Policy Network on the Kotaku Program in the Global South: Findings from Palembang, Indonesia

Abstract

Various programs have been implemented around the world to achieve slum upgrading, including in the city of Palembang, Indonesia, through the Kotaku Program. This program has been implemented since 2016 with a target of upgrading slum areas by 2020. However, the program has not reached the target. This study aims to identify the failure factors of not achieving the goal. This research uses a qualitative case study by conducting in-depth interviews with 20 various actors (i.e., government, academics, society, and media) involved in the Kotaku Program in Palembang City. Based on the policy network theory perspective, this research found three challenges in achieving the target, namely: (1) lack of collaboration between parties; (2) unclear roles of policy actors in housing and settlements; (3) the difficulty of building trust between actors to work together. From the interviews, new factors were found, including caring and integrity as influencing factors of the actor relationship intensity in a policy network. Consequently, to achieve success with the Kotaku Program, the aspect of the collaboration, trust, caring, integrity among stakeholders, and the aspect of the clarity of the role of the policy actors should be considered.

1. Introduction

Globally, there are 4.3 billion people worldwide living in urban areas, 1.05 billion of whom live in slums, meaning that around one in four urban dwellers live in slum areas or informal settlements [1]. The slum area environment is a neglected part of urban areas where the living conditions are very undesirable, such as uninhabitable housing, high population density, minimal environmental facilities and infrastructure, unavailability of education, and poor health facilities for the community [2]. Another problem with slums is limited land such as in a period of economic crisis and in relation to informal housing in the global South. More than ever, land is treated as a pure financial asset. Capital financing now has a major influence on the production and use of land. The infrastructure improvements conducted by capital financing tend to bring far more economic benefits to landowners and small and large housing than those tenants who cannot exercise the same monopoly rights [3]. To achieve the SDGs, the world’s 1 billion slum dwellers must be provided with the support they need to lift themselves out of poverty and live free of exclusion and inequality. Decent and affordable housing is the key to improving their living conditions according to United Nations. Studies related to the handling of slum areas have been carried out in various parts of the world, such as India [4,5] and Dhaka [6,7] in Asia; Brazil, Mexico, and the Caribbean [8,9,10] in Latin America; Nairobi and Kenya in Africa, [11,12]; Rome in Europe [13] and also in Australia [14]. Some of these studies reveal that the problem of urban slum areas is formed as a result of poor sanitation, lack of clean water, and lack of provision of infrastructure, while in Nezahualcoyotl near Mexico City, social problems surrounding its urban slum areas include criminal activities.

The same phenomenon also occurs in Indonesia, which is a Southeast Asian country with the fourth largest population in the world, with a population of more than 268 million people (3.52% of the world’s total population). Of these, 22% (1.9 million people) live in urban slum areas [15]. Several studies in Indonesia [16,17] also reveal that urban slum areas are formed due to poor sanitation, lack of availability of clean water, and the presence of disorderly buildings. This aspect is in accordance with the literature studies related to the development of slum areas, namely aspects of buildings, environment, infrastructure, clean water supply, and security [18,19,20]. This research focuses on the slum upgrading program in Palembang, Indonesia using the policy network perspective concept. Furthermore, the research utilized a qualitative approach with various data collection methods, including observation and interview.

Based on Law Number 1 of 2011 concerning Housing and Settlement Areas and Presidential Regulation Number 2 of 2015 concerning the National Medium Term Development Plan (Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional, RPJMN) for the 2015–2019 period, it is mandated that the handling of water resilience, basic infrastructure and connectivity, and the environment, is conducted by the government through the Ministry of Public Work and Community Housing (Kementrian Pekerjaan Umum dan Perumahan Rakyat, PUPR), which has carried out intervention for handling slum areas. To improve the quality of infrastructure, urban services, and alleviation of slums, the government borrowed US $760 million or around IDR 10 trillion from some international funding agencies, such as the Islamic Development Bank (IDB), the World Bank, and the Asian Investment Bank. Apart from the loans, funding also comes from the Regional Revenue and Expenditure Budget (Anggaran Pembiayaan dan Belanja Daerah, APBD) and the private sector for the construction of self-help houses. However, within five years (2014–2019) the area of slums in Indonesia has still experienced a significant increase (102%) from 38,000 ha to 87,000 ha spread across 34 Provinces, 269 Cities, and 11,067 Villages [21].

Historically, the handling of slum areas in Indonesia has long been implemented. For example, the Kampoeng Improvement Project (KIP) Program was carried out in Jakarta, Surabaya, and Denpasar; this was a project for handling slum villages during the leadership of Muhammad Ali Sadikin (Governor of DKI Jakarta in 1996). The program was inspired by the village improvement program (slums) known as the Village Verbetering during the Dutch East Indies (1930s). Another initiative in tackling urban slums was carried out in 1999–2006 through the Urban Poverty Reduction Program (Program Penanggulangan Kemiskinan Perkotaan, P2KP).

This program was implemented in three phases of poverty alleviation. The phase most related to slum areas is the third phase, namely the management of slum settlement development based on the principles of good governance. Furthermore, in 2006–2007 the National Urban Empowerment Program (Program Nasonal Pemberdayaan Masyarakat, PNPM) continued the third phase through infrastructure improvement and environmental quality. In 2015, P2KKP (Urban Slum Handling Program) was conducted by realizing better quality facilities, infrastructure, and public facilities. These efforts were continued through the Kotaku Program (City Without Slums), which was socialized in April 2016 regarding the handling of slum areas through networks from the central government, provinces, districts/cities, donor agencies, the private sector, academics, communities, and other stakeholders, where the local government becomes the leader in realizing livable settlements in their area.

