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Article

Role of Chironomus plumosus (Diptera, Chironomidae) Population in the Central Zone of the Shallow Lake Trasimeno (Italy)

by
Matteo Pallottini
1,
Sarah Pagliarini
1,
Marianna Catasti
1,
Gianandrea La Porta
1,
Roberta Selvaggi
1,
Elda Gaino
1,
Leonardo Spacone
2,
Alessandro Maria Di Giulio
3,
Arshad Ali
4 and
Enzo Goretti
1,*
1
Dipartimento di Chimica, Biologia e Biotecnologie, Università degli Studi di Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy
2
Laika Lab srl, Via Indipendenza 116/B, Castiglione del Lago, 06061 Perugia, Italy
3
Servizio Disinfestazione, USLUmbria1, 06127 Perugia, Italy
4
MREC-Apopka and Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(6), 5540; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065540
Submission received: 1 March 2023 / Revised: 17 March 2023 / Accepted: 20 March 2023 / Published: 21 March 2023
Browse Figures
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Abstract

:
Adult swarms of non-biting pestiferous midges (Chironomidae: Diptera), primarily Chironomus plumosus, prevail over and around Lake Trasimeno (Italy) during the summer season. The current field survey (2018–2021, 33 sampling occasions) was carried out in the central area of the lake. It revealed a macrobenthic community consisting of Chironomidae (40.72%) and Oligochaeta (59.23%). Chironomus plumosus was the dominant chironomid species (98.84%). A previous survey (2000–2002, 11 sampling occasions) had highlighted a similar community, although C. plumosus had a lower density, comprising a maximum of 295.0 ind. m−2. This density was five times lower than the maximum densities of 2018–2021. A survey (2018–2021, 58 sampling occasions) conducted in the littoral zone revealed much greater chironomid biodiversity, with C. plumosus abundance of only 24.35% among all chironomids. This species showed an average density (88.1 ind. m−2) five times lower than its density (467.9 ind. m−2) in the central zone (2018–2021). Therefore, the central area of the lake, constituting about 90% of its total surface area, is the main region for the origin of C. plumosus adults and, consequently, during the summer months, it is the primary source of the annoying swarms that affect residents and tourists of the lake vicinity.

