Stakeholder Perceptions on Sustainability Challenges and Innovations in General Aviation

Abstract

While commercial aviation has received considerable social, political, and scholarly attention, general aviation (GA) has largely operated beneath the radar of sustainability discourse. GA grapples with a spectrum of sustainability challenges, encompassing the persistent use of leaded aviation gasoline, outdated technology, evolving demographics, escalating operational costs, noise pollution, adverse environmental perceptions, and public discontent. The sustainability transition in GA, akin to other transport sectors, is an intricate, sociotechnical process necessitating the integration of stakeholder and community perspectives. Existing literature primarily concentrates on technological aspects, offering a partial view of GA stakeholder viewpoints. This paper draws on quantitative methodology and conducts several statistical analyses, foremost ANOVA, t-tests, and regressions, of data from a 2022 online survey (N = 427) involving a diverse range of GA stakeholders. This study examines sustainability consciousness and perceptions within the GA community. The findings underscore shared sustainability concerns among GA stakeholders and illustrate how sociodemographic factors such as age, gender, income, and education exert varying degrees of influence on these perceptions. Additionally, a positive relationship emerges between non-aviation-related and aviation-related sustainability consciousness. Lastly, pilots with prior experience in electric aircraft display a more favorable view of electric aviation.

1. Introduction

Aviation generates significant environmental and health impacts, including noise, atmospheric pollution (e.g., particulate matter, nitrous and sulfur oxides, and lead and bromides), and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, primarily (CO₂) [1].

While aviation accounts for approximately 2.4% of global CO₂ emissions, its share in CO₂ equivalent emissions from commercial flights is estimated at 5–8% [2]. Projections anticipate a threefold increase in total emissions from commercial aviation by 2050, and its contributions to global warming are estimated at around 4%. However, these impacts are disproportionately distributed, with less than 5% of the world’s population responsible for roughly 50% of CO₂ aviation emissions [3].

While the COVID-19 pandemic significantly reduced commercial air travel globally, private aviation flourished in many countries. For example, in the United States, between October 2019 and October 2021, private aviation flights increased by 20%, going along with a 23% rise in CO₂-equivalent emissions [4].

Private aviation belongs to general aviation (GA), which is one of the three main aviation sectors besides military and commercial aviation. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines GA as “all civil aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire”. GA is the largest aviation sector in terms of active aircraft (approximately 350,000) and pilots (approximately 700,000), as well as annual flight hours encompassing a plethora of activities such as pilot training, business aviation, crop spraying, search and rescue, and medical emergency flights [5]. Most pilots initiate their careers through the attainment of a private pilot license (PPL), whether they remain in private aviation or continue their careers as commercial or airline pilots [6]. Notwithstanding its importance, GA accounts for only 4% of global aviation fuel consumption and a very small fraction of global CO₂ emissions, estimated at less than 0.1% [3,7,8].

Throughout recent years, industry, political, and societal concerns about sustainability in commercial aviation have grown, resulting in noteworthy improvements regarding materials and propulsion system efficiency increases, but also measures like domestic flight bans in certain countries (e.g., France) and compulsory sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) blending quotas in the EU [9,10,11].

In stark contrast to commercial aviation, GA has thus far received only minor attention. Nevertheless, recent events, such as climate activists conducting paint attacks on private aircraft in Germany at Berlin Brandenburg Airport (May 2023) and Sylt Airport (June 2023) [12,13], underpin the increasing societal and political pressure on GA to accelerate its sustainability transition. Also, key industry players are starting to realize that “(…) public pressure is climbing (…) After decades of postponing the discussion and action, we are the only ones to blame, the entire general aviation industry” [14].

The sustainability challenges in GA are complex and include, for instance, the continued use of leaded fuels, producing health-adverse atmospheric lead and bromide emissions, rising costs, strict regulations, demographic change (aging pilots, decreasing private pilot numbers), and aging of the GA community as well as the GA aircraft fleet, which now approaches an approximate average of 50 years [1,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26]. Certain measures and steps towards sustainability are already visible, including the AVGAS 100LL (aviation gasoline 100 octane low lead) phaseout initiatives of the European Union (2025) and the United States (2030) and the increased use of electric planes, especially in European flight schools, ever since the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)-type certification of the Pipistrel Velis Electro in the summer of 2020 [23,24,27,28,29,30,31].

The complexity of the sustainability transition in GA requires the inclusion of stakeholder perspectives since any sustainability transition in transportation systems involves sociotechnical processes on multiple levels, according to the multi-level perspective (MLP) on sustainability transitions, and therefore requires, besides finding and developing technological (niche) innovations, acceptance and uptake by societal and political stakeholders to expedite the sustainability transformation [32,33,34].

Sustainability is a multi-dimensional and complex concept, which is why it is often classified as a wicked problem [35]. Sustainability and sustainable development (SD) have permeated everyday language and are frequently oversimplified and reduced to their environmental dimension [36,37]. The overuse of these terms, particularly in the marketing of products and services, coupled with a fuzzy array of definitions, has created ambiguity about their true meaning [38]. In an era where nearly everyone believes they grasp the concept of sustainability, it is increasingly crucial to precisely define sustainability and SD and revisit their origins. Sustainability and SD are often connected to the original 1987 Brundtland Report definition considering SD to be “development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [39]. Although a variety of models exist, the most commonly used model of sustainability entails three dimensions or “pillars”, i.e., society, environment, and economics, which are derived from John Elkington’s Triple Bottom Line (TBL) that is built on three “Ps”, i.e., people, planet, and prosperity.

The body of literature on sustainability and sustainable development (SD) in GA is very small as well as prevalently technological in focus, and there are even fewer studies analyzing sustainability in GA from a social science or stakeholder perspective.

Nonetheless, some noteworthy examples exist. Ever since the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)-type certification of the Pipistrel Velis Electro in 2020, electric planes, especially those used in pilot training, have had a noteworthy sustainability trend in GA [28,40]. A survey [41] of flight schools showed strong support for electric planes in private pilot training and excitement about the technology. Likewise, Dubois [28] found strong support for electric planes in the flight school landscape, yet identified major obstacles related to the technology from the perspective of flight school stakeholders, namely, limited endurance (a measure of how long an aircraft can stay aloft, in hours/minutes) and range (a measure of how far an aircraft can get on a load of fuel/battery charge), high purchase costs, extended charging times, and payload constraints.

A recent multi-method study investigated the sustainability dimension in private pilot training from a sustainability education perspective and found that sustainability and sustainable development were not adequately addressed in PPL(A) learning material and theory lessons and only slightly more in practical training, which highlights the need to include sustainability and SD in all aspects of PPL(A) training, e.g., incorporation of noise-reduction tactics and fuel-efficient flight planning in theoretical lessons as well as application in practical flight training sessions where instructors need to show and evaluate such techniques [40].

Still, most sustainability studies on GA have been narrow in focus, lacking a holistic perspective and depictions of differentiated stakeholder views on sustainability issues, challenges, and opportunities in the sustainability transition in GA.

Connecting to previous exploratory research by the author [42], this study aims to address this gap by investigating pertinent GA stakeholders’ perceptions of sustainability issues, challenges, and opportunities related to the sustainability transition in GA. While the three key sectors of GA are (1) personal flying, (2) flight training, and (3) business flying [43], this research focuses on the first two, i.e., personal flying and flight training, particularly focusing on fixed-wing aircraft. The aforementioned research generated a rich survey dataset, follow-up questions, and hypotheses, which this paper aims to analyze in further detail throughout this paper. This paper is guided by four central research questions:

(1)

How do the views of GA stakeholder groups differ regarding key issues, challenges, opportunities, and sustainability innovations concerning the sustainability transition in GA?

