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Article

Effect of Zero Water Exchange Systems for Litopenaeus vannamei Using Sponge Biocarriers to Control Inorganic Nitrogen and Suspended Solids Simultaneously

by
Zhiwen Song
1,2,*,
Chao Liu
1,2,
Yazhi Luan
1,2,
Yapeng Qi
1,2 and
Ailing Xu
1,2
1
School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Qingdao Technological University, 777 Jialingjiang Rd., Qingdao 266000, China
2
Key Laboratory of Eco-Environmental Engineer and Pollution Remediation in Shandong Province, 777 Jialingjiang Rd., Qingdao 266000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(2), 1271; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021271
Submission received: 3 December 2022 / Revised: 2 January 2023 / Accepted: 4 January 2023 / Published: 9 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Microbial Processes-Centered Technologies towards Enhanced and Sustainable Wastewater Treatment)
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Abstract

:
The traditional shrimp farming mode, which mainly uses water exchange to dilute toxic nitrogenous compounds, not only brings risks of disease infections and outbreaks but also results in waste of water resources and has a negative impact on the environment. In this study, zero water exchange systems for Litopenaeus vannamei were constructed by using sponge biocarriers with precultured biofilms (SBBFs), and the effect of SBBFs on controlling inorganic nitrogen, suspended solids and on the performance of L. vannamei was determined. The experiment consisted of four treatments: (1) SBC (control, SB 5% (v/v) + aeration); (2) SBBF2.5a (SBBF 2.5% (v/v) + aeration); (3) SBBF5a (SBBF 5% (v/v) + aeration); and (4) SBBF5 (SBBF 5% (v/v)). The results showed that the concentrations of TAN and NO2−-N in the SBBF treatments were significantly lower than those in the SBC treatments, while the SBBF treatments registered higher NO3−-N concentrations. After the adsorbates were removed by regular cleaning to regenerate the adsorption capacity of the SBs, the turbidity was reduced by 47.8%~71.5%. The shrimp grown in the SBBF treatments exhibited a higher mean final weight, survival and productivity than those grown in the SBC treatments. This work found that the use of SBBFs can maintain the low levels of TAN, NO2−-N and suspended solids while improving the performance of the L. vannamei under the strict requirement of zero water exchange.

1. Introduction

The Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) has become the main crustacean breed in inland and coastal areas of China over recent years [1]. However, the main problem in intensive aquaculture systems of L. vannamei is the accumulation of inorganic nitrogen, especially ammonia and nitrite, as a result of feeding and shrimp excretion that cause acute toxic effects and negative environmental effects [2,3]. Therefore, frequent water change to dilute toxic ammonia and nitrite concentrations is needed, which tremendously magnifies the risk of infectious disease outbreaks [4]. Theoretically, 20 m3 of clean water should be consumed for each kilogram of shrimp production. Therefore, the amount of water and energy wasted by this shrimp farming mode is amazing. In addition, suspended solids (SSs) generated by aquaculture processes have caused problems with water treatment effects, environmental quality, animal welfare and public health [5]. Excessive suspended solids can affect the survival and growth of shrimp and must be controlled [6].
Some technical methods are used to solve the abovementioned problems while maintaining the toxic nitrogenous compounds and suspended solids within acceptable levels. A recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) is an approach that removes dissolved nitrogen and suspended solids from aquaculture systems without causing environmental problems. In RAS, ammonia and nitrite are converted into nitrate through the nitrification process of biofilms in biofilters, while suspended solids are mainly removed through microfiltration facilities. The applications of RAS show that daily water exchange volume only accounts for 10% of the total water volume [7]. However, energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions are the two most stringent constraints faced by RAS; therefore, RAS contributes less than 1% to global aquaculture production, and the proportion of China is lower. Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered environmentally friendly and sustainable by many experts [2]. BFT can not only improve water quality but also provide additional natural food, enhance intestinal enzyme activity, and promote the growth performance of shrimp [8]. However, in a BFT system, both ammonia and nitrite easily accumulate to toxic levels due to the high input of feed, high productivity, and complexity of the microbial community [9].
The addition of submerged substrates in the L. vannamei aquaculture system is another approach that maintains ideal water quality and enables low or zero water exchange rates and, furthermore, significantly improves shrimp performance and decreases the feed conversion ratios [10,11,12,13]. Biofilms of substrates can provide essential nutrients such as amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins and steroids [14], decrease solid production and oxygen consumption and improve the animal welfare of shrimp [15,16]. The substrates that can be selected as biofilm carriers range from natural materials such as coral bone, loofah and bamboo slice to artificial structures such as synthetic fiber, PVC tubing, ceramsite and polyethylene sheeting [17,18,19,20].
Sponge biocarriers (SBs) are widely considered ideal biocarriers for microbial attachment and growth due to their light weight, high hydrolysis stability and large specific surface area [21]. In particular, SBs have strong physical adsorption properties, which can remove suspended solids in aquaculture water bodies. In this study, SBs with precultured biofilms (SBBFs) were used to construct zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei. We evaluated the role of SBBFs in controlling inorganic nitrogen and suspended solids and their impact on the growth performance of L. vannamei.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Culture Conditions and System Management of L. vannamei