The Kotaku Program’s overarching goal is to increase urban slums’ access to essential infrastructure and services in order to enable the creation of livable, prosperous, and sustainable urban settlements. Two intents are contained in the overarching goal. Initially, urban slums need to improve residents’ access to infrastructure and services. The second goal is to raise urban residents’ quality of life by preventing and enhancing slum conditions and encouraging community-based and local government involvement [22].

Meanwhile, in 2019 the locations of slum areas were almost entirely managed by the Kotaku Program, although in general it has decreased compared to before. An interesting condition is that in 2020 the coverage of slum areas based on the Kotaku Program has decreased significantly. This condition illustrates that the reduction in slum areas in South Sumatra assisted by Kotaku has been successful. However, an interesting phenomenon in this case is that the city of Palembang, as the capital city of South Sumatra, is the largest contributor to slum areas; this is shown in the data presented in

Table 1. Location area of Kotaku assisted slums (Ha).

City	Location Area of Kotaku Assisted Slums (Ha)
	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020
Ogan Komering Ulu	16.48	16.48	16.48	3.84	0
Ogan Komering Ilir	18.5	18.5	18.5	14.45	0
Muara Enim	0	0	0	0	0
Palembang	1443.56	1443.56	1443.56	1039.18	964.476
Prabumulih	207.1	207.1	207.1	136.52	0

Source: Palembang City Regional Settlement Infrastructure Center (BPPW), 2020 [23].

on the area of the slum assisted by Kotaku below:

According to Table 1, the area of Kotaku’s assisted locations in Palembang City until 2020, namely 964,476 (Ha), has yet to be resolved in accordance with Kotaku’s target achievements to accelerate slum handling and support the “100-0-100 Movement,” that is 100% coverage of universal drinking water, 0% slum settlements, and 100% availability of adequate sanitation.

Meanwhile, Figure 1 below presents the data on the slums of Palembang City, which are the locations of the Kotaku Program and areas outside of Kotaku during the 2016–2020 period.

Figure 1 shows that, in the 2016–2017 period, the management of assisted slums from Kotaku was still the same, while locations outside Kotaku decreased, but in 2018–2019 slums based on the Kotaku Program experienced a significant increase, especially in 2018 with the highest coverage area reaching 4940 ha. Meanwhile, in 2019 slum locations were almost entirely managed by the Kotaku Program, although in general they experienced a decrease compared to before. An interesting condition can be observed in 2020 where the coverage of slums based on the Kotaku Program has decreased significantly but has not been able to complete the target of achieving 0 slums; namely, there are still 964,476 ha of slums left.

With the empirical conditions of the slum areas that have not been resolved and the policy directions set forth in the Kotaku Program, at this time the problem is the ineffectiveness of the government’s role as a facilitator, the Pokja Forum (which has not seen great coordination), and low community involvement. Therefore, the roles and functions of each actor toward environmental sustainability become important in increasing the role of all parties as policy actors in the policy network [24]. This is especially case with the vision of slum improvement by means of financialization to put in place the ideological principles underlying the slums’ improving facilities in a longer and more sustainable global trajectory, which in turn collectively improves slums [25]. Slum improvement is difficult, if not impossible, without significant community support and initiative. Community cooperation is especially vital in resolving issues of tenure, mutual assistance, relocation, remuneration, kind or quality of services, charges, tax or fee collection, and requirement enforcement [26]. Nonetheless, there are sometimes deep-rooted social and economic divisions prohibiting meaningful community participation. Slum dwellers’ lack of knowledge compounds these divisions, which are exacerbated by political turmoil and economic hardship. Politicians frequently prefer to exploit or ignore slum conditions rather than address the social tensions that inhibit communal cooperation [27].

Based on the target work and the scale of achievement of the slum settlement program, which is very large, a network strategy is needed for mutual benefit in a working group forum consisting of elements of the pentahelix model, namely the government, private sector, academics, community (including non-governmental organizations), and the media itself, by considering the existing socio-political conditions [28].

With the involvement of the many actors involved, the policy network as governance is also different in dealing with slum settlements. Therefore, if it is allowed to continue, it will have a negative impact, especially on decreasing the quality of the environment, health, and crime. Furthermore, if it continues to develop, it will be more difficult to handle according to Yopiannor. Palembang, which is the capital city of South Sumatra Province as the largest contributor to slum settlements, is a priority in handling slum settlements. According to recent trends, there has been a decrease in the quantity of slums after the assistance of the Kotaku Program in 2019–2020, but not yet in accordance with the achievement target of 0% slums. This is due to the fact that there are still 964,476 (Ha) that have not been resolved. Some factors include the ineffectiveness of the government as a facilitator, the existence of a unifying forum in the working group structure to involve policy actors and related stakeholders that is still unclear, and the community’s indifference for the sustainability of the slum area environment in urban areas. Therefore, the interactions and roles between policy actors to establish good relations in the policy network are not carried out in accordance with the targets of their work.