(2)

What sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors impact GA stakeholders’ views on key issues and challenges concerning the sustainability transition in GA?

(3)

How are the non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness and the aviation-related sustainability consciousness of GA stakeholders related?

(4)

How does the previous experience of pilots with electric airplanes impact their views on the electric aircraft technology compared to those pilots without experience with electric aircraft?

This paper contributes to the existing body of knowledge and understanding of GA stakeholder perceptions on sustainability challenges, opportunities, and innovations related to the sustainability transition in GA, as well as identifying factors that influence those perceptions.

2. Materials and Methods

This study draws on a previous exploratory mixed-methods study [42] that was conducted in 2022 by the author as a research project forming part of a Master of Science degree in Sustainability Science from the University of Gävle. The study found that GA, despite its very small contribution to climate change, faces a broad variety of sustainability challenges such as demographic change, atmospheric lead and bromide emissions, increasing costs, risk aversion, nationalism, bureaucracy, and complex regulatory constraints, among others, making it impossible to propose one right pathway to sustainability for GA.

The centerpiece of the aforementioned study was a bilingual (German and English) online survey of GA stakeholders in Switzerland. The survey was conducted from 10 May 2022 to 27 May 2022, utilizing Microsoft Forms. The survey was distributed to pertinent GA stakeholders (pilots, student pilots, flight instructors, flight school administrators, etc.) via the official newsletter of Motorflug Verband der Schweiz (MFVS), a division of the GA umbrella organization Aero-Club Switzerland. The questionnaire, which can be found under Appendix A, was composed of 24 survey items encompassing a range of variables aligned with five key themes of interest:

• Sociodemographic and Socioeconomic Aspects (Items 1–8; 18–23)
• Aviation-Related Environmental Consciousness (Items 9–10; 15)
• Non-Aviation-Related Environmental Consciousness (Item 17)
• Perceptions and Acceptance of Sustainable GA Innovations (Items 11–14)
• Obstacles to SD and Sustainable Innovation in GA (Item 16)

Over the active survey period, a sample of 425 valid responses to the German and 2 valid responses to the English survey was obtained, and the response datasets were merged. Thus, the survey captured the views and opinions of approximately 8% of the Swiss private pilot population. According to the Swiss Federal Office of Civil Aviation (FOCA), the Swiss private pilot population was 4363 in 2021 [44]. While the response rate may seem low, one must bear in mind that the response rate here is nearly equal to the sample’s share of the target population (most private pilots in Switzerland are members of MFVS).

The datasets were exported as Microsoft Excel files for further processing and statistical analysis. The datasets (open-ended text answers) were cleaned wherever obvious typographical errors or unambiguity permitted plausible manual corrections. Microsoft Excel and IBM SPSS version 29 were used for processing and analyzing the data. An array of statistical methods was used to analyze the survey data aligned with the research questions and their underlying hypotheses. These included simple descriptive statistics, ANOVA, independent samples t-tests, and linear regressions.

The sample was composed of predominantly middle-aged (M: 50 years, SD: 14.6 years), above-average income (79% of participants > 90,000 CHF p.a.) (Swiss median annual income per capita in 2020: 79,980 CHF [45]), highly educated (70% tertiary education background), male (94%) participants. The most prominent respondent groups (multiple selections possible) were private pilots (79%), active and former commercial pilots (19%), and flight instructors (11%). The average respondent had 21.3 years (SD: 15.5 years) of pilot experience since gaining their PPL. Though only comprising a little more than six percent each, important further respondent groups were PPL student pilots (6.6%) as well as people active in flight school administration and operations (6.1%). About one-eighth of the sample had already flown an electric airplane. Most respondents resided in the cantons Zurich (36%), Aargau (18%), and Bern (12%). Three respondents resided outside Switzerland, namely, Germany (2) and Liechtenstein (1). Key facts about the sample are summarized in

Table 1. Survey sample description.

Aspect	Category	Value
Respondent Type (N = 427)	Private Pilot	337
	Commercial Pilot (Active + Retired)	82
	Flight Instructor (PPL(A)/LAPL(A))	48
	Other Functions	29
	Student Pilot (PPL(A)/LAPL(A))	28
	Flight School Operation/Administration	27
	Aerodrome or Airport Operation/Administration	12
	Aircraft Manufacturing/Maintenance	8
	Supervision/Regulation/Government	3
	Student Pilot (Other)	1
	Military Pilot	1
	Test Pilot	1
Sex (N = 427)	Female	25
	Male	402
Age (N = 421, 6 missing)	Average	50
	Median	51
	Standard Deviation	14.6
	Min	18
	Max	81
Number of Years since Attainment of PPL (N = 386)	Average	21.3
	Median	19
	Standard Deviation	15.5
	Min	1
	Max	60
Income (N = 325, 122 missing)	<30,000 CHF	9
	30,000–59,000 CHF	12
	60,000–89,000 CHF	47
	90,000–109,000 CHF	55
	110,000–149,000 CHF	96
	150,000–199,000 CHF	46
	200,000–249,000 CHF	23
	>250,000 CHF	37
Highest Educational Background (N = 421, 6 missing)	Tertiary Education (College, University, University of Applied Sciences, etc.)	296
	Commercial/Military Pilot Training	5
	Apprenticeship/Vocational Training	89
	Secondary Education (A-Levels/Matura)	29
	Secondary Education (Obligatory Level)	2
Aircraft Ownership (N = 427)	Yes	96
Previous Experience with Electric Aircraft (N = 427)	Yes	51

.

Limitations

Although this study drew on an extensive survey dataset to which representativeness can be ascribed, the survey might have experienced bias in the forms of participation bias and even bias when the author designed the survey. The survey sample itself was also subject to uneven quantitative representations of certain stakeholder groups (e.g., underrepresentation of student pilots), which may impact group comparisons. The private pilot sample in this study represents the views of only 8% of the private pilot population in Switzerland, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Furthermore, this study is clearly focused on the Swiss GA landscape, which may not be representative of the European GA landscape or even the global GA scene, which is presumably influenced by cultural and political factors. Thus, the results must be interpreted within the given scope and under consideration of the chosen methodology and available data.

3. Results

This section is divided into a number of sub-headings that provide a concise description of the survey results and their interpretation. Section 3.1. elaborates on the results pertaining to the perceptions of GA stakeholder groups concerning key sustainability issues and challenges (Section 3.1.1), which is followed by perceptions of sustainability opportunities and innovations (Section 3.1.2). Section 3.2 presents the analysis of sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors, i.e., Age (Section 3.2.1), Gender (Section 3.2.2), Income (Section 3.2.3), and Education (Section 3.2.4), and their impact on stakeholder perceptions. Section 3.3. presents and describes the results regarding the impact of the non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness of GA stakeholders on their aviation-related sustainability consciousness. Section 3.4 presents and describes the results regarding the correlation between the survey participants’ previous experience with electric airplanes and their perception of electric aircraft technology and its potential as well as drawbacks.

3.1. Stakeholder Groups’ Perceptions on Sustainability Issues in GA

The first research question investigated how the views of GA stakeholder groups differ regarding key issues, challenges, opportunities, and sustainability innovations concerning the sustainability transition in GA.

3.1.1. Perceptions of Key Sustainability Issues and Challenges

The survey participants were asked to rate (5-point Likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) eight statements pertaining to sustainability issues and challenges in GA. A descriptive statistical overview is presented in

Table 2. Stakeholder groups’ ratings of environmental and sustainability issues in GA.