Twelve tanks were made of canvas with an effective volume of 2.0 m3 (L: 200 cm, W: 100 cm, H: 120 cm). The tanks were filled to 100 cm high with artificial seawater at 15 psu. Two rows of 16 aerated stones were installed in each tank. The SBs (Banhor®, specification: 2 cm) were utilized as the artificial substrate. The cultivation process is summarized as follows: Every 0.05 m3 SBs was packed in a terylene net bag (60 cm × 60 cm) with a mesh size of 2 mm. A total of 1.0 m3 SBs (20 bags) were placed in the tank containing 2.0 m3 of artificial seawater at 18 practical salinity units (psu) containing 0.5 (v/v) nitrifying bacterial preparation (Qingdao Haiyisheng Environmental Technology Co., Ltd. Qingdao, China), 0.1% (v/v) trace element liquid and 0.01% (w/v) yeast extract. The composition of the trace element solution is referred to by Wang et al. (2022) [22]. In the process of the biofilm formation, 5000 g of sodium nitrite in total was added over five additions (1000 g at each addition). When the concentration of nitrite was below 0.5 mg/L, sodium nitrite was added again. Finally, 375 g of ammonium chloride was added to complete the cultivation of the SBs biofilm when the concentration of ammonium was less than 0.5 mg/L. Throughout the experimental process, the temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO) were maintained at 28 ± 1.0 °C and 4.5–6.0 mg/L, respectively. The bags were submerged in tanks throughout the experimental period (Figure 1).
Eight-day postlarval (PL8) shrimp were purchased from a hatchery (Haida Group Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China). After 18 days of nursery, the L. vannamei were 1.6 ± 0.20 cm in length and 0.1 ± 0.001 g in weight, which were used in this experiment. The initial density of the shrimp was 800 shrimp/m3.
In this experiment, we set up four treatments with three replicates each: (1) SBC—the control, 5% (v/v) SBs without precultured biofilm and with aeration in a terylene net bag; (2) SBBF2.5a—2.5% (v/v) SBBFs and with aeration in a terylene net bag; (3) SBBF5a—5% (v/v) SBBFs and with aeration in a terylene net bag; (4) SBBF5—5% (v/v) SBBFs without aeration in a terylene net bag.
The feeding times were 8:00, 12:00, 16:00 and 20:00. Shrimp growth and feed consumption were assessed daily and used to guide feed dosage. All feeds used were manufactured by the ALPHA group (Shenzhen, China). During the experiment, the temperature was 28 ± 1.0 °C, and DO was 6.5–8.0 mg/L. The water lost to evaporation and sampling was replaced. The terylene net bags with SBs were removed from the tanks to remove the adsorbates in the pores and regenerate the SB adsorption capacity every 10 to 15 days. During the desorption process, SBs were gently squeezed to avoid damaging the nitrifying biofilm.

2.2. Analytical Methods

2.2.1. Analysis of Water Physicochemical Parameters

The water temperature, DO and pH were measured daily with a HQ30d digital multiparameter analyzer (Hach Company, Loveland, USA. Accuracy: ±1%). The turbidity was measured with a 2100Q turbidity analyzer (Hach Company, Loveland, USA. Accuracy: ±2%). After membrane filtration (0.45 μm) of water samples, the concentrations of total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) and nitrite nitrogen were measured by the hypobromite oxidation method (relative error: 0.4%) and N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine spectrophotometry method (relative standard deviation: <2.8%), respectively, nitrate nitrogen was measured by the naphthylethylenediamine hydrochloride spectrophotometry method (relative error: 1.4%), and the TP was measured by the molybdenum-antimony antispectrophotometric method (relative error: 1.8%). Water temperature, DO, pH, turbidity, TAN and nitrite nitrogen were monitored daily. Nitrate nitrogen and total phosphorus (TP) were measured once every two days.