1. Introduction

Chironomids are a highly diverse group, both taxonomically and ecologically, often dominating freshwater ecosystems in terms of abundance, biomass, and species richness [1,2,3,4]. They constitute the freshwater insect family with the highest number of species, both in lentic and lotic habitats [5].
Chironomids play a primary role in the ecosystem trophic chain: their aquatic pre-imaginal phase serves as food for fishes and invertebrates, and their subaerial adult phase as food for amphibians, reptiles, bats, and birds [4,6,7].
Chironomid larvae can be of commercial interest; they are indeed an important component of food used in aquaculture for fishes and crustaceans [5].
On the other hand, many chironomid species have been listed as pestiferous [5], creating concerns mainly as nuisances and economic pests for tourism. Some chironomid species are attracted by the lights (i.e., positive phototaxis) placed along the coasts in recreational and tourist zones, causing inconvenience to residents and tourists [8].
Among chironomids, Chironomus plumosus (Linnaeus, 1758) is the most ubiquitous species in lentic freshwater environments and is perceived as annoying in Europe (e.g., Cyprus, England, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland), Asia (e.g., Israel, Japan, Singapore), Africa (e.g., Ghana and Sudan), and America (e.g., USA: California, Florida, Georgia, Ohio; Brazil) [5,8,9].
At Lake Trasimeno, the largest surface water body of the Italian peninsula, located in central Italy, dense swarms of non-biting midges (Insecta-Chironomidae) have prevailed during the summer months for years with variable intensities over time [9,10]. The most annoying chironomid species that constitute the swarms attracted by the white artificial lights are essentially represented by Chironomus plumosus (Linnaeus, 1758) (67%), Tanypus punctipennis Meigen, 1818 (22%), and Procladius sp., probably Procladius choreus (Meigen, 1804) (9%) [9,11]. In particular, C. plumosus, due to its remarkable size (about 1 cm) and its great ability to form large and dense swarms, is the chironomid species that is the main source of disturbance [12,13]. The shallow waters of Lake Trasimeno, the presence of areas rich in organic material (larval food source), and the lack of effective predation in the ecosystem present an ideal environment for the proliferation of this species [14,15,16,17]. The speed with which polyvoltine cycles follow one another (at least 4 in recent years, [9]) is influenced by water temperature and food availability [18].
The intense summer swarms of this species have put at risk the strong tourist vocation of Lake Trasimeno, which contributes significantly to the tourist attendance of the entire Umbria Region (in 2021, it reached 15.7%, [19]).
To safeguard tourist activity, since 2004, it has been necessary to activate integrated control projects against chironomids. These still-ongoing projects aim to avoid negative impact on the lake biocenosis; in fact, Lake Trasimeno is an environment of high naturalistic and landscape value where it is necessary to prevent the use of chemical insecticides (during the past years, until 2012, synthetic pyrethroids were used to control chironomid swarms) that are potentially responsible for environmental contamination. This important wetland is indeed protected worldwide (included in the international network “Living Lakes” from the Global Nature Fund) at the European (Birds Directive 2009/147/EC as a Special Protection Area, SPA IT5210070; Habitat Directive 92/43/EEC as a Special Area of Conservation, SAC IT5210018) and regional levels (Umbria Regional Law no 9, 3/3/1995, Lago Trasimeno Regional Park, 13,200 ha).
The operational adult chironomid containment plan was initially based on their light attraction behaviour to attract and divert them to areas far from inhabited centres by using “Tofo-Lamps” along the coasts of the lake [12,20] and Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) for the control of larval populations [10]. Bti is an entomopathogenic bacterium that produces an endotoxin affecting young chironomid larvae. It is an alternative means of control with lower toxicological impact and is more eco-compatible compared to normal synthetic insecticides [3,4,8].
To better understand the chironomid-related issues at Lago Trasimeno, the financial support provided by the Brunello and Federica Cucinelli Foundation, Italy, has been fundamentally important. More precisely, the research project entitled “Chironomid populations control at Lake Trasimeno: evaluation and development of biological control methods and new systems for mechanical-light attraction and capture” (2017–2021) has been funded. This project has obtained significant results, partially published already, specifically regarding the analysis of chironomid littoral populations (18 taxa) and the C. plumosus life cycle in relation to the environmental temperature [9] and the use of chironomid as biological indicators of freshwater environmental contamination through the use of mentum deformity incidence in C. plumosus as an endpoint [21]. In the present paper, we deal with the analysis of the chironomid in central lake populations.
In order to understand the quantitative extent of the problems created by the summer swarms at Lake Trasimeno, during the above-mentioned project, with a collecting device that consisted of two chambers equipped with a light attraction and aspiration systems, mounted on a raft (“ChiroBoat”, dimensions 3 × 2 m), developed by the Italian Company Laika Lab s.r.l., about 230,000 adult chironomids (about 780 g dry weight) were captured on a single day (29 August 2018, unpublished data).
This work aimed to characterise the chironomid populations of the central area of Lake Trasimeno to compare them with a previous survey dated about 20 years earlier and with the littoral area populations. A particularly in-depth understanding is developed for the most annoying species, C. plumosus, giving a more integrated idea of the current situation and possible ways to fight against the nuisance created by this species to waterfront residents and the tourism industry.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Lake Trasimeno is a shallow lake of tectonic origin located within the Tiber River basin in the north-western portion of Umbria, central Italy, at 257.33 m above sea level (a.s.l.) (Figure 1). It is the most extended lake in the Italian Peninsula and the fourth largest in the country (124 km2 surface area, 52 km perimeter, 269 km2 catchment area). Its average and maximum depths at zero hydrological levels are 4.7 and 6.3 m, respectively [22]. Lake Trasimeno is a closed-basin mesotrophic lake characterised by a flat and silty-sandy bottom. It is set in a Mediterranean climate [22,23,24]. For a more comprehensive description of the study area, see Pallottini et al. 2023 [9].