	All Pilots		Student Pilots		Flight Instructors		Flight School Admin/ Operations		Airfield Admin/ Operations
N	427		29		50		27		12
Statement	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	3.9	0.9	3.7	1.1	3.9	0.8	3.9	0.8	3.8	0.8
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training	2.7	1.0	2.6	1.1	2.8	1.0	2.8	0.9	2.8	0.9
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	3.0	1.0	3.0	1.2	3.2	1.0	3.1	1.0	2.8	0.9
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	3.7	1.2	3.4	1.2	3.6	1.1	3.6	1.2	3.9	1.1
General aviation has a negative environmental image	3.7	1.0	3.8	1.1	3.6	1.0	3.7	1.0	3.6	1.1
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	4.0	0.9	4.2	0.9	4.1	0.8	4.0	0.9	4.3	0.5
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	3.5	1.1	3.4	1.1	3.8	1.0	3.5	1.2	3.5	1.2
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	3.0	1.2	3.1	1.1	3.0	1.1	3.0	1.0	2.8	1.1

Scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree.

.

To see whether there are significant variances in the ratings between the three important pilot groups, (1) private pilots, (2) student pilots, and (3) flight instructors, a one-way ANOVA was conducted.

The following analysis presents the results of an ANOVA (analysis of variance) (see

Table 3. ANOVA results for perceptions of different pilot groups on sustainability issues.

Statement	Between Groups 1	df	Mean Square	F-Value	p-Value
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	1.312	2	0.656	0.797	0.451
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training	0.904	2	0.452	0.463	0.630
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	2.007	2	1.003	1.005	0.367
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	1.984	2	0.992	0.732	0.481
General aviation has a negative environmental image	0.784	2	0.392	0.360	0.698
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	1.798	2	0.899	1.050	0.351
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	4.017	2	2.009	1.704	0.183
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	0.282	2	0.141	0.103	0.902

¹ Three pilot groups considered via dummy variable (1 = private pilot, 2 = student pilot, 3 = flight instructor).

) conducted to assess the impact of pilot type (private pilot, student pilot, flight instructor) on perceptions regarding various sustainability and environmental issues in the field of GA.

The ANOVA results reveal that the pilot role does not significantly impact perceptions of sustainability and environmental issues in GA. The pilots’ views on the eight issues were largely consistent. On the one hand, the pilot community agrees that people are overly sensitive to noise emissions, yet on the other hand, also concurs that noise emissions are a major problem in GA. There seems to be a general consensus among GA pilots that sustainability and the environment are important topics in GA. Little overall agreement was found in the pilots’ views on whether GA’s GHG emissions are problematic. There was no strong support for the statements that environmental and sustainability topics are sufficiently addressed in theoretical and practical flight training. Overall, the results suggest a shared concern for environmental and sustainability issues within the GA community.

3.1.2. Perceptions of Sustainability Opportunities and Sustainability Innovations

The survey question “How do you rate the following technologies and measures in terms of their potential for more sustainable general aviation and PPL(A)/LAPL(A) pilot training?” assessed the perceptions of individuals involved in various roles within the aviation industry, including private pilots, student pilots, flight instructors, flight school administrators/operations, and airfield administrators/operations. The participants provided their opinions on a range of eight suggested sustainability opportunities and innovations. Descriptive statistics as well as ANOVA results are available in

Table 4. GA stakeholder groups’ ratings of sustainability potential of opportunities and innovations.

	All Pilots		Student Pilots		Flight Instructors		Flight School Admin/Operations		Airfield Admin/Operations
N	427		29		50		27		12
Innovation	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Electric airplanes	2.5	0.7	2.5	0.7	2.3	0.8	2.7	0.6	2.3	0.8
Biofuels	2.3	0.9	2.1	1.1	2.3	0.9	2.4	0.6	2.3	0.5
Synfuels	2.1	1.2	1.7	1.4	2.4	1.0	2.6	0.9	2.4	0.9
Fuel cell technologies (e.g., H2)	1.8	1.1	1.9	1.1	1.9	1.1	2.3	0.8	2.3	1.1
Increased use of computer simulations (VR/AR)	2.1	0.9	1.9	1.0	2.2	0.8	2.2	0.6	2.3	0.6
Amendments to the practical training syllabus	1.9	1.0	2.1	0.8	2.0	1.0	2.1	0.7	1.8	1.0
Addressing environmental and sustainability topics more in-depth in theoretical lessons	2.2	0.8	2.4	0.7	2.1	0.9	2.1	0.8	2.2	0.8
Automatic CO2 calculator and compensation offers in the digital flight logbook (capzlog)	1.6	0.8	1.8	0.9	1.4	0.9	1.4	0.7	1.4	0.7

Scale: 1 = low potential, 2 = some potential, 3 = high potential.

and

Table 5. ANOVA results for the influence of pilot role on the rating of sustainability potential of opportunities and innovations.

Innovation	Between Groups 1	df	Sum of Squares	Mean Square	F-Statistic	p-Value (Sig.)
Electric airplanes	1.800	2	192.739	0.455	1.980	0.139
Biofuels	0.651	2	356.291	0.840	0.387	0.679
Synfuels	8.269	2	581.646	1.372	3.014	0.050
Fuel cell technologies (e.g., H2)	0.826	2	542.289	1.279	0.323	0.724
Increased use of computer simulations (VR/AR)	2.403	2	313.761	0.740	1.624	0.198
Amendments to the practical training syllabus	1.332	2	398.560	0.940	0.708	0.493
Deeper integration of environmental and sustainability topics in theoretical lessons	2.495	2	253.370	0.598	2.087	0.125
Automatic CO2 calculator and compensation offers in the digital flight logbook (capzlog)	2.817	2	272.527	0.643	2.192	0.113

¹ Three pilot groups considered via dummy variable (1 = private pilot, 2 = student pilot, 3 = flight instructor).

. The results can be summarized as follows:

• Electric Airplanes (M: 2.5, SD: 0.7): Participants across all groups demonstrated moderate support for electric airplanes. No significant differences were observed between the groups (F = 1.980, p = 0.139), indicating a general consensus on this topic.
• Biofuels (M: 2.3, SD: 0.9): The perception of biofuels had relatively low mean ratings (around 2.3) across all groups. There were no significant differences between the groups (F = 0.387, p = 0.679), suggesting a consistent viewpoint on the subject.
• Synfuels (M: 2.1, SD: 1.2): Participants showed mixed opinions on synfuels, with a mean rating of 2.1. Notably, there was a significant difference between the groups (F = 3.014, p = 0.050), suggesting a divergence of views regarding the use of synfuels.
• Fuel Cell Technologies (e.g., H2) (M: 1.8, SD: 1.1): Responses for fuel cell technologies indicated relatively low support across all groups. No significant differences were observed between the groups (F = 0.323, p = 0.724).
• Increased Use of Computer Simulations (VR/AR) (M: 2.1, SD: 0.9): Participants expressed moderate support for the increased use of computer simulations, with a mean rating of 2.1. No significant differences were observed between the groups (F = 1.624, p = 0.198).
• Amendments to the Practical Training Syllabus (M: 1.9, SD: 1.0): Opinions on amendments to the practical training syllabus varied, with a mean rating of 1.9. The differences between groups were not statistically significant (F = 0.708, p = 0.493).
• Deeper Integration of Environmental and Sustainability Topics in Theoretical Lessons (M: 2.2, SD: 0.8): Participants generally favored the deeper integration of environmental and sustainability topics in theoretical lessons, as indicated by a mean rating of 2.2. While there was no significant difference between the groups (F = 2.087, p = 0.125), the overall support remained consistent.
• Automatic CO₂ Calculator and Compensation Offers in the Digital Flight Logbook (capzlog) (M: 1.6, SD: 0.8): Responses for this topic revealed moderate support, with a mean rating of 1.6. No significant differences were observed (F = 2.192, p = 0.113).