2.2.2. Determination of SB Biofilm Nitrification Activity

During the experimental process, eight pieces of SBs were randomly taken from the tanks at 30 and 60 days of the experiment. Every four pieces of SBs were added into 500 mL conical flasks with 300 mL artificial seawater. Sodium nitrite and ammonium chloride at initial concentrations of 200 mg/L (nitrite nitrogen) and 50 mg/L (TAN) were added separately. The conical flasks were cultured with a gyratory shaker at 120 RPM and 28 °C. TAN and nitrite nitrogen were determined every 12 h. The ammonia oxidation rate (AOR) and nitrite oxidation rate (NOR) were used to evaluate SB biofilm nitrification activity. AOR and NOR were calculated according to the formula: AOR or NOR = k·V/W. In the formula, k is the slope of the scatter plot of TAN or nitrite nitrogen concentration (mg/L) against time (h), V is the volume of solution (300 mL), and W is the dry weight (g) of 4 polyurethane foam monomers. Three replicates were set for each sample.

2.2.3. Growth Performance of Shrimp

The mean final weight, survival, final biomass, apparent feed conversion ratio (FCR) and specific growth rate (SGR) were analyzed according to the standard method.

2.3. Statistics

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed, followed by Fisher’s LSD test to determine the differences among the treatments for water quality parameters, the growth parameters of shrimp and biofilm nitrification activity. Differences were considered significant when the P value was less than 0.05. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 26.0.

3. Results

3.1. Water Quality

The experiment duration was 66 days. Table 1 shows the water quality parameters during the experimental period. The temperature, DO and pH were maintained within the suggested safe range for the survival and growth of the Pacific white shrimp [23]. The Pacific white shrimp is a euryhaline species that can adapt to a broad range of environmental salinities [1,24]. Before the experiment, the shrimp were acclimated to the salinity required for this experiment. There was no significant difference in the mean values of temperature, DO and salinity among the different treatments. The pH values were significantly higher in SBC than in SBBF treatments and no significant difference was found between SBBF2.5a, SBBF5a and SBBF5. However, the TP concentrations were significantly higher in the SBBF treatments than in SBC, regardless of the percentage of SBs and whether there was aeration in the terylene net bag. The turbidity of SBC was the lowest, followed by SBBF5a, SBBF2.5a and SBBF5. In addition, when the SBs are cleaned to remove the adsorbates and reimmersed in water, the average turbidity in the zero water exchange systems decreases by 47.8%~71.5% after 24 h. (Figure 2).
In all treatments, the TAN was always maintained at a low concentration (less than 0.30 mg/L), but the concentration of TAN was significantly higher in SBC than in SBBF treatments. The concentration of TAN in SBC increased after 13 days, peaked (0.28 mg/L) at 24 days, and decreased until stability. The TAN peak (0.14 mg/L) in SBBF2.5a and SBBF5 occurred at 28 and 30 days, respectively; soon after the peak, the concentration of TAN began to decrease. The concentration of TAN in SBBF5a was always lower than 0.05 mg/L throughout the experiment (Figure 3a). There were significant differences in nitrite concentration among the different treatments, where the average nitrite concentration of SBC was the highest and the average nitrite concentration of SBBF5a was the lowest. In the SBC treatment, nitrite concentrations dramatically increased and peaked between days 17 and 21. Then, it began to slowly drop below 1.00 mg/L until 58 days. In SBBF2.5a and SBBF5, the nitrite concentrations remained lower than 2.00 mg/L for most of the experimental time but peaked on days 28 and 30 (5.77 mg/L and 4.98 mg/L, respectively). However, the nitrite concentration of SBBF5a remained below 1.00 mg/L throughout the experiment (Figure 3b). The nitrate concentration showed an upward trend in all treatments, but the rising speed in the SBBF treatments was significantly higher than that in the SBC treatments, and SBBF5a increased the fastest (Figure 3c).