The Indonesian government is really concerned toward the handling of slum areas. The policy, called New Public Management, is aimed at providing housing for the low-income communities and promoting the minimizing of slums area. However, the policy could not overcome the housing complexities for the low-income communities. This research suggests that an evaluation of New Public Management policy and housing policy reformation for the low-income society is needed [29].

Based on the background of the problems above, the formulation of the problem in this research is why the policy network in the management of urban slum areas in the Kotaku Program in Palembang has not been able to realize the target of achieving 0% slum areas?

To answer the above questions, the authors divide this study into five parts, namely (1) Introduction which describes the problem; (2) Method; (3) Results; (4) Discussion; (5) Conclusions.

2. Literature Review

In the last thirty years, there has been an increase in the interest of researchers in discussing the phenomenon of network application and network governance based on collaboration, alliances, partnerships, and business, including models of cooperation with interdependence to achieve goals as a new and innovative way of doing business in all sectors, be it government, community, and the private sector [30].

In [31], network action is defined as involving interdependent structures or multiple organizations/institutions or parts thereof, where one unit is not merely a formal subordinate to another in some hierarchical arrangement. In this sense, the network being analyzed is goal-directed and multi-sectoral as the boundary of other stakeholders among actors; that is, they are consciously organized and constrained groupings, as opposed to associative groups.

Network theory builds on the predictive capacity to better inform the design, operation, and management of networks to meet effectiveness and sustainability requirements and to capitalize on the inherent collaborative advantages and synergistic benefits of new organizational forms based on trust, reciprocity, and mutual benefit. Networks require a shift from conventional hierarchical authority to processes and operational arrangements that are more horizontal, equal, and relational in their orientation [32]. Because of this differential orientation, networks are more than “business as usual” and require different design principles, management, and governance arrangements [33].

This network theory makes an important contribution to thinking about network operations descriptively and tends to overemphasize governance and structural considerations at the expense of building a predictive capacity for comprehensive network establishment, operation, and effectiveness as suggested.

Policy networks are described in several categories: first, it is described as an actor, secondly as a linkage between actors, thirdly as an actor’s boundary [34]. In [35], a policy network is defined as an advocacy coalition, which is a group of policy-making actors in the policy subsystem. The coalition actors consist of actors from private and government institutions at all levels of government organizations based on beliefs that depend on achieving goals [36].

Based on what was revealed by Howlett and Ramesh [37], the policy network is also interpreted as an intermediary relationship between actors who have authority (autonomy) in the public, private, and social sectors who work together in achieving the goals of network organizations. Meanwhile, networks are an instrument that combines several actors to work together and interact to achieve common goals [38].

According to Klijn, the theory of policy networks is built from the traditions of political science, organizational science, and public administration, and it explains how actors are interdependent or the interrelationships between actors [39] from networks that have been used in the concept of policy networks are focused on the unification of various policy actors who are different/independent. Pluralist and elite theories are used to explain that for comparison, there are also networks that are based on the notion of network governance where bonds of interpersonal relationships, trust, mutuality, and reciprocity are the definition of collaborative outcomes and therefore move beyond interorganizational settings to more complex networks that are transformational, in which new systems are created. Governance theory was introduced to explain the shift from hierarchical and inter-organizational interactions to a model that has a strong bottom-up aspect and is oriented horizontally [40].

According to Keast, the linkage of actors and quality systems in the formation of policy networks is viewed from the framework of an advocacy coalition so that the formulation of public policies and their implementation still contain the values of the public interest. Changes in policy objectives did not occur, and policy objectives were based on public service values, leaving tyranny, and turning to the public interest. The value of the public interest largely determines political factors, but any changes in policy formulation need not deny the public’s changing interests of political goals and that political goals are based on public service values. The value of public interest is strongly influenced by political factors, but any change in policy formulation is unwise if it deviates from the public interest. Despite these differences, to date many network theory developments have relied on the inter-organizational/institutional relations perspective as a basis for theory development rather than developing a separate theoretical basis for network studies. While theories such as resource dependency theory may offer insight into the formation of inter-organizational arrangements, they are irrelevant to the more transformational network settings underpinned by network governance principles.

Based on this, according to Compston, in the realm of public administration studies, specifically governance, policy networks are seen as a substitute for policies in a series of strategies to deal with various public problems, such as poverty, environmental issues such as slums, climate change, environmental protection, natural resource management, disaster management, and others according to Keast. The science of state administration has experienced a shift in the point of emphasis from the administration of public. The public, which initially meant the state, became the public, meaning society. This approach is no longer focused on the state but focuses more on customer-oriented approaches. Research on policy actors in public policy networks, among others, was conducted [41], which found that policy actors are policy communities consisting of the government and a group of public actors who participate under an initiator or opinion leaders under pressure from the mass media.

Meanwhile, the policy network study in this study focuses on urban slums in the Kotaku Program, where a slum is characterized as inadequate housing with insecure tenure and the absence of one or more urban amenities and infrastructure, such as sewage treatment, sanitation, clean water, electricity, and paved roads [42].