3.2. Sociodemographic and Socioeconomic Factors’ Impact on Stakeholder Perceptions

The second research question aimed at finding out what sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors impact GA stakeholders’ views on key issues, challenges, opportunities, and sustainability innovations concerning the sustainability transition in GA.

This section provides an analysis of the impact of the following sociodemographic and socioeconomic variables: age, gender, income, and education.

3.2.1. Age

It is often presumed that younger generations are more concerned with sustainability and environmental issues than older generations (see e.g., Gray, Raimi [46]).

A series of regression analyses aimed to understand the relationships between respondents’ age and their perceptions of various sustainability aspects in GA. How age influenced the responses to eight different statements related to environmental concerns in GA was explored.

Table 6. Summary of linear regression results showing the impact of age on stakeholder perceptions of sustainability issues and challenges in GA.

Statement	B	Std. Error	Beta	t	Sig.	R-Squared
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	0.002	0.003	0.027	0.563	0.574	0.01
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training	0.020	0.003	0.289	6.188	<0.001	0.084
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently Addressed as topics in practical flight training	0.008	0.003	0.123	2.536	0.012	0.015
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	0.001	0.004	0.018	0.365	0.715	0.000
General aviation has a negative environmental image	−0.003	0.004	−0.035	−0.722	0.471	0.001
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	0.003	0.003	0.054	1.115	0.266	0.003
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	0.012	0.004	0.162	3.360	0.001	0.026
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	−0.004	0.004	−0.053	−1.080	0.281	0.003

summarizes the regression results, including the unstandardized coefficients, standard errors, standardized coefficients (Beta), t-statistics, significance levels (Sig.), and R-squared values for each dependent variable:

• “Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation”:

The coefficient (B) for age was 0.002, with a standard error of 0.003. This suggests a weak, positive association between age and the perception of this statement. However, the result was not statistically significant (Sig. = 0.574), and the low R-squared value (0.01) indicates that age explains only a minimal amount of the variation in this perception.

2.

“Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training”:

Here, a stronger, positive relationship was observed. The coefficient (B) for age was 0.020, with a low standard error of 0.003, indicating greater confidence in the estimate. The standardized coefficient (Beta) was 0.289, signifying that age had a relatively strong positive effect. Importantly, this result was highly significant (Sig. < 0.001), suggesting that age plays a significant role in shaping perceptions related to theoretical flight training addressing environmental topics. It can be concluded that the older pilots get, the more likely they are to think that environmental and sustainability topics are sufficiently addressed in theoretical flight training (i.e., theory courses/classes). The R-squared value of 0.084 means that age explains 8.4% of the variation in this perception.

3.

“Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training”:

The regression result for this statement showed a similar pattern to the previous one, albeit with a lower Beta value (0.123). This suggests a moderate positive influence of age on the perception that practical flight training sufficiently addresses environmental topics, meaning that the older pilots are, the more likely they are to be of the opinion that environmental and sustainability topics are sufficiently addressed in practical flight training. The result was statistically significant (Sig. = 0.012), indicating the importance of age. However, the R-squared value was relatively low (0.015), showing that age explains only a limited proportion of the variation in this perception.

4.

“The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic”:

In this case, the coefficient (B) for age was 0.001, and the result was not statistically significant (Sig. = 0.715). The low R-squared value (0.000) further emphasizes that age does not play a substantial role in shaping perceptions related to the continued use of leaded AVGAS.

5.

“General aviation has a negative environmental image”:

For this statement, the coefficient (B) was −0.003, indicating a weak, negative association between age and the perception that GA has a negative environmental image. However, this result was not statistically significant (Sig. = 0.471), and the R-squared value was very low (0.001), suggesting that age does not significantly explain this perception.

6.

“People are overly sensitive to noise emissions”:

We observed a positive association between age and the perception that people are overly sensitive to noise emissions, with a coefficient (B) of 0.003. This result was not statistically significant (Sig. = 0.266). The R-squared value of 0.003 indicates that age explains only a small portion of the variance in this perception.

7.

“Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation”:

The coefficient (B) for age in relation to this statement was 0.012, with a relatively low standard error, indicating a moderate positive association. The result was highly significant (Sig. = 0.001), meaning that the older pilots get, the more likely they are to identify noise emissions as a major problem in GA. The R-squared value of 0.026 suggests that age explains 2.6% of the variation in this perception.

8.

“Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation”:

Here, the coefficient (B) for age was −0.004, indicating a weak negative relationship with the perception that GHG emissions are a major problem. This result was not statistically significant (Sig. = 0.281), and the R-squared value was very low (0.003), suggesting that age does not significantly account for the variation in this perception.

The regression analyses revealed that age has a varied impact on different aspects of environmental perceptions in GA. Age was statistically significant in influencing the perception of theoretical flight training’s environmental coverage, as well as the belief that noise emissions are a major problem. However, age played a minimal to non-significant role in influencing perceptions related to other sustainability aspects in GA.

3.2.2. Gender

While men have been found to perform better on environmental knowledge, women have been found to show stronger concern for sustainability [47]. Whether this applies to the GA context and private pilots is unclear. Thus, an independent samples t-test was conducted to find out the differences in sustainability perceptions of male and female pilots.

The results, which are also depicted in

Table 7. Perceptions of sustainability issues and challenges in GA by gender.

Statement	Sex	N	M	SD	SEM
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	F	25	4.04	0.978	0.196
	M	402	3.89	0.903	0.045
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training	F	25	1.96	0.79	0.158
	M	402	2.79	0.978	0.049
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	F	25	2.4	1	0.2
	M	402	3.07	0.987	0.049
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	F	25	3.64	0.995	0.199
	M	402	3.66	1.174	0.059
General aviation has a negative environmental image	F	25	4	1	0.2
	M	402	3.67	1.044	0.052
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	F	25	3.84	1.068	0.214
	M	402	4.03	0.916	0.046
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	F	25	3.68	1.03	0.206
	M	402	3.53	1.092	0.054
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	F	25	3.48	1.159	0.232
	M	402	2.94	1.16	0.058

and

Table 8. Independent samples t-Test results for the impact of gender on sustainability concerns in GA.

		Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances		t-Test for Equality of Means
		F	Sig.	t	df	Significance		Mean Dif.	Std. Error Dif.	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
						One-Sided	Two-Sided			Lower	Upper
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	Equal variances assumed	0.394	0.531	0.83	425	0.205	0.409	0.154	0.187	−0.21	0.52
	Equal variances not assumed			0.77	26.605	0.224	0.448	0.154	0.201	−0.26	0.57
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training	Equal variances assumed	2.685	0.102	−4.17	425	0.000	0.000	−0.834	0.200	−1.23	−0.44
	Equal variances not assumed			−5.04	28.787	0.000	0.000	−0.834	0.165	−1.17	−0.5
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	Equal variances assumed	0.286	0.593	−3.30	425	0.001	0.001	−0.672	0.204	−1.07	−0.27
	Equal variances not assumed			−3.26	26.992	0.001	0.003	−0.672	0.206	−1.10	−0.25
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	Equal variances assumed	0.870	0.352	−0.07	425	0.472	0.945	−0.017	0.240	−0.49	0.46
	Equal variances not assumed			−0.08	28.323	0.468	0.936	−0.017	0.207	−0.44	0.41
General aviation has a negative environmental image	Equal variances assumed	0.922	0.338	1.53	425	0.063	0.127	0.328	0.215	−0.09	0.75
	Equal variances not assumed			1.59	27.353	0.062	0.124	0.328	0.207	−0.10	0.75
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	Equal variances assumed	2.222	0.137	−1.01	425	0.157	0.314	−0.192	0.191	−0.57	0.18
	Equal variances not assumed			−0.88	26.245	0.193	0.386	−0.192	0.218	−0.64	0.26
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	Equal variances assumed	0.906	0.342	0.65	425	0.259	0.518	0.145	0.224	−0.30	0.59
	Equal variances not assumed			0.68	27.466	0.251	0.501	0.145	0.213	−0.29	0.58
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	Equal variances assumed	0.107	0.743	2.25	425	0.013	0.025	0.537	0.239	0.07	1.01
	Equal variances not assumed			2.25	27.078	0.016	0.033	0.537	0.239	0.05	1.03

, were as follows:

• “Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation”:

No significant gender difference was observed in the participants’ perceptions (p > 0.05). Both male and female private pilots generally viewed sustainability and the environment as important topics in GA.