3.2. Morphological and Nitrification Activitychanges of SBs

In the process of nitrifying biofilm culture, the color of the SBs changed from light yellow to yellow. After the SBBFs were immersed in shrimp tanks, their color gradually deepened to dark brown and a large number of adsorbates in the pores of SBs were observed. After extruding the adsorbates by the desorption process, the color of the SBs changed from dark brown to light brown (Figure 4).
The results of the SB biofilm nitrification activity showed that there were no significant differences in AOR among the four treatments at 30 and 60 days of the experiment, but there were significant differences in NOR. The NOR of the SBBF2.5a treatment was significantly higher than that of the other treatments, and the NOR of the SBC treatment was the lowest (Table 2).

3.3. Growth Performance of Shrimp

Table 3 shows the growth performance results of the Pacific white shrimp in different treatments at the end of the experiment. The survival, mean final weight and productivity were higher in the SBBF treatments than in SBC, regardless of the percentage of SBs and whether there was aeration in the terylene net bag. Among them, SBBF5a was the highest, followed by SBBF2.5a, SBBF5 and SBC. The feed conversion rate was lower in the SBC treatments than in the SBBF treatments.

4. Discussion

In this study, the turbidity of all treatments was always maintained at a low level during the entire experiment, which was much lower than that reported in BFT [9]. This result corroborates that the use of substrates can help particles attach to the biofilm, filter the water and reduce the suspended solids [11,12,13,25]. The SBs added to the tanks have a strong adsorption capacity and can adsorb a large amount of SSs, which can be confirmed by the color change of the SBs, scanning electron microscopy imaging and dry weight increases. In another study, we found that the turbidity in shrimp culture tanks with SBs was significantly lower than that in water exchange treatments (WE), especially in the late stage of shrimp culture. The turbidity in WE increased significantly, while the turbidity in SB was basically stable [22]. The SBBF treatments had higher turbidity than the SBC treatments, which showed that the formation of biofilms can reduce the adsorption space of SBs.
The TAN concentrations of all four treatments were always lower than 0.3 mg/L and remained below the safety levels for L. vannamei throughout the experiment. Although SBC treatment had higher average and peak concentration of TAN than SBBF treatments, they were much lower than those reported in shrimp cultures with artificial substrates and biofloc culture systems. The difference in nitrite concentration between SBC and SBBF treatments was very significant. The SBC treatments also had significantly higher average and peak concentrations of nitrite than the SBBF treatments. Excessive nitrite accumulations are generally known to lower oxygen transport capability and weaken aquatic animal immune responses. Valencia-Castañeda et al. (2018) found that the safe levels estimated for salinities of 1 and 3 g/L were 0.17 and 0.25 mg/L for nitrite nitrogen, respectively [26]. SBBF2.5a and SBBF5 treatments had higher peak nitrite concentrations (5.77 mg/L and 4.98 mg/L), but there was no significant difference in shrimp survival rates between SBBF treatments. This may be related to the short time of nitrite peak concentration, high dissolved oxygen concentration and high salinity (>15 psu). Nitrate is the final product of the nitrification process. The level continuously accumulated during the shrimp culture period, and the highest concentration was found in the SBBF5a treatments (98.99 mg/L). However, in the SBC treatments, the highest concentration was only 13.43 mg/L. The SBBF treatments exhibited a higher oxidation capacity of ammonium to nitrite and nitrate compared to the SBC treatments, and the oxidation performance increased with the percentage increase of the added SBBFs. SBBFs can almost immediately start nitrifying reactions once they have been deployed in tanks.
In this study, SBBF treatments involve precultured nitrifying biofilms, which oxidize ammonia to nitrate with nitrite as an intermediate via nitrification. The microorganisms responsible for nitrification are ammonia-oxidizing microorganisms (AOMs) and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB). AOMs and NOB are chemoautotrophic microorganisms with long generation times, which usually take a long time to form natural biofilms [27]. In an intensive farming system without substrates for biofilm attachment, a complete nitrification process of ammonium to nitrate is not entirely possible, which results in excessive nitrite accumulation and causes toxicity to L. vannamei [17]. In addition, AOMs have faster growth rates than NOB, which causes unbalanced populations that ultimately result in nitrite accumulation. By regulating the supply of energy sources, SBBFs with initial an AOR and NOR of 0.24 mg/g·h and 1.56 mg/g·h were cultured, and the NOR was higher than the AOR (NOR/AOR>5) (Table 2). This can avoid the high peak of nitrite concentration in the aquaculture process (Figure 3b). Although the use of substrates improves water quality and is beneficial for shrimp culture, some studies show that their presence in aquaculture systems has no positive effect on the water quality or growth performance of the animals [12]. Lara et al. (2021) evaluated the influence of different quantities