3. Method

This research method uses a qualitative approach in case studies [43]. Accordingly, this study seeks to explore and understand real life cases and context in detail, related to the cases studied in detail by involving the various sources of data information researched and obtaining information as a whole [44]. The qualitative process in this study involves important efforts, such as asking questions and procedures, collecting specific data from participants, analyzing data inductively starting from themes, and interpreting the meaning of the data, whether in the form of conceptual theory, policy regulations, and the role of policy actors, which will later be intended for data needs, data types, data forms, and data collection techniques from existing information. At the same time, we sought to obtain information from informants by exploring experiences related to handling urban slum areas, especially in Palembang, putting the information and data obtained into the format of sentences and phrases. As stated by Maxwell [45], the data obtained from qualitative methods are data in the form of words and sentences and not in the form of a series of numbers and are focused on individual meanings and translating the complexities of policy networks in the Management of Urban Slum Areas in the Kotaku Palembang Program. Through qualitative research, researchers will reveal the problems of Urban Slum Management in the Kotaku Palembang Program and explore them in accordance with the realities in the field [46].

3.1. The Kotaku Program

The Kotaku Program is a government intervention, in this case by the Directorate General of Cipta Karya, Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing, to expedite the handling of urban slum settlements and support the “100-0-100 Movement,” which entails 100% access to safe drinking water, 0% slum settlements, and 100% access to safe sanitation. In its execution, the Kotaku Program employs a cooperation platform for the central government, province governments, cities/districts, communities, and other stakeholders, with the community and city government serving as the primary players (leaders). The Kotaku Program is now being implemented in 34 provinces, 269 cities, and 11,067 villages/urban villages. According to the decree (Surat Keputusan, SK) stipulated by the regional heads of each city, the slum settlements in the targeted locations of the Kotaku Program total around 23,656 hectares in area.

The Kotaku Program carries out quality improvement, management, and prevention of the creation of new slum settlements as an application of accelerated slum handling, including actions in village/urban village entities, as well as regions and cities. Infrastructure improvement and social and economic aid for greater community livelihood sustainability in slum settlement settings are examples of slum management initiatives. The implementation stage of the Kotaku Program is data collection. Community organizations in villages/kelurahans called Community Self-Help Agencies/Institutions (Badan keswadayaan Masyarakat, BKM/Lembaga Kesejahteraan Masyarakat, LKM) have already collected data on the initial conditions (baseline) of seven Slum Indicators in their respective villages/kelurahans. The data are integrated between community planning documents and city planning documents to determine priority activities to reduce slum settlements and prevent the emergence of new slum settlements. BKM is a factor that can accelerate the achievement of livable and sustainable settlements.

Based on the Commission V working meeting with the Ministry of Public Work and Community Housing (KemenPUPR), the Kotaku Program’s contribution to preventing and improving the quality of slum settlements can be observed. The general objective of the Kotaku Program is to increase access to infrastructure and basic services in urban slums to support the realization of livable, productive, and sustainable urban settlements. The principal aim can be used to determine two objectives. Initially, people’s access to infrastructure and service amenities in urban slum communities must be improved. The second goal is to enhance people’s lives in cities by preventing new slum areas from appearing and improving the quality of existing slum settlements, as well as encouraging community and local government engagement.

Meanwhile, funding sources for the Kotaku Program come from the central government, provincial governments, city governments, non-governmental organizations, and other development stakeholders as well as from government development partner institutions (World Bank-WB; Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank-AIIB and Islamic Development Bank-IsDB). Based on the total financing needs, sources from government development partners (loans) are around 45%. In addition, the regional government’s contribution is provided from the Regional Revenue and Expenditure Budget and non-governmental organizations, which create a single funding unit to fulfill the intended aim of increasing the quality of slum management.

The program’s overarching goal is to improve access to infrastructure and basic services in urban slum settlements while preventing the formation of new slum settlements in order to assist the achievement of livable, productive, and sustainable urban settlements. The following activities were carried out in order to achieve the aforementioned goals:

• Building/rehabilitating settlement infrastructure on a regional scale while also bearing in mind the environmental aspects.
• Increasing the community’s and local government’s capabilities.
• Developing infrastructure to support community livelihoods.

In accordance with PUPR Regulation No. 14 of 2018 concerning the prevention and improvement of the quality of slum housing and slums, which consists of 7 aspects and 16 criteria for slums, the activities, objectives, locations, and budget allocations for the Kotaku Program in 2021 can be seen in the

Table 2. Kotaku Program activities for the 2021 fiscal year.

No.	Activity	Objective	Locus	Allocation
1.	Regular Community-Based Infrastructure	1. Reducing the area of slum settlements and increasing access to infrastructure Realizing collaboration in handling slum areas between various stakeholders	365 villages in 145 districts/cities	IDR 1 M every village;
2.	Cash Labor Intensive /Cash for Work (CFW)	2. Providing cash assistance in the form of labor wages to people affected by COVID-19 who have experienced termination of employment (PHK) and people who have experienced a decrease/loss of income	1.632 village in 209 districts/city in 33 provinces	IDR 300 M every village
3.	Improvement of Sustainable Livelihoods	Encouraging sustainable livelihoods in slum areas. 3. Increasing access to basic settlement infrastructure and settlement infrastructure to support community livelihood activities	59 villages in 47 districts/cities in 14 Provinces	IDR. 500 M, IDR 700, or IDR 1 M;
4.	KOTAKU Grant DFAT	4. Improving the quality of settlements As a pilot for improving the quality of housing that is innovative, friendly toward people with disabilities, and environmentally friendly	43 villages in 15 district/village in 11 provinces	IDR 1 M or 1.5 M, or 2 M per village;

Source: Kotaku Website https://kotaku.pu.go.id Fiscal Year 2021 [47].

below.