2.2. Sampling Campaign

Field sampling was conducted during 2018–2021 in the central zone of Lake Trasimeno. For an accurate representation of the benthic habitat of the central zone, three sampling sites (site 1: geo-coordinates 43°09′23.2″ N 12°08′02.7″ E; site 2: 43°09′06.5″ N 12°05′02.7″ E; and site 3: 43°08′13.9″ N 12°07′04.8″ E), each consisting of an area of about 1.5 km2, were sampled (Figure 1). The sites were in the same bathymetric zone (depth > 4 m), and the distances among the centres of the sampled areas ranged between 2.5 and 4.5 km (distance between sites 1–2: 4.5 km, sites 1–3: 2.5 km, sites 2–3: 3.5 km). During each survey, five quantitative sub-samples of the top 10 centimetres of the bottom sediments were collected at each of the three sites with a compressed air dredge (Figure 2) (400 cm2 sampling surface, 21 mesh per cm nylon net) with a collecting time of 1 min each (a total of 15 sub-samples for each sampling occasion). At least one monthly survey was conducted at each of the three sites between May 2018 and April 2021 (except June 2018, March–June 2020 due to COVID-19 restrictions, and February 2021) for a total of 33 sampling occasions (495 sub-samples). The sampling design of the present study was based on a previous investigation carried out from 2000 to 2002, consisting of 11 sampling occasions (165 sub-samples) on a seasonal basis [25]. Each sub-sample was washed and sieved in the laboratory; benthic macroinvertebrates were separated, sorted, and preserved in 70% ethanol for later examination. All the macroinvertebrate specimens were identified at least to the family level using appropriate taxonomic keys [26]. Insects of the Chironomidae family were identified to the genus level, except for Chironomus plumosus, which was identified to the species level. Chironomid identification was made by observing peculiar features of their head capsules [18,27,28,29,30]. For each chironomid specimen, total body length and cephalic capsule length and width were measured to determine the larval development stage (instar).

2.3. Data Analysis

The database has been managed with descriptive analysis of the individual dataset variables. Kruskal-Wallis’s test was used to test significative differences among C. plumosus population abundances in the three sites of the central area of Lake Trasimeno. Statistical analyses were carried out by means of R Statistical Framework [31].