of the substrate on the water quality in L. vannamei culture systems, and there was no significant difference in ammonia concentrations between treatments [9]. According to Ferreira et al. (2016), the ammonia concentration in the treatments with substrates was higher than that in the control group [11]. Our experimental results confirmed that the nitrification process was effective with the addition of SBBFs and the ammonia and nitrite removal processes occurred throughout the experimental period. This result can be confirmed by the changes in TAN, nitrite, nitrate concentration and pH reduction during the experiment. Although SBC treatments did not preculture biofilms, the concentrations of ammonia remained at safe levels for L. vannamei. This should be attributed to the small feeding amount and shrimp excreta in the early stage of the experiment. The lower TAN accumulation gives AOMs enough proliferation time to naturally form a biofilm to maintain a low TAN concentration. However, due to the longer generation time of NOB, the nitrite produced in the ammonia oxidation process cannot be converted to nitrate in time, so there was a peak concentration of nitrite in the SBC treatment.
AOB and NOB are considered strictly aerobic microorganisms, whereas the abundance of AOA in oxygen-limited environments depends on their tolerance characteristics [18,28]. Aeration is very important for a greater efficiency of the nitrification process by SBBFs in the shrimp culture system. Since the oxygen affinity constants of AOB and NOB are 0.3–0.5 mg/L and 0.7–1.8 mg/L, respectively, AOB shows relatively higher activity than NOB in the range of low dissolved oxygen, leading to higher concentrations of nitrite in the treatments without aeration [29,30,31]. From the results of SBBF5a and SBBF5, the TAN concentrations did not show significant differences between treatments. However, SBBF5a had lower average and peak concentrations of nitrite than SBBF5, which corroborates the results that nitrite concentration is more influenced by the oxygen level than ammonia concentration.
The use of artificial substrates has been reported to be associated with improved productivity in L. vannamei culture systems. The reason should be attributed to a combination of essential nutrient supply, improvement of immune parameters and better water quality [9,30]. Periphyton adhered to substrates can be used as a source of food, and the presence of substrates increases L. vannamei growth and reduces FCR [12,14,32]. Schveitzer et al. (2013) stated that the addition of substrates changed the relative stocking density and further reduced the stress levels of L. vannamei [20]. In this study, we placed SBs in a terylene net and regular manual cleaning of SBs to remove the adsorbates to avoid adsorbate accumulation, which affects oxygen transfer and regenerates the SB adsorption capacity. This method effectively prevents the odor caused by anaerobics during the use of SBs. In addition, after regular cleaning to regenerate the adsorption capacity of the SBs, the turbidity in the water can be reduced by 47.8%~71.5%. The shrimp grown in the SBBF treatments exhibited a higher mean final weight, survival and productivity than those grown in the SBC. This benefited from the lower average and peak concentrations of TAN and nitrite nitrogen in the SBBF treatments. These values corroborate the findings of other studies that the presence of artificial substrates positively affects the performance of L. vannamei [33]. However, the FCR was higher than the results obtained by Lara et al. (2021) and Sesuk et al. (2009) [9,17]. Therefore, SBBF functions as a supplementary source of food are limited. In addition, it may also be related to the ability of SBs to adsorb some of the fine bait in the early stage of the experiment.
The special feature of the zero water exchange systems in this study is the integration of shrimp culture and water purification processes in the same tank, instead of circulating the production water through biofilters located outside the shrimp culture tanks, as is often done in RAS. The original aeration equipment in the aquaculture tanks was used to provide dissolved oxygen for nitrifying microorganisms on SBBFs. The systems can be implemented in tanks constructed of cement, canvas, containers, etc., and without the biofilter, microfilter and protein separator in RAS. Each tank being an independent operation unit avoids the water circulation between different tanks in RAS. TAN and nitrite in the breeding process are controlled by precultured nitrifying biofilms and the lengthy start-up period related to the lower growth rate of nitrifying microorganisms can be avoided. Suspended solids are controlled by regular cleaning to remove the adsorbates of SBs, and anaerobics inside the SBBF can be simultaneously prevented. In addition, this method does not require a start-up period and is inexpensive to build. From the investment and operational aspects, the proposed aquaculture systems may be beneficial because it requires less expense and lower energy consumption. However, the disadvantage of the zero-water exchange systems in this study is that regular cleaning of the sponge biocarriers increases the workload of the staff. Further studies are needed to develop mechanical devices with automatic cleaning functions to improve the practicability of the SBBFs, and to evaluate the biofilm efficiency and the long-term stability of microbial community structure in large-scale culture systems.