3.2. Research Design and Strategy

This research explores variables that influence the Kotaku Program completion. Interpretivism philosophy and inductive strategy are adopted in this research: in-depth interviews were conducted to gather data from various actors involved in the Kotaku Program via thematic analysis. A total of 20 actors were interviewed to collect data for this study. The authors choose an inductive strategy for this research. The Kotaku Program in Indonesia is relatively under-researched. The selection of research design is thus adopted by a suggestion from Saunders [48], who stated that if the research is relatively undeveloped, the inductive approach is acceptable.

This research is exploratory; therefore, we seek to gain perspective and see inside viewpoints that describes the typology pattern from a small sample, rather than from a bigger sample. The strategy is concerned with the “how” and “why” [49]. Saunders stated that when the qualitative study approach is selected and the research objectives are exploratory, the case study is adequate. We also gain data from secondary resources such as government websites.

To analyze the qualitative data collected and find themes or theory, the case study strategy was announced as the most qualified instrument. This technique also promotes one replicate on the intricacy’s characteristic in single scenery [50], which are the Kotaku Program in our study. After the interview was implemented, we created some codes and iterate them into themes regarding the objective of this study.

3.3. Data Collection

The main data foundation is interviews with various actors involved in the Kotaku Program, such as academicians, business, community, government, and media. Data collection was conducted through face-to-face interview and online due to the pandemic, in line with previous social research during the pandemic (zoom meeting or Gmeet application) [51]. There were 31 interviewees. We chose various actors involved in the Kotaku Program located in Palembang. We purposively chose those actors and contacted them to ask their permission to become respondents of this research. We also stated the objective of the study before we received the respondents’ permission. They then agreed to become the research respondents (

Table 3. List of respondents.

No.	Interviewee	Position	Role in the Program	Type of Institution
1,2	A1, A2	Lecturer	Urban Planning Expert	Academician
3,4	B1, B2	Community CSR Forum	Assisting the budget and procurement of construction materials as well as implementers of government programs related to CSR	Business
5	C1	Leader of the Environmental Care Community	Mobilize the community to participate in implementing the Kotaku Program	Community
6	C2	Leader of the River Care Community	Mobilize the community to participate in implementing the Kotaku Program	Community
7	C3	Head of Community Non-Governmental Organizations	Mobilize the community to participate in implementing the Kotaku Program	Community
8,9	C4, C5	Oversight Consultant 4	Area mapping expert and slum criteria	Community
10,11,12	C6, C7, C8	Society	Feel the benefits of government services in implementing the Kotaku Program	Community
13	G1	Indonesian House of Representatives Commission V	Good understanding of urban slum settlements as well as breaking into slums in the city of Palembang	Government
14	G2	Mayor of Palembang	Stipulates a decree on the location of slum settlements	Government
15	G3	Head of Palembang Research and Development Agency	Compiler planning for the formulation of regional regulation policies regarding the designation of slum settlement areas	Government
16	G4	Head of Public Works and Spatial Planning Office of Palembang City	Implementing work programs and activities in related fields, constructing drainage, cleaning drainage, controlling the construction of canals, and outreach related to sanitation and channel normalization	Government
17	G5	Head of Public Housing, Settlement Areas and Land Affairs Office of Palembang City	Implementing work programs and activities in the field	Government
18	G6	Head of South Sumatra Regional Center (BPPW).	Coordinator and implementer of Kotaku work programs and activities in the field	Government
19	G7	Chief Coordinator of Kotaku Palembang	Coordinator and im-plementer of Kotaku work programs and activities in the field	Government
20,21	G8, G9	Head of Sub-Directorate of housing, settlements and Land Palembang City Housing and Sanitation Bappelitbang Palembang City	Have a good understanding of policy formulation planning	Government
22,23	G10, G11	Team for Outreach in the Field of Water Resources, Irrigation and Waste PUPR Palembang City	Supervise construction on waterways related to settlements based on mayoral regulation no. 55 of 2014 concerning arrangement of buildings on riverbanks	Government
24,25	G12, G13	Bhabinkamtibmas	Accompany the program of environmental management activities and regulate environmental safety	Government
26,27	G14, G15	Bhabinsa	Accompany the program of environmental management activities and regulate environmental safety	Government
28	G16	Head of a Sub-district	Distribute information on the implementation of the Kotaku Program from the central government	Government
29	G17	Head of an Urban Village	Mobilize the community to participate in implementing the Kotaku Program	Government
30,31	M1, M2	Media	Disseminate information regarding the Implementation of the Kotaku Program	Media

).