2.

“Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training”:

Female participants perceived a significant lack of emphasis on sustainability in theoretical flight training compared to their male counterparts (p < 0.001). This suggests that female private pilots believed that theoretical flight training did not sufficiently address environmental and sustainability topics.

3.

“Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training”:

Similarly, female participants perceived a significant lack of emphasis on sustainability in practical flight training compared to males (p < 0.001). This indicates that female private pilots believed that practical flight training did not sufficiently address environmental and sustainability topics.

4.

“The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic”:

No significant gender difference was found (p > 0.05). Both male and female private pilots held similar views regarding the problematic nature of the continued use of leaded AVGAS.

5.

“General aviation has a negative environmental image”:

Female participants perceived a slightly more negative image of GA’s environmental impact compared to males (p = 0.063). While this result is nearly significant, it suggests that female private pilots may have a slightly more critical view of GA’s environmental image.

6.

“People are overly sensitive to noise emissions”:

No significant gender difference was observed (p > 0.05). Both male and female private pilots held similar views regarding the population’s sensitivity to noise emissions in GA.

7.

“Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation”:

No significant gender difference was found (p > 0.05). Both male and female private pilots held similar views regarding the significance of noise emissions in GA.

8.

“Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation”:

Female participants perceived GHG emissions in GA to be more problematic than male pilots (p = 0.016). This suggests that female private pilots were more concerned about the environmental impact of GHG emissions within GA.

Overall, the results reveal significant gender differences in the perceptions of sustainability in theoretical and practical flight training and GHG emissions in GA, while the other variables did not exhibit significant gender-related variations.

3.2.3. Income

Even though high income individuals contribute disproportionately to global warming and unsustainability due to heightened consumption levels, some studies suggest that higher incomes are also associated with increased concern for the environment and sustainability, e.g., Peisker [48].

To investigate this, multiple linear regressions were conducted and summarized in

Table 9. Linear regression results for the impact of income on concerns about sustainability in GA.

Statement	B (Unstandardized Coefficients)	Std. Error	Beta (Standardized Coefficients)	t-Value	Sig.
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	4.307	0.152	−0.148	−2.696	0.007
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training	2.833	0.169	−0.051	−0.922	0.357
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	3.228	0.168	−0.081	−1.455	0.147
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	3.313	0.200	0.101	1.816	0.070
General aviation has a negative environmental image	3.590	0.179	0.022	0.388	0.698
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	4.031	0.158	0.001	0.021	0.983
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	3.213	0.181	0.109	1.977	0.049
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	2.931	0.198	0.021	0.386	0.700

. The relationship between gross annual income and perceptions of sustainability and environmental issues within the domain of GA was scrutinized. Eight dependent variables were investigated, and the key findings are as follows:

• “Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation”: The analysis revealed a statistically significant negative relationship (Beta = −0.148, p = 0.007) between gross annual income and the perception that sustainability and the environment are important topics in GA. As income increases, there is a tendency for pilots to view environment and sustainability as less important in GA.
• “Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training”: No significant relationship was found (Beta = −0.051, p = 0.357) between income and the perception that sustainability is adequately addressed in theoretical flight training.
• “Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training”: Similarly, no significant relationship (Beta = −0.081, p = 0.147) was observed between income and the perception that sustainability is sufficiently addressed in practical flight training.
• “The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic”: The analysis did not reveal a significant relationship (Beta = 0.101, p = 0.070) between income and the perception of the problematic nature of continued leaded AVGAS use in GA.
• “General aviation has a negative environmental image”: Income did not significantly influence the perception of the environmental image of GA (Beta = 0.022, p = 0.698).
• “People are overly sensitive to noise emissions”: There was no significant relationship between income and the perception that people are overly sensitive to noise emissions in GA (Beta = 0.001, p = 0.983).
• “Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation”: A significant positive relationship was observed (Beta = 0.109, p = 0.049) between income and the perception that noise emissions are a major problem in GA. As income increases, the perception of noise emissions as a problem becomes stronger.
• “Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation”: Income did not significantly affect the perception of GHG emissions as a major problem in GA (Beta = 0.021, p = 0.700).

Noteworthily, an additional ANOVA (see

Table 10. ANOVA results comparing pilot perceptions on sustainability issues in GA by income.

Statement	Source	Sum of Squares	df (Between)	Mean Square	F-Value	Sig.
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	Between Groups	10.783	7	1.540	1.899	0.069
	Within Groups	257.137	317	0.811
	Total	267.920	324
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training	Between Groups	1.098	7	0.157	0.154	0.993
	Within Groups	322.890	317	1.019
	Total	323.988	324
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	Between Groups	4.570	7	0.653	0.650	0.714
	Within Groups	318.427	317	1.005
	Total	322.997	324
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	Between Groups	8.972	7	1.282	0.906	0.502
	Within Groups	448.431	317	1.415
	Total	457.403	324
General aviation has a negative environmental image	Between Groups	13.747	7	1.964	1.780	0.090
	Within Groups	349.656	317	1.103
	Total	363.403	324
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	Between Groups	8.301	7	1.186	1.370	0.217
	Within Groups	274.327	317	0.865
	Total	282.628	324
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	Between Groups	11.175	7	1.596	1.386	0.211
	Within Groups	365.238	317	1.152
	Total	376.412	324
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	Between Groups	11.486	7	1.641	1.200	0.302
	Within Groups	433.511	317	1.368
	Total	444.997	324

Eight income groups considered: <30,000 CHF, 30,000–59,000 CHF, 60,000–89,000 CHF, 90,000–109,000 CHF, 110,000–149,000 CHF, 150,000–199,000 CHF, 200,000–249,000 CHF, >250,000 CHF.

) considering eight different income groups does not suggest any significant differences in sustainability perceptions based on income.

In summary, the results suggest that income plays a role in shaping the perception of sustainability and environmental issues in GA. Specifically, higher income individuals tend to view sustainability and environmental topics as less important in GA. Additionally, higher income individuals are more likely to perceive noise emissions as a major problem. However, income does not appear to significantly influence perceptions of sustainability in flight training, the use of leaded AVGAS, the environmental image of GA, or the perception of GHG emissions as a problem.

3.2.4. Education

Several studies have shown that there is a positive correlation between educational background (education level) and environmental and sustainability concerns. People with higher educational backgrounds tend to show larger concern for environmental and sustainability issues [49]. We tested whether this applies to the GA context. While the descriptive statistics (see

Table 11. Respondents ratings of sustainability issues and challenges in GA by educational background.