5. Conclusions

In this study, the sponge biocarriers with precultured biofilms (SBBFs) were used to construct zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei. We evaluated the role of SBBFs in controlling inorganic nitrogen and suspended solids and their impact on the growth performance of L. vannamei. The following conclusions were drawn:
  • The lower concentrations of ammonia and nitrite and higher concentration of nitrate revealed a more dynamic nitrifying process in the SBBF treatments than in SBC treatments. Aeration is positive to the nitrification process of SBBFs.
  • The SBBF treatments can maintain the low level of ammonia, nitrite and suspended solids for L. vannamei under the strict requirement of zero water change in the whole process of aquaculture. The suspended solids produced in the aquaculture process can be effectively controlled by adsorption/desorption progress and maintain turbidity within an acceptable range.
  • The L. vannamei grown in the SBBF treatments exhibited higher mean final weight, survival and productivity than those grown in the SBC treatments. The feed conversion rate was lower in the SBC treatments than in the SBBF treatments.

6. Patents

Some contents of this research have been patented (Chinese Patent: ZL 201310060857.8, ZL 201910999131.8; PCT Patent: PCT/CN2020/079551).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.S. and C.L.; methodology, C.L., Y.L. and Y.Q.; formal analysis, C.L., Y.L. and Y.Q.; investigation, C.L., Y.L. and Y.Q.; writing—original draft preparation, C.L. and Y.L.; writing—review and editing, C.L. and Z.S.; visualization, C.L. and Y.L.; supervision, A.X.; project administration, Z.S. and A.X.; funding acquisition, Z.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Key R&D projects of Shandong Province (2018GSF117022).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Qingdao Haiyisheng Environmental Technology Co., Ltd., Qingdao, China, for supplying the nitrobacterium preparation.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei with sponge biocarriers (SBs).
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei with sponge biocarriers (SBs).
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Figure 2. Variations in average turbidity (NTU) in the zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei before and after SB cleaning (12 h and 24 h) during the study. Error bars denote the SD.
Figure 2. Variations in average turbidity (NTU) in the zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei before and after SB cleaning (12 h and 24 h) during the study. Error bars denote the SD.
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Figure 3. Variations in the mean concentration of inorganic nitrogen (mg/L) in the zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei. Error bars denote the SD. (a) TAN, (b) nitrite nitrogen, (c) nitrate nitrogen.
Figure 3. Variations in the mean concentration of inorganic nitrogen (mg/L) in the zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei. Error bars denote the SD. (a) TAN, (b) nitrite nitrogen, (c) nitrate nitrogen.
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the zero-water exchange system for L. vannamei by using the nitrification function and adsorption/desorption characteristics of sponge biocarriers (SBs). (a) SB without cultured biofilm; (b) SB after 25 days of biofilm culture; (c) SBBF in a terylene net bag; (d) SBBF used in tanks; (e) SBBF with regeneration of adsorption capacity after cleaning; (f) Adsorbates removed from SBBF.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the zero-water exchange system for L. vannamei by using the nitrification function and adsorption/desorption characteristics of sponge biocarriers (SBs). (a) SB without cultured biofilm; (b) SB after 25 days of biofilm culture; (c) SBBF in a terylene net bag; (d) SBBF used in tanks; (e) SBBF with regeneration of adsorption capacity after cleaning; (f) Adsorbates removed from SBBF.
