Av | Total accumulation capacity in all dwellings. | Mm3 | Result |
Ac | Accumulation capacity in individual homes with cisterns. | (Lt/hh) | Survey * |
Pc | Number of tanker trucks per year supplied to dwellings with cistern. | (tt/yr) | Survey * |
Rc | The ratio of households with a cistern to total households. | (adimensional) | 2020 census |
Mcp | The ratio of households with cisterns using tanker trucks to total number of households with cisterns. | (adimensional) | Survey |
At | Accumulation capacity in individual homes without a cistern. | (Lt/hh) | Survey |
Pt | The number of annual tanker trucks that supplied homes without a cistern. | (tt/yr) | Survey * |
Rt | The ratio of households without a cistern to total households. | (adimensional) | 2020 census |
Mtp | The ratio of households without a cistern using a tanker truck to the total number of households without a cistern. | (adimensional) | Survey |
V | Total housing in SOAPAP coverage. | (dwellings) | SOAPAP |
Symbol | Variable | Unit | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Qe | Bottled water flow rate. | Mm3/yr | Result |
Qem | The flow rate of gran-de brand bottled water | Mm3/yr | Result |
Qer | The flow rate of bottled water at LPWCs | Mm3/yr | Result |
Qem1 | Big Brand bottled water in carboy’s | Mm3/yr | Result |
Qem2 | Big Brand bottled water in 5 L carafes | Mm3/yr | Result |
Qem3 | Big Brand bottled water in 1.5 bottles | Mm3/yr | Result |
Lv1 | Liters of water distributed in Big Brand carboys | (Lt/d/hh) | Survey * |
Lv2 | Liters of water distributed in Big Brand 5 L carafes | (Lt/d/hh) | Survey * |
Lv3 | Liters of water distributed in Big Brand 1.5 L bottles | (Lt/d/hh) | Survey * |
Lv4 | Liters of water distributed in LPWC carboys. | (Lt/d/hh) | Survey * |
Rba | The ratio of households consuming bottled water to total households. | (adimensional) | Survey * |
Symbols | Variable | Unit | Source of Information |
---|---|---|---|
Ctanker-t, Cem1, Cem2, Cem3, Cem4 | Capacity of each type of container | Mm3/yr | Market |
Rtanker-t, Rem1, Rem2, Rem3, Rer | Number of each type of container | Container’s | Equation result |
Putanker-t, Puem1, Puem2, Puem3, Puer | The unit price of each type of container | $/container | Price (2021) * |
Pttanker-t, Ptem1, Ptem2, Ptem3, Pter | The total cost of each type of container | (Lt/day/hh) | Equation result |
Appendix B
Symbol | Minimum | Mode | Maximum | Single Value | Correlation | With the Variable | Assumed Distribution |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water supplied by tanker truck | |||||||
Ac | 3100 | 7203 | 11,600 | - | 0.95 | Atm | Beta PERT |
Pc | 1 | 2.836 | 24 | - | - | - | Beta PERT |
Rc | - | - | - | 0.590 | −1 | Rc | Yes-No |
Mcp | - | - | - | 0.307 | - | - | Yes-No |
At | 450 | 1346 | 1600 | - | 0.95 | Acm | Beta PERT |
Pt | 1 | 3.322 | 24 | - | - | - | Beta PERT |
Rt | - | - | - | 0.410 | −1 | Rt | Yes-No |
Mtp | - | - | - | 0.230 | - | - | Yes-No |
Vt | - | - | - | 506,019 | - | - | Unique value |
Bottled water supply | |||||||
Ladr | 0 | 2.389 | 31.429 | - | −0.562 | Qem | Triangular |
Lad1 | 0 | 0.570 | 20 | - | 0.106 | Lad3 | Beta PERT |
Lad2 | 0 | 0.008 | 2.143 | - | −0.000 | Lad1 | Beta PERT |
Lad3 | 0 | 0.059 | 2.357 | - | 0.290 | Lad2 | Beta PERT |
Rba | - | - | - | 0.902 | - | - | Yes-No |
Appendix C
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Municipality Where Water Was Extracted | Annual Flow Extracted by the Water Utility (Mm3/yr) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|
Puebla | 78.657 | 63.4% |
Cuautlancingo | 11.622 | 9.4% |
Coronango | 9.988 | 8.1% |
Nealtican | 9.472 | 7.6% |
San Pedro Cholula | 4.944 | 4.0% |
San Andrés Cholula | 4.605 | 3.7% |
Tlaltenango | 4.222 | 3.4% |
Juan C. Bonilla | 0.339 | 0.3% |
Amozoc | 0.214 | 0.2% |