	Obligatory School		Secondary Education		Vocational Training		Higher Education		Total
N	2		29		96		295		422 (5 Missing)
Statement	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	3.0	1.4	3.6	1.0	4.0	0.8	3.9	0.9	3.9	0.9
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in theoretical flight training	2.0	1.4	2.8	0.9	2.9	1.0	2.7	1.0	2.7	1.0
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	2.5	2.1	3.2	1.0	3.2	0.9	3.0	1.0	3.0	1.0
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	4.0	0.0	3.5	1.2	3.5	1.1	3.7	1.2	3.7	1.2
General aviation has a negative environmental image	4.5	0.7	3.5	1.1	3.8	1.0	3.7	1.1	3.7	1.0
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	4.0	0.0	4.2	0.9	4.2	0.8	4.0	0.9	4.0	0.9
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	2.0	0.0	3.2	1.3	3.6	1.0	3.6	1.1	3.5	1.1
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	3.5	0.7	2.8	1.1	2.9	1.1	3.0	1.2	3.0	1.2

) of the ratings of eight statements regarding sustainability issues and challenges in GA by the different educational groups (obligatory school, secondary education, vocational training, higher education) show some differences between the backgrounds, an ANOVA (see

Table 12. ANOVA results for respondents views on sustainability issues and challenges by educational backgrounds.

Statement	Between Groups 1 df	Sum of Squares	Mean Square	F- Statistic	p-Value (Sig.)
Sustainability and the environment are important topics in general aviation	3	4.223	1.408	1.714	0.163
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	3	5.480	1.827	1.872	0.134
Environment and sustainability are sufficiently addressed as topics in practical flight training	3	5.676	1.892	1.892	0.130
The continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic	3	6.723	2.241	1.692	0.168
General aviation has a negative environmental image	3	3.756	1.252	1.143	0.331
People are overly sensitive to noise emissions	3	5.050	1.683	2.018	0.111
Noise emissions are a major problem in general aviation	3	7.710	2.570	2.197	0.088
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	3	2.154	0.718	0.527	0.664

¹ Compared educational backgrounds: obligatory school, secondary education, vocational training, higher education.

) was conducted to test group differences in means for statistical significance. In all cases, the differences regarding environmental or sustainability concerns between the analyzed educational background groups are not statistically significant.

3.3. Impact of Non-Aviation-Related Sustainability Consciousness on Aviation-Related Sustainability Consciousness

The third research question asked how the non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness and the aviation-related sustainability consciousness of GA stakeholders relate. This study hypothesized that there is a positive relationship between the non-aviation-related and the aviation-related sustainability consciousness of GA pilots, which would mean that the higher the non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness, the higher the aviation-related sustainability consciousness.

The non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness was derived from the average of the values obtained from answers on survey questionnaire item 17, which was related to sustainability awareness in the categories mobility, energy consumption (electricity, heating, etc.), nutrition, clothing, and leisure/holiday travel behavior (5-point Likert scale).

To test the hypothesis, multiple linear regressions were conducted. The results, which are also summarized in

Table 13. Linear regression results of the impact of non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness on aviation-related sustainability consciousness.

	B (Unstandardized Coefficients)	Std. Error	Beta (Standardized Coefficients)	t-Value	R Squared	Sig.
Sustainability and the Environment are Important Topics in General Aviation	1.934	0.172	0.493	11.236	0.243	<0.001
Environment and Sustainability are Sufficiently Addressed as Topics in Theoretical Flight Training	3.628	0.211	−0.204	17.205	0.042	<0.001
Environment and Sustainability are Sufficiently Addressed as Topics in Practical Flight Training	4.136	0.211	−0.252	19.601	0.063	<0.001
The Continued Use of Leaded AVGAS is Problematic	1.772	0.236	0.369	7.515	0.136	<0.001
General Aviation has a Negative Environmental Image	2.823	0.223	0.19	12.638	0.036	<0.001
People are are overly sensitive to noise emissions	4.48	0.201	−0.113	22.332	0.013	0.019
Noise Emissions are a Major Problem in General Aviation	2.349	0.23	0.25	10.225	0.063	<0.001
Greenhouse gas emissions are a major problem in general aviation	0.769	0.229	0.431	3.353	0.186	0.001

, show a significant impact of non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness on aviation-related sustainability consciousness. However, the low R-squared values on every regression suggest that non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness does not explain the variances in aviation-related sustainability consciousness or perceptions well.

3.4. Impact of Electric Airplane Experience

The fourth research question asked how pilots’ previous experience with electric airplanes impacts their views on the electric aircraft technology compared to those pilots without experience with electric aircraft.

The underlying hypotheses of this section are as follows:

(1)

Pilots with flight experience with electric airplanes judge the technology and potential disadvantages to be less problematic than those pilots without prior flight experience with electric planes.

(2)

Pilots with prior flight experience with electric planes assign higher sustainability potential to the electric airplane technology.

First, the participants were shown nine selected potential problematic aspects considering the use of electric aircraft and were asked to rank (5-point Likert scale, 1 = no problem, 5 = big problem) how problematic these aspects are in their view.

When investigating factors influencing perceptions of electric aircraft, the following findings emerged along with their significance based on the independent samples t-test results and means (for details see

Table 14. Independent samples t-test results regarding the rating of problematic aspects concerning electric airplanes’.

Variable	Group	N	M	SD	Std. Error Mean	t-Value	df	Significance (2-Tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval
High costs	0	376	2.89	1.214	0.063	3.322	65.836	<0.001	0.577	0.174	(0.223, 0.924)
	1	51	2.31	1.157	0.162
Fire risk of the battery	0	376	3.17	1.333	0.069	2.625	63.222	0.005	0.54	0.206	(0.147, 0.951)
	1	51	2.63	1.385	0.194
Too little range/endurance	0	376	4.7	0.672	0.035	−0.44	61.58	0.331	−0.048	0.11	(−0.248, 0.151)
	1	51	4.75	0.744	0.104
Too little space	0	376	3.32	1.29	0.067	−0.044	62.709	0.483	−0.009	0.194	(−0.390, 0.372)
	1	51	3.33	1.366	0.191
Too little permitted weight	0	376	3.86	1.116	0.058	1.777	60.919	0.081	0.332	0.187	(−0.001, 0.665)
	1	51	3.53	1.27	0.178
Insufficient charging infrastructure at airports/airfields	0	376	4.23	1.031	0.053	1.499	59.881	0.139	0.271	0.181	(−0.091, 0.632)
	1	51	3.96	1.232	0.173
Long battery charging times	0	376	4.11	1.056	0.054	1.655	58.646	0.103	0.325	0.196	(0.004, 0.646)
	1	51	3.78	1.346	0.189
High battery wear	0	376	3.58	1.163	0.06	1.107	64.668	0.272	0.19	0.172	(−0.153, 0.534)
	1	51	3.39	1.15	0.161
Environmental or ethical problems caused by battery production (e.g., child labor in cobalt mining)	0	376	3.61	1.371	0.071	1.909	60.965	0.061	0.438	0.229	(0.029, 0.897)
	1	51	3.18	1.558	0.218

Scale: 1 = no problem, 5 = big problem; Groups: 0 = no prior electric aircraft experience, 1 = prior electric aircraft experience.