3.4. Data Analysis

In this research, after the interviews were conducted, we transformed the interview into transcripts and translated them into English. We double-checked and showed the transcript to the respondents to confirm the transcript did not have confidential data toward their organization. The data were then explored to understand the policy network in the Kotaku Program. The information collected was grouped and examined by defining the challenges faced during the implementation of the Kotaku Program. The results were then contrasted with the research questions and the concepts of policy network in the literature to comprise the right recommendation on the Kotaku Program. The quality of the study will be discussed in this part. The quality of a case study can be measured by validity and reliability constructs. We stated that indicating some of the sources, producing a chain of evidence, and doing the research checked by the informants were all considered strategies in the case study to enhance its construct validity. To enhance the construct validity of the research, then, both of those strategies were adopted. Measures for the model or topic can be linked from some perspectives by asking numerous actors involved in the Kotaku Program, thereby increasing the constructs’ validity. According to Yin, the research’s reliability is measured rationally. In the interview, all examiners were present, and data were also transferred to every examiner in a similar method. A dialogue was also directed after each discussion to make sure the information was understood consistently and correctly. The activities of the interviews were saved and transcribed, which facilitated an increase in the research reliability. All participants were asked to sign a consent form. All ethical procedures lead to a desirable situation for all parties.

4. Results

We emphasized some critical findings based on the in-depth interviews that developed based on the findings of this study. The perspective was adopted to create understanding about the challenges of achieving the target of the Kotaku Program in Palembang City. The findings were adopted as a framework for proposing factors that promote the Kotaku Program to reach its target. A summary of the results is given in the Figure 2 below.

4.1. Challenges

4.1.1. Lack of Collaboration between Parties

Collaboration is a vital resource of actors, and cooperation between the institutions in question in reaching agreements on preferences or common interests can be attributed to dependency. Dependency means that each actor depends on other actors. For this reason, it is necessary to analyze the actors or parties involved in the formulation and implementation of policies. The first step is to determine who is the most important actor in the group, the problem of perception, and their position in viewing the problem situation. Actors want to achieve goals but depend on other actors for the means to achieve their goals. This is supported by the interviews:

“Actors or human resources in this case are the government, society, academics, media, and the private sector. The parties involved at the Central Government level are the Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing through the Directorate General of Cipta Karya. However, sometimes the implementation of the Kotaku Program often overlaps with other poverty alleviation programs because the lack of integration of information on slum area data support (quantity, quality, depth, and management) is still very weak, resulting in low quality planning documents.”

C4

“Integration between institutions actually already exists with the formation of PKP Working Groups, Sanitation Working Groups, and others, but they still don’t collaborate well.”

G7

“There is a need to increase the role of the utilization and maintenance group (KPP) in maintaining and caring for the infrastructure that was worked on in the previous year. So that the slum area that has been reduced does not become a slum again so that the goal of managing the area in 2022 at the end of the year can be realized, namely the Kotaku Program with 100-0-100.”

A1

Based on interviews, the absence of integration between parties is the cause of the lack of collaboration between actors; therefore, it is very necessary to have a collaboration of actors in a policy network in the pentahelix model (government, private sector, community, academic, and media). Apart from that, community participation in the form of a program to increase community concern for the environment is very much needed so that a slum free city of Palembang can be formed.

Looking at the existing reality, it would be preferable if we viewed the complex slum upgrading problem through the various points of view provided through the pentahelix model. As emphasized through the knowledge creation model, if the highest level is emphasizing the existence and evolution of various modes of knowledge and innovation to encourage interdisciplinary collaborative thinking and transdisciplinary application, collaborative governance is an appropriate instrument for advocating public issues. Even though various experts have different perspectives in viewing a problem, they still believe that implementation in the form of cooperation and community participation in the form of concern for the environment is the correct approach [52].

4.1.2. Unclear Roles of Policy Actors in Housing and Settlements

The policy network consists of many actors, many institutions, and no single actor has the controlling capacity to determine the strategy of other actors. All actors have their own roles, functions, and goals, as well as their own respective interests. There is no single objective that can be used as a measure of policy effectiveness. Policy is the result of interaction among many actors. This does not mean that all actors have the same power in the interaction process. The power of actors depends on the resources owned by these actors and these resources are very important in the policy process. The strategic analysis can be performed through four stages of analysis [53], namely: (a) Identify areas where actors or institutions meet and carry out the strategies that have been set; (b) Analyze the interaction process carried out; (c) Assess the interaction processes that occur, and (d) Identify and assess network management strategies. This is supported by the interviews:

“The failure of the program was carried out because members of the PKP Working Group did not understand the purpose of establishing the PKP Working Group as the initiator, coordinator, and catalyst so that the implementation of PKP policies was not carried out in an institutionalized, monitored, controlled, and guaranteed manner.”

G6

“Media’s task is not only to convey news that is actually correct and valid, we also strive so that media coverage can educate the public at large.”

M1

“Involving the active role of the community is carried out through revitalizing the role of MFIs from a poverty alleviation orientation to a slum settlement orientation orientation.”

C1

Networks are communication channels that can perform various functions, alone or simultaneously. These functions depend on the needs, intentions, resources, and strategies of the actors involved. Network structures do not have a purpose of their own. The actors, however, perform and, depending on this, the network acquires various functions. Thus, the concept of function forms a bridge between the “structural” perspective and the actors in the network.

4.1.3. The Difficulty of Building Belief between Actors to Work Together

Belief or trust is the desire of a party or institution to work together with other parties in the hope of being able to carry out a pattern of joint action relationships. Based on the research tradition of policy networks, network analysis seeks to analyze patterns of relationships between actors, dependencies between actors, and the resulting interactions that create patterns of relationships between actors. This pattern shows a certain density and has a strong character. Game rules appear to give meaning to interactions between actors and maintain interaction patterns, but the distribution of resources between actors is created and changed. In the case of actor interactions, mapping is generally carried out, where beliefs, decisions, and issues are mapped. This is supported by the interviews:

“As a non-governmental organization, it helps bridge the growth of cooperation and trust between community groups to participate in every government program.”