Water Softener Plant | Annual Softened Flow (Mm3/a) | Percentage (%) | Amount of Chemicals (Kton/a) | Consumption of Chemicals (Kg/m3) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Quetzatcoatl | 5.77 | 60.3% | 2.77 | 0.481 |
Sulfurosa | 2.51 | 26.2% | 5.99 | 2.388 |
Jint | 1.29 | 13.5% | 0 | Inconsistent data |
Paseo del Río | 0 | 0% | 0.07 | Inconsistent data |
Flow | Calculated Magnitude | Total |
---|---|---|
Distributed by tanker truck | 7.561 Mm3/yr | |
In homes with a water tank | 0.526 Mm3/yr | |
In homes with a water tank and cistern | 7.035 Mm3/yr | |
Big Brand bottled water | 0.753 Mm3/yr | |
20 L carboys | 0.687 Mm3/yr | |
5 L carafes | 0.066 Mm3/yr | |
1.5 L bottle | 0.072 Mm3/yr | |
LPWC bottled water | 1.879 Mm3/yr |
Influent of Water Consumed | Colors in Figure 8a | Flow Mm3/a | Percentage of Total (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Water Utility | ■ | 74.59 | 61.55 |
Surface water not withdrawn by the water utility | ■ | 19.36 | 15.97 |
Groundwater not withdrawn by water utility | ■ | 15.96 | 13.17 |
Water distributed by tanker truck to households | ■ | 7.56 | 6.25 |
LPWC bottled water | ■ | 1.88 | 1.56 |
Big Brand bottled water | ■ | 0.75 | 0.69 |
Recycled water from WWTPs | ■ | 1.03 | 0.85 |
Rainwater harvesting in homes | ■ | 0.05 | 0.04 |
Total | 121.17 | ||
Consumed water effluent | Colors in Figure 8b | Flow Mm3/a | Percentage of total (%) |
Discharges to sewers or water bodies | ■ | 97.24 | 80.25 |
Evaporation in water uses | ■ | 24.31 | 20.06 |
Discharge of the water treatment process at LPWC | ■ | −0.38 * | −0.31 |
Total | 121.17 |
Consumption | Annual Flow (Mm3/yr) | Percentage of Total |
---|---|---|
Domestic | 71.45 | (58.96%) |
Public | 17.75 | (14.65%) |
Commercial | 13.05 | (10.77%) |
Industrial ** | 10.44 | (8.61%) |
Services | 5.99 | (4.92%) |
Aquaculture | 0.596 | (0.49%) |
Different Uses | 0.514 | (0.42%) |
Domestic not supplied by SOAPAP | 0.050 | (0.04%) |
Livestock | 0.032 | (0.03%) |
Bottled water in non-domestic uses | 0.263 | (0.22%) |
Recycled water for irrigation of municipal gardens | 1.03 | (0.85%) |
Electric power generation | 114.00 * |
Processes | Percentage | Consumption of Energy GWh | Mm3/a (hm3/yr) | KWh/m3 | KtCO2e | KgCO2e/m3 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Extraction | 68.78% | 71.09 | 124.06 | 0.5730 | 37.47 | 0.3020 |
Water treatment | 4.69% | 4.85 | 9.57 | 0.5066 | 2.55 | 0.2670 |
Pumping | 17.71% | 18.31 | 124.06 | 0.1476 | 9.65 | 0.0778 |
Sewage | 0.62% | 0.64 | 97.25 | 0.0065 | 0.34 | 0.0034 |
Wastewater treatment | 7.77% | 8.03 | 63.91 | 0.1257 | 4.23 | 0.0662 |
General services | 0.43% | 0.44 | 124.06 | 0.0036 | 0.23 | 0.0019 |
Water Utility | 103.36 | 124.06 | 0.8331 | 54.47 | 0.4391 |
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Pérez-González, D.; Delgado-Ramos, G.C.; Cedillo Ramírez, L.; Loreto López, R.; Ramos Cassellis, M.E.; Tamariz Flores, J.V.R.; Peña Moreno, R.D. Puebla City Water Supply from the Perspective of Urban Water Metabolism. Sustainability 2023, 15, 14549. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914549
Pérez-González D, Delgado-Ramos GC, Cedillo Ramírez L, Loreto López R, Ramos Cassellis ME, Tamariz Flores JVR, Peña Moreno RD. Puebla City Water Supply from the Perspective of Urban Water Metabolism. Sustainability. 2023; 15(19):14549. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914549
Chicago/Turabian StylePérez-González, David, Gian Carlo Delgado-Ramos, Lilia Cedillo Ramírez, Rosalva Loreto López, María Elena Ramos Cassellis, José Víctor Rosendo Tamariz Flores, and Ricardo Darío Peña Moreno. 2023. "Puebla City Water Supply from the Perspective of Urban Water Metabolism" Sustainability 15, no. 19: 14549. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914549