):

• “High costs”: Participants who had not flown in electric aircraft (“non-fliers”) expressed significantly higher cost concerns (M = 2.89) compared to those with experience (M = 2.31) (p < 0.001), highlighting the significant impact of cost on perceptions.
• “Fire risk of the battery”: Non-fliers exhibited greater concerns about battery fire risk (M = 3.17) compared to those with experience (M = 2.63) (p = 0.005), indicating its notable influence on perceptions.
• “Too little range/endurance”: Perceptions of range/endurance did not significantly vary based on flight experience with electric airplanes (p = 0.331). Both groups strongly agree that this aspect is a big problem (no experience: M = 4.7, experienced: M = 4.75).
• “Too little space”: Concerns about space limitations showed no significant (p = 0.483) differences between the two groups, with similar means (no experience: M = 3.32, experienced: M = 3.33).
• “Too little permitted weight”: Non-fliers expressed more weight concerns (M = 3.86) compared to those with experience (M = 3.53) (p = 0.081). The group differences are not statistically significant.
• “Insufficient charging infrastructure at airports/airfields”: Participants without experience had more concerns about insufficient charging infrastructure at airfields (M = 4.23) compared to those with experience (M = 3.96). The differences are not significant (p = 0.139).
• “Long battery charging times”: Non-fliers reported longer charging times as a larger concern (M = 4.11) compared to those with experience (M = 3.78). However, the differences are not significant (p = 0.052).
• “High battery wear”: Pilots with flight experience consider battery wear to be less problematic (M = 3.39) compared to those without experience (M = 3.58). However, the differences are statistically insignificant (p = 0.272).
• “Environmental or ethical problems caused by battery production”: Non-fliers showed slightly more concerns about ethical issues (M = 3.61) related to battery production compared to those with experience (M = 3.18) (p = 0.061), indicating a modest influence on perceptions. The differences are, however, not statistically significant.

These findings underscore the significance of cost and battery fire risk in shaping perceptions of electric aircraft. Range/endurance, space, and battery wear concerns seem consistent regardless of electric flight experience. Charging infrastructure and ethical considerations in battery production also play a role, although to varying degrees. It also shows that, with the exceptions of the two aspects “too little space” and “too little range/endurance”, pilots with prior experience with electric airplanes have consistently ranked the provided aspects as less problematic than those pilots who had no prior experience with electric aircraft.

Second, an independent samples t-test was conducted to examine the impact of prior experience with electric aircraft on the rating of sustainability potential of electric planes (variable: SD_Potential_Electric_Planes_GA). The results, as shown in

Table 15. Independent samples t-test results regarding the rating of electric airplanes’ sustainability potential by electric airplane experience.

Dependent Variable		Without Experience	With Experience
SD_Potential_Electric_Planes_GA 1	Mean	2.45	2.67
	Standard Deviation	0.687	0.554
	Std. Error of the Mean	0.035	0.078
	Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances	F = 6.534 (p = 0.011)
	t-Test for Equality of Means (Equal variances assumed)	t = −2.136 (df = 425, p = 0.034)	Mean Difference = 0.033	Std. Error Difference = 0.100
	t-Test for Equality of Means (Equal variances not assumed)	t = −2.516 (df = 72.653, p = 0.014)	Mean Difference = 0.085	Std. Error Difference = 0.085

Scale: 1 = no potential, 2 = low potential, 3 = high potential; ¹ SD = sustainable development.

, consider both equal and unequal variances. These results indicate a significant difference in means between the two groups, regardless of whether equal variances are assumed or not. It can be concluded that prior experience with electric aircraft positively influences the perceptions of GA pilots of electric aircraft and their potential for sustainability in GA.

4. Discussion

This paper built on the analysis of an extensive survey dataset from a preceding exploratory mixed-method study by the author. Four research questions guided the research, and quantitative statistical results have been presented throughout Chapter 3 to provide answers to the initial questions.

The first research question asked the following: How do the views of GA stakeholder groups differ regarding key issues, challenges, opportunities, and sustainability innovations concerning the sustainability transition in GA?

Through an ANOVA that categorized the relevant GA stakeholder groups into three distinct roles (private pilots, student pilots, and flight instructors), the findings indicated that the role of the pilot does not exert a significant influence on perceptions concerning sustainability and environmental matters in GA. Irrespective of whether individuals assume the roles of private pilots, student pilots, or flight instructors, their perspectives on these subjects remained largely consistent. This implies a shared apprehension for environmental and sustainability issues within the GA community.

The second part of the question and analysis focused on group differences in perceptions of sustainability opportunities and sustainability innovations.

The analysis results shed light on several key insights regarding stakeholders’ views on sustainability opportunities and innovations in the aviation industry. Notably, there was a consensus among participants from various stakeholder groups regarding their moderate support for electric airplanes, which was consistent across all categories. The enthusiasm about electric aircraft measured in the earlier survey study by Edwards and Parker [41] was not reflected in this study. In contrast, perceptions about biofuels as a potential sustainability innovation were relatively high across the board, indicating a shared viewpoint.

However, opinions on synfuels were mixed, and there was a significant variation in perspectives among stakeholder groups, signifying a divergence of views. The findings revealed that fuel cell technologies garnered relatively low support across all groups, with no significant differences observed.

Participants expressed only moderate support for the increased use of computer simulations (VR/AR), with similar views across stakeholder categories. This could be because private aviation and pilot training are mainly aimed at leisure purposes and for experiencing flying rather than avoiding flying or just simulating the activity.

Meanwhile, opinions on amendments to the practical training syllabus varied, but there were no statistically significant differences between groups. Changes could help to accommodate more flights with electric airplanes in PPL training and reduce emissions. However, administrative processes in aviation usually take much time and are usually aimed at reducing risk and increasing safety.

Regarding the deeper integration of environmental and sustainability topics in theoretical lessons, there was general favor among participants, despite a significant difference between stakeholder groups. This is particularly relevant since educational processes have the potential to catalyze sustainability and sustainable behavior [40].

Finally, the automatic CO₂ calculator and compensation offers in the Swiss digital flight logbook (capzlog) received moderate support without significant variations between stakeholders. Nevertheless, such a service does not exist yet, and reported stakeholder opinions must therefore be considered within this hypothetical context.

These insights provide valuable guidance for understanding stakeholders’ preferences and concerns related to sustainability initiatives in the aviation sector. The results highlight areas of agreement and discord among stakeholder groups.

The second research question asked the following: What sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors impact GA stakeholders’ views on key issues and challenges concerning the sustainability transition in GA?

This research aimed to understand how sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors influence stakeholder perceptions regarding sustainability in GA. Specifically, it looked at the impact of age, gender, income, and education on GA stakeholders’ views on environmental concerns, sustainability, and related issues. This study involved regression analyses to explore the relationships between these factors and stakeholders’ perceptions.

Regarding age, this research sought to determine whether generational differences influenced sustainability perceptions in GA. The analysis indicated that age had a varied impact on different aspects of environmental perceptions. Notably, there was a strong, positive association between age and the perception that theoretical flight training adequately addressed environmental topics. In contrast, age had minimal or non-significant effects on other sustainability aspects, which is contrary to other studies (e.g., Gray, Raimi [46]) finding that younger generations show more pro-environmental attitudes. For example, it did not significantly affect perceptions related to the use of leaded AVGAS or the negative environmental image of GA. Nevertheless, it might be that aviation with a potentially negative environmental image may not attract strongly environmentally concerned youth in the first place.

This study also investigated gender differences in sustainability perceptions among private pilots. The findings revealed that gender played a significant role in shaping perceptions related to theoretical flight training and GHG emissions in GA. Female participants perceived a lack of emphasis on sustainability in flight training and expressed greater concern about GHG emissions, which concurs with Zhao, Gong [47] who found that women show stronger concern for sustainability compared to men. However, no significant gender differences were observed in other areas, such as the importance of sustainability topics or sensitivity to noise emissions in GA.