C3

“In order to build trust between parties, in the discussion forum all stakeholders convey their understanding regarding the issues that exist in the effort to manage slum settlements, what problems are our priority...”

G7

“As a non-governmental organization, it helps bridge the growth of cooperation and trust between community groups to participate in every activity”

C2

“We feel close to the community and the Lurah (head of urban village) in the Kelurahan, they build our trust to participate in the environmental maintenance part of the brand.”

B1

Based on the interview above, all parties have hopes of building trust in each program, because their goals are the same. However, sometimes parties or institutions argue that trusting the behavior of other actors in the network is very important for the success of the network. Keep in mind, however, that trust is often a difficult thing to build at the deployment level. Thus, trust is efficiency and adjustment, where survival of an organizational institution is highly dependent on the level of mutual trust [54].

4.2. Catalysts

4.2.1. Caring between Parties

Community concern and awareness toward slums as human nature in the context of managing slums, the importance of building the awareness of all parties involved that intervening in handling slums, are shared responsibilities. This is supported by the interviews:

“The community’s concern for the area is formed because there is a Lurah (head of urban village) and the Head of the LKM as the driving force to manage the slum environment into a tourist area,”

M1

“The most important thing is that the people there really care and participate in helping us, but unlike other areas it is very difficult for our team to lobby, to make people aware of the importance of protecting the environment.”

G7

“Especially in the Talang Powder Village, not only the Kotaku Program was involved in development, but the Kelurahan was also given assistance by PT. Pertamina to build educational tours, colorful villages, and the establishment of a waste recycling factory, we feel close to the community and the Lurah (head of urban village) in the Kelurahan, they have built our trust to participate in their part of protecting the environment.”

B2

From the discussion above, the form of community concern is the main driver in building trust, because when the community cares, even a slum area can become an educational area. There is even a company in Palembang City that is ready to help provide funding assistance to participate in building innovation ideas in the area. Without substantial community support and initiative, slum upgrading is difficult, if not impossible. Community cooperation is particularly important to resolve problems, through mutual help, relocation, compensation, type or quality of services, charges, tax or fee collection, and enforcement of requirements.

A concern in caring for the environment will form an interpersonal relationship of trust between the government and the community, and vice versa [55]. Furthermore, caring can be identified with five perspectives, namely caring as human nature, caring as a moral obligation or ideal, caring as an influence, caring as an interpersonal relationship, and caring as a relationship therapy intervention according to Morse. (Sumber).

4.2.2. Integrity among Parties

In the case of interaction between actors, mapping is generally carried out. To determine how trust is built, decisions and issues of problems in slum areas are mapped, so that, in the end, a collaboration will be formed to build integrity between the parties involved. This is supported by the interviews:

“The current condition of each stakeholder is still not united, whereas to build together collaboration is needed between all stakeholders by prioritizing common interests, so there must be integrity.”

A1

“In terms of security and enforcement, we also have tasks that must be carried out, therefore, so that this program can run smoothly.”

G12

“Collaboration in the interaction is carried out by mapping, how trust is built, decisions and issues of problems in slum areas are mapped, so that in the end a joint collaboration will be formed so that integrity is built between the parties involved.”

A2

Furthermore, the integrity of the policy network is the integration between stakeholders in the pentahelix model to build a partnership.

4.3. The Kotaku Program

The community is the main element in the successful management of urban slum areas in the Kotaku Program in Palembang City, because without community involvement the management of urban slum areas in the Kotaku Program could not be achieved. Society is no longer the object of development but has become the subject of development. Accordingly, community participation can be in the form of a contribution of thoughts, energy, or funds.

“Even though the name of this program is Kotaku, the aim of this program is to eradicate all slum settlements, both in urban and rural areas, down to 0 Ha in order to support the realization of decent, productive, and sustainable settlements.”

G14

“During this year to meet good regional conditions and targets are being achieved and achievements are being realized on large indicators with very good scores. The increase in slum areas fulfills the conditions with an increase in development and increases every year due to assistance from central funds.”

G8

“The Chief Coordinator of Kotaku, also conveyed the same thing: “Based on the existing priority scale, the mapping of the slum area criteria is done as well as possible and as optimal as possible so that it can be carried out as soon as possible and help, we as consultants are trying to complete the sketches and mapping and it is hoped that with this mapping These areas will no longer be areas with slum criteria as a result of the ongoing Kotaku program.”

G9

The arrangement of slum settlements is a “political choice” for the local government and is the result of a formulation that has the domain of political bureaucracy. The public choice perspective is usually carried out with a pluralist approach pattern based on basic assumptions about the desires and basic needs of an organized political community: “The public choice perspective has a kinship with the pluralist approach in its basic assumption about political society being composed of organized interests” [56], so that it requires sharpening in terms of elections that are useful for society. An approach that pays attention to this aspect is important because policy formulation and implementation are conceptually inseparable elements.

5. Discussion

Forms of community participation include attending deliberations. Community involvement in development planning meetings (Musrembang) related to planning for overcoming slum settlements is still very minimal, so that most people do not know in detail about the implementation of urban slum area management in the Kotaku Program and the activities that will be carried out and implemented in their territory. Community participation in providing energy for the implementation of activities also decreases over time because the community has other priorities and activities. There are also those who think that it is the duty of the Self-help Community Group (Kelompok Swadaya Masyarakat, KSM), even though if the implementation of activities is carried out jointly, then the activities will run more effectively and efficiently.