3. Results and Discussion

The macroinvertebrate survey in the central area of Lake Trasimeno carried out on 33 sampling occasions between May 2018 and April 2021, revealed a macrobenthic community consisting of 10,026 Chironomidae larvae (forming 40.72% of the whole community), 14,585 Oligochaeta (Naididae, forming 59.23% of the whole community), and 12 specimens of other invertebrates (0.05%; i.e., the molluscs Dreissena polymorpha (9) and Anodonta sp. (1), and 2 Ceratopogonidae (Diptera) larvae) (Table S1).
Among the identified chironomid taxa, Chironomus plumosus was the predominant species, with 98.84% abundance. A limited presence of other chironomid taxa was observed; in particular, four other chironomid taxa were found: Cryptochironomus sp. (0.27%), Polypedilum sp. (0.01%), Stictochironomus sp. (0.01%), and Tanypus sp. (0.87%).
In all the samples, we found the almost exclusive presence of C. plumosus among the Chironomidae (Figure 3 and Table 1). Kruskal-Wallis’s test for equal medians showed no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the C. plumosus abundances among the three sites; therefore, they were subsequently processed comprehensively as the central area of Lake Trasimeno.
Chironomus plumosus showed maximum average densities in July 2018 and 2019 with 660.0 and 996.7 individuals m−2, respectively. The larval population dynamics changed drastically in 2020 (although the sampling activity was suspended from March to June due to the restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic), showing a progressive increase from September onwards, peaking in November with average values of 1310.0 ind. m−2. This trend also continued in the first months of 2021, with the absolute maximum of the whole sampling period reached in April, 1556.7 ind. m−2.
Average minimum annual density values were observed in November 2018 with 110.0 ind. m−2 and April 2019 with 63.3 ind. m−2; in 2020, the lowest density value was reached in July with 91.7 ind. m−2.
These differentiated trends over the years make it difficult to express an overall average value representing the annual density of C. plumosus at Lake Trasimeno. In this regard, we can better illustrate this value in relation to the various years, particularly in 2018 (May–December), 293.3 (±203.7) ind. m−2; in 2019 (January–December), 327.8 (±317.5) ind. m−2; in 2020 (January–February; July–December), 546.7 (±448.4) ind. m−2; in 2021 (January–April), 1312.8 (±223.9) ind. m−2.
This phenomenon is recurrent; the abundance of C. plumosus varies greatly over time in the different lake environments it colonises [2,14,32]. A particularly high variability of C. plumosus density was detected in Lake Suwa in Central Japan (maximum depth of 6.8 m and a mean depth of 4 m) during the years from 1982 to 1995, in which its density increased from monthly values of about 100 to 40,000 ind. m−2 [33].
Biometries of the C. plumosus population, consisting of 9264 identified larvae, showed the almost exclusive presence of mature larvae (instar IV, 99.26%). Only 0.73% were instar III larvae (68 individuals, concentrated in August and September 2020, with 23 and 16 specimens, respectively), and 0.01% were instar II larvae (Figure 4a).
The 2018–2021 Lake Trasimeno survey results can be compared with a survey carried out about 20 years ago (2000–2002) by our research group, employing the same sampling methods and at the same sites (unpublished data). The survey consisted of 11 sampling occasions with a seasonal periodicity (Table 2 and Table S2). This 2000–2002 investigation highlighted a macrobenthic community composed of Chironomidae larvae and Oligochaeta (Naididae) with similar proportions compared to 2018–2021 (Chironomidae: 43.61 vs. 40.72%; Naididae: 56.39 vs. 59.23%).
On the other hand, the share of C. plumosus among the Chironomidae community differed substantially; in 2000–2002, it was 17 percentage points lower than the current values (81.94 vs. 98.84%). Twenty years ago, chironomid biodiversity was much higher, and other chironomid taxa, aside from C. plumosus (18.06 vs. 1.16%), were well represented, specifically Tanypus sp. with 8.74%, Procladius sp. with 5.08%, Cryptochironomus sp. with 2.48%, Microchironomus sp. with 1.65%, and Dicrotendipes sp. with 0.12%. It is noted that, in May 2000 and April 2001, all three sites had a predominance among the chironomids of other taxa than C. plumosus, particularly of Tanypus sp. with 75.71% and of Procladius sp. with 68.18%, respectively.
In addition, the 2000–2002 survey showed that C. plumosus had much lower average densities (105.2 ± 104.0 ind. m−2), reaching a maximum density of 295.0 ind. m−2 in August 2001, while the maximum values in 2018 and 2019 were doubled and tripled, respectively, and those of 2020 and 2021 increased by four and five times, respectively.
The current situation of the greater predominance of C. plumosus is not related to changes in the hydrological level of the lake between the two periods analysed, which are quite similar (average difference of 0.21 m); an average hydrometric level of −0.92 m in 2000–2002 vs. −0.71 m in 2018–2021, below the threshold of 257.33 m a.s.l. (Table S3, [34]). However, there was an average monthly increase in air temperature of 0.39 °C in the period 2018–2021 (mean 15.78 °C) compared to the period 2000–2002 (mean 15.39 °C) (Table S4, [34]). This temperature increase, along with a simplification in the macrobenthic community that greatly favours this very tolerant species at the expense of chironomid biodiversity [35,36,37], might be the main causes of the current increase in C. plumosus population.