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Table
Table 1. Water quality parameters in the zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei.
Table 1. Water quality parameters in the zero water exchange systems for L. vannamei.
ParametersTreatment
SBCSBBF2.5aSBBF5aSBBF5
Temperature (°C)28.6 ± 1.5
(26.9–30.1)		28.3 ± 1.6
(26.2–29.5)		28.5 ± 1.6
(27.0–30.1)		28.1 ± 2.0
(26.0–30.1)
DO (mg/L)7.35 ± 0.63
(6.71–7.98)		7.32 ± 0.69
(6.62–8.01)		7.45 ± 0.44
(7.01–7.89)		7.39 ± 0.59
(6.41–7.59)
pH8.09 ± 0.09 a
(7.89–8.31)		7.59 ± 0.40 b
(6.98–8.30)		7.54 ± 0.45 b
(7.03–8.36)		7.64 ± 0.35 b
(6.89–8.23)
Turbidity (NTU)0.98 ± 0.79 a
(0.26–3.98)		4.83 ± 2.80 b
(0.60–15.43)		2.11 ± 1.46 c
(0.40–8.71)		4.81 ± 3.17 b
(0.43–13.14)
Salinity14.6 ± 1.414.7 ± 1.214.8 ± 1.614.7 ± 1.3
P-PO4 (mg/L)0.046 ± 0.031 a
(0.008–0.115)		0.202 ± 0.110 b
(0.005–0.359)		0.198 ± 0.113 b
(0.008–0366)		0.204 ± 0.113 b
(0.008–0.381)
TAN (mg/L)0.07 ± 0.06 a
(0.00–0.28)		0.03 ± 0.03 c
(0.00–0.14)		0.01 ± 0.01 b
(0.00–0.05)		0.02 ± 0.03 c
(0.00–0.14)
NO2-N (mg/L)3.82 ± 3.36 a
(0.01–12.44)		1.17 ± 1.22 b
(0.01–5.77)		0.37 ± 0.16 c
(0.01–0.84)		0.99 ± 1.33 b
(0.01–4.98)
NO3-N (mg/L)5.26 ± 3.35 a
(2.35–13.37)		47.79 ± 23.46 b
(2.28–82.25)		60.56 ± 29.80 c
(2.34–99.13)		47.19 ± 21.74 b
(2.29–83.56)
Values are means of replicates ± standard deviation. Different superscripts in the same row indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 2. AOR and NOR of SBs in the zero-water exchange systems for L. vannamei at 30 and 60 days of the experiment.
Table 2. AOR and NOR of SBs in the zero-water exchange systems for L. vannamei at 30 and 60 days of the experiment.
Treatments
SBCSBBF2.5aSBBF5aSBBF5
AOR (mg/g·h)
Initial value-0.24 ± 0.0020.24 ± 0.0020.24 ± 0.002
30th Day0.22 ± 0.0010.26 ± 0.0010.24 ± 0.0010.24 ± 0.002
60th Day0.23 ± 0.0030.26 ± 0.0020.24 ± 0.0020.25 ± 0.001
NOR (mg/g·h)
Initial value-1.56 ± 0.0121.56 ± 0.0121.56 ± 0.012
30th Day0.58 ± 0.002 c1.54 ± 0.030 a1.31 ± 0.017 b1.33 ± 0.014 b
60th Day0.83 ± 0.008 c1.80 ± 0.032 a1.51 ± 0.033 b1.35 ± 0.015 b
Values are means of replicates ± standard deviation. Different superscripts in the same row indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 3. Results of L. vannamei growth performance in the zero-water exchange systems after 66 days of aquaculture.
Table 3. Results of L. vannamei growth performance in the zero-water exchange systems after 66 days of aquaculture.
Treatments
SBCSBBF2.5aSBBF5aSBBF5
Mean final weight (g)8.62 ± 0.21 b9.07 ± 0.18 a9.21 ± 0.13 a9.12 ± 0.24 a
Survival (%)81.0% b87.6% a93.6% a91.7% a
FCR (g/g)1.57 ± 0.191.49 ± 0.151.43 ± 0.111.45 ± 0.22
SGR (g/d)0.13 ± 0.010.14 ± 0.010.14 ± 0.020.14 ± 0.01
Productivity (kg/m3)5.59 ± 0.11 c6.36 ± 0.09 b6.90 ± 0.18 a6.69 ± 0.23 a
Values are means of replicates ± standard deviation. Different superscripts in the same row indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
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Song, Z.; Liu, C.; Luan, Y.; Qi, Y.; Xu, A. Effect of Zero Water Exchange Systems for Litopenaeus vannamei Using Sponge Biocarriers to Control Inorganic Nitrogen and Suspended Solids Simultaneously. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021271

AMA Style

Song Z, Liu C, Luan Y, Qi Y, Xu A. Effect of Zero Water Exchange Systems for Litopenaeus vannamei Using Sponge Biocarriers to Control Inorganic Nitrogen and Suspended Solids Simultaneously. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021271

Chicago/Turabian Style

Song, Zhiwen, Chao Liu, Yazhi Luan, Yapeng Qi, and Ailing Xu. 2023. "Effect of Zero Water Exchange Systems for Litopenaeus vannamei Using Sponge Biocarriers to Control Inorganic Nitrogen and Suspended Solids Simultaneously" Sustainability 15, no. 2: 1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021271

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