The effectiveness of the policy network toward zero slums from the collaboration of institutions (collaborative institutions) [56] and the function of the institutions themselves (functional areas), and trust (belief) has still been lacking. To answer research questions concerning why policy networks in regional management of urban slum settlements in the Kotaku Program in Palembang have not been able to realize the targets and how to realize the policy network concept in the management of urban slum areas in completing the Kotaku 100-0-100 targets, we have identified several problems and potentials:

A. 

Collaborative institutions, the implementation of the Kotaku Program in Palembang often overlaps with other programs due to the lack of integration of information on slum area data support (quantity, quality, depth, and management) which is still very weak, resulting in low quality of planning documents. This can be attributed to a lack of collaboration institutions between parties that provide resources, roles, and functions that are not jointly integrated; as a result, the intensity of actor relations is still dominated by one of the actors, which will create a policy network that is alike to a bureaucratic network.

B. 

Function areas, the ineffectiveness of the government as a facilitator in the Housing and Settlement Area Working Group (Kelompok Kerja PKP, Pokja PKP) whose existence is still unclear and the community’s indifference to the environmental sustainability of slum settlement areas in urban areas, so that the interaction and roles between policy actors to establish good relations in the policy network have not been implemented in accordance with the achievements of the work. Because the stages carried out are not immediately carried out, the joint engagement in solving slum problems in the area is still low.

C. 

Belief, seen from shared recognition and indicators of openness toward achievement, a good attitude has been shown by relevant stakeholders. Shared understanding increases the capacity and the institution’s capability, namely by developing the role of resource actors in the pentahelix model for handling slums in Palembang City that are able to collaborate and work together.

D. 

Caring (concern and awareness), the form of community concern is the main driver in building trust, because when the community cares, even slum areas can become educational areas; there is even a company in Palembang City that is ready to help.

E. 

Integrity, in the Kotaku Program, 964,476 (Ha) have not been completed due to the government’s ineffectiveness as a facilitator in the Housing and Settlement Area Working Group (Kelompok Kerja PKP, Pokja PKP) ) whose existence is still unclear. The community’s indifference to the sustainability of the slum area environment in urban areas has hindered the interaction and roles between policy actors to establish good relations in the policy network. As a result, the aims of the Kotaku Program have not been carried out in accordance with the achievements of the work because the steps taken have not been implemented immediately. Therefore, joint engagement in solving the slum problem in the area is still low. The shared integrity, which is the responsibility of all, has become something that has not been a priority in the sense that the stakeholders are still not united and institutionally integrated. In order to build together, collaboration is needed between all stakeholders by prioritizing common interests, which is why integrity is vital. This means that slum settlements cannot be overcome by mere physical development; rather, the behavior and culture of the people in the slum area must be changed. The community must protect the environment, so that a comfortable, orderly, and beautiful environment will be created. Public awareness of waste is still lacking because people still throw out garbage carelessly, which further worsens the environment. On the other hand, the problem of waste is difficult to overcome due to the not yet optimal Temporary Disposal Sites (TPS) and the habits of the people who often dispose of waste indiscriminately.

6. Conclusions

The lack of integration between relevant existing institutions is related to the absence of a clear legal umbrella regarding the distribution of authority on a regional scale in handling slum areas. In this case, a mayor’s regulation on the distribution of authority for handling slums on a regional scale is needed. The implementation of an upgrading program of slum areas will be better integrated and managed under the existence of a legal umbrella as s legal reference for all development stakeholders.

This research also highlights that the actors’ network has not yet been fully integrated; consequently, the work mechanisms and related stakeholder engagement cannot be realized. Bearing in mind that, without a proper network model, it will be difficult to achieve the slum upgrading target and hard to improve the people’s welfare. The complexity and dynamics characteristics of the slum upgrading program requires a good collaboration of actors in a policy network. This research found that the pentahelix model (government, private sector, community, academic, and media) would be an appropriate model for the slum upgrading program. Apart from that, strong community engagement and concern to be actively involved in the program is needed, so that the city of Palembang could achieve its target as a free city from slum settlements.

In terms of policy network perspective, the results show that the challenges faced by the Kotaku Program are related to limited collaboration between parties; the clarity of roles of the policy actors; the lack of trust between actors to work together; the low intention to share concerns among parties; and the low integrity among parties. Consequently, the policy network perspective suggests that there should be well-defined roles and continuous support from the various actors to become involved in the Kotaku Program. The policy makers need to reach other development stakeholders to accomplish the target of reducing the slum areas. This research is critical for the local government to develop a more cohesive understanding on the Kotaku Program and its dynamic complexities. As well, the establishment of local regulation and a policy framework is needed to ensure that all relevant actors would share the same understanding and create better alignment of activities. Since the Kotaku Program is so vitally important in Indonesia, this study could answer the question of how to implement the Kotaku Program effectively and efficiently. However, this research still has limitations because it is only focused on Palembang City instead of all respective cities in Indonesia as part of the Kotaku Program in 2020. Therefore, further research could assess why and how other cities could be implemented the Kotaku Program.