Income, as a socioeconomic factor, was analyzed to assess its influence on sustainability perceptions. The results indicated that gross annual income only had a significant impact on stakeholders’ perceptions in some cases. Specifically, there was a negative relationship between income and the perception that sustainability and the environment are important topics in GA. Higher-income individuals tended to view these topics as less important. Moreover, higher-income individuals were more likely to perceive noise emissions as a major problem in GA. However, income did not significantly affect perceptions of sustainability in flight training, the use of leaded AVGAS, the environmental image of GA, or the perception of GHG emissions as a problem.

In the context of education, this study examined whether different educational backgrounds led to variations in sustainability perceptions. The analysis, based on categories like obligatory school, secondary education, vocational training, and higher education, revealed no statistically significant differences in sustainability concerns between these educational groups, which stands in contrast to other studies (e.g., Jaoul-Grammare and Stenger [49]) suggesting that higher education leads to higher sustainability concerns in people. Participants generally agreed on the importance of sustainability topics in GA and the effectiveness of practical flight training in addressing these issues, irrespective of their educational background.

Overall, the analyses showed that sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors indeed influenced stakeholders’ perceptions of sustainability in GA to a certain degree. Age, gender, income, and education each had varying degrees of impact on different aspects of environmental perceptions, and these findings provide valuable insights into the complex interplay between these factors and sustainability perceptions within the GA community.

The third research question asked the following: How are the non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness and the aviation-related sustainability consciousness of GA stakeholders related?

The analysis explored how non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness relates to aviation-related sustainability consciousness among GA (GA) stakeholders. The hypothesis suggested a positive connection, meaning that higher non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness should be linked to greater aviation-related sustainability consciousness. Non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness was assessed using a composite score from a survey question covering various sustainability aspects.

The results confirmed a significant impact of non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness on aviation-related sustainability consciousness. Several factors, like the importance of sustainability in GA and concerns about leaded AVGAS, showed positive associations with higher non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness.

However, the R-squared values were relatively low in each regression. This suggests that non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness does not entirely account for the variations in aviation-related sustainability consciousness.

Therefore, a positive relationship between these consciousness levels was found, but it is clear that other factors also influence aviation-related sustainability consciousness among GA stakeholders. This underscores the complexity of sustainability consciousness, and future research should delve into these additional factors to gain a more comprehensive understanding of promoting sustainability in GA.

The fourth research question asked the following: How does the previous experience of pilots with electric airplanes impact their views on the electric aircraft technology compared to those pilots without experience with electric aircraft?

Two hypotheses guided the analysis: (a) pilots with electric airplane experience would find the technology and its drawbacks less problematic and (b) they would assign higher sustainability potential to electric airplanes.

Participants rated the severity of nine potential issues associated with electric aircraft using a 5-point Likert scale. Key findings revealed that cost and battery fire risk significantly influenced perceptions, with non-experienced pilots expressing higher concerns. Payload limitations, insufficient charging infrastructure, and charging times also impacted perceptions more for non-experienced pilots, yet the results were not statistically significant.

Interestingly, factors like range/endurance, space, and battery wear had similar perceptions across both groups. Overall, pilots with electric airplane experience viewed these aspects as less problematic than those without experience. Furthermore, prior experience with electric airplanes positively influenced perceptions of sustainability potential. This suggests that firsthand experience fosters a more positive view of electric aircraft sustainability in the context of GA, emphasizing the importance of pilot experience in shaping these perceptions. Earlier survey research by Dubois [28] and Edwards and Parker [41] found strong support for electric aircraft in the flight school community. However, they did not investigate how the previous experience of pilots with electric aircraft impacts their perception of electric airplanes with regard to the sustainability potential. The results from these analyses thus make a strong contribution to prior research in this niche research field, which is still in its infancy.

5. Conclusions

This study investigated sustainability consciousness and perceptions in the GA community as well as views on various innovations and their potential to contribute to a more sustainable GA.

It addressed four key research questions that related to understanding divergence in GA stakeholder views on sustainability, exploring the influence of sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors, investigating the interplay between non-aviation and aviation-related sustainability consciousness, and examining the impact of pilots’ prior experience with electric airplanes on their perspectives of electric aircraft technology.

GA stakeholders share common concerns about sustainability and consider environmental and sustainability topics in GA to be important. Further concerns included the shared view that sustainability topics are insufficiently covered in theoretical and practical flight training, as well as the shared perception that the continued use of leaded AVGAS is problematic. While there was agreement on noise emissions as a major problem in GA, opinions on greenhouse gas emissions varied. Additionally, stakeholders evaluated sustainability opportunities and innovations. The GA community expressed seeing the largest sustainability potential in electric airplanes and biofuels and addressing environmental and sustainability topics more in-depth in theoretical flight training lessons. The views on synthetic fuels (synfuels) diverged statistically significantly. Student pilots saw lower potential in synfuels compared to the other stakeholder groups.

The analysis of the correlation between socioeconomic/sociodemographic factors and stakeholder perceptions yielded noteworthy results. Regarding age, it showed that older pilots are more inclined to believe that theoretical flight training adequately addresses environmental topics. Older pilots also expressed heightened concerns about noise emissions. Gender disparities emerged in the data, as female pilots perceived a significant lack of sustainability emphasis in both theoretical and practical flight training and exhibited greater concern about GHG emissions than male pilots. Higher-income individuals viewed sustainability in GA as less important overall, but income significantly influenced concerns about noise emissions. Surprisingly, an analysis of the impact of educational background on sustainability perceptions did not yield any statistically significant differences among GA stakeholders.

Investigating the interplay between non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness and aviation-related sustainability consciousness among GA stakeholders, the hypothesis suggesting a positive correlation was supported by the results of multiple linear regressions, indicating a significant impact of non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness on aviation-related sustainability consciousness. This means that with increased non-aviation-related sustainability-mindedness of GA stakeholders, the perceived importance of sustainability in GA increases as well. Nevertheless, the low R-squared values suggest that non-aviation-related sustainability consciousness only partially explains the variances in aviation-related sustainability perceptions.

The analysis of the impact of previous experience of pilots with electric airplanes on their views of the electric aircraft technology revealed that pilots with prior experience tend to perceive certain potential challenges of electric aircraft, such as high costs and battery fire risk, as less problematic. Moreover, pilots with previous experience with electric airplanes assign higher sustainability potential to the technology compared to those without experience. These insights underscore the role of experiential knowledge in shaping perceptions and highlight specific concerns, such as cost and safety, which influence stakeholders’ attitudes toward electric aviation. This confirms GA stakeholders’ concerns reported in the preceding research. More importantly, it adds to the existing body of knowledge as it is the first study ever to show the relationship between perceived electric airplane potential and previous operational experience. Therefore, flight schools and flight clubs with an electric plane in their fleet should encourage student pilots, flight instructors, and certificated pilots to use and try the technology so that it can gain increased support and allow further technological development. Such niche innovations need the support to overcome initial resistance and doubts and to be able to evolve into transformative mass-market solutions, as was the case with electric automobility. Since e-mobility in the car sector was heavily subsidized by many states (e.g., Norway), political stakeholders interested in the transition towards a more sustainable GA should evaluate the potential of subsidization programs for electric GA and pilot training to counterbalance the current drawbacks of the technology compared to fossil fuel-powered piston engine airplanes.

Since many participants perceived sustainability to be inadequately addressed in pilot training, flight schools and flight instructors should be encouraged by the authorities to incorporate sustainability topics in flight training. This could also involve seminars and further training for flight instructors as well as revisions of flight school curricula. Future research should build on the findings from this study. Empirical and applied research is highly encouraged to explore sustainability potentials and challenges and ways to integrate and foster sustainability in pilot training. Such research should be interdisciplinary and include pedagogical and educational science perspectives (e.g., sustainability education).