The environmental banalisation is also manifested in the total absence of vegetation from the lake beds of the central area that, instead, was well present during the investigations of 20 years ago.
Lastly, the distribution between the larval stages of C. plumosus showed in 2000–2002 a lesser presence of mature larvae (instar IV, 85.44 vs. 99.26%) to the advantage of instar III larvae (13.76 vs. 0.73%), while the share of instar II larvae remained minimal (0.80 vs. 0.01%) (Figure 4b). This condition is probably related to the tendency of C. plumosus II and III instar larvae to colonise the deeper layers of the sediments when they have a high content of poorly stabilised silt, also due to the absence of vegetation [35,36,38]. In fact, the sampling technique used allows the air dredge sampler to reach a maximum depth of about 10 cm.
On the other hand, the presence of C. plumosus as dominant species among the chironomid community is frequent in the central zone of shallow lakes, compared to the littoral zone of the same [39], although the extent of dominance of this species around Lake Trasimeno is particularly clear and even increasing over the past 20 years. For example, C. plumosus was one of the most predominant species in the chironomid community during a 13-year study at Lake Suwa in Central Japan [33] and in the shallow Zegrzyǹski dam reservoir (Central Poland) at the station with about 5 m of depth during a 5-years survey (from 1993 to 2001); it showed densities of about an order of thousands ind. m−2 [14].
In addition, as reported by Pallottini et al. (2023) [9], the littoral areas of Lake Trasimeno have been subjected in recent decades to profound anthropogenic transformations that have caused a sharp reduction of more than 65% in the reed bed [40], making the lake bottom sediments even less stable with a more significant accumulation of silt in the central area [41].
The comparison of the benthic survey of the central zone of the lake (current study) with the results of the survey conducted in the littoral zone [9] for the period 2018–2021 detects a macrobenthic community composed of Chironomidae larvae and Naidid Oligochaeta with, also in this case, similar proportions (Chironomidae: 35.54 vs. 40.72%; Naididae: 56.39 vs. 61.99%) (Table S5). This distribution of benthic macrofauna is frequently found in literature studies carried out on shallow lakes, considering both the littoral and the central areas [42,43]. Regarding the chironomid community, the littoral area showed much greater biodiversity, with the presence of 18 chironomid taxa vs. 5 in the central zone (Table 2). Moreover, while the central zone evidences the clear predominance of C. plumosus with a consequent presence of the other four taxa of chironomids decidedly negligible (1.16%), the littoral zone shows a C. plumosus abundance of only 24.35%, while the remaining component of the chironomid community (75.65%) is mainly divided between Polypedilum sp. (34.68%), Stictochironomus sp. (11.52%), Cladotanytarsus sp. (10.91%), and Cryptochironomus sp. (7.59%) (Table 2).
This was expected because the bottoms of the littoral area generally have a very diverse microhabitat mosaic, unlike the bottom of the lake centre, which is more uniform, thus providing a greater presence of heterogeneous niches for taxa with different life needs [44,45].
Considering all the 58 surveys carried out in the littoral area in the period 2018–2021, C. plumosus average density amounts to 88.1 ± 121.7 ind. m−2, while considering only the 36 surveys carried out during the warm period (June–October) when the annoying swarming of this dipteran occurs, C. plumosus average density amounts to 120.6 ± 138.7 ind. m−2. The comparison with the 33 surveys of the central area shows a C. plumosus density (467.9 ± 429.9 ind. m−2) about five times greater than that of the littoral, and regarding only the 16 surveys carried out during the warm period, it shows a C. plumosus density (450.4 ± 342.0 ind. m−2) about four times higher.
Finally, the size of C. plumosus larvae is different among the populations from the littoral area compared to the central area of Lake Trasimeno; in particular, mature larvae (IV instar) showed an average body length in the 2018–2021 period equal to 16.94 ± 4.19 mm (1352 larvae) in the littoral zone, whilst in the central one it amounted to 22.92 ± 3.61 mm (9189 larvae). As a result, the corresponding size of the adult chironomids that would emerge from the central area of the lake, most likely, would be greater (therefore even more annoying) than that of the littoral area.
Therefore, the central area of the lake, which constitutes about 90% of the total lake area, is the main emergence area for C. plumosus adults and, consequently, during the summer, it is the primary source of the annoying midge swarms that affect residents and tourists of the lake area.
During a 17 years study (2005–2021) in Lake Trasimeno by Pallottini et al. 2023 [9], in which a continuous summer treatment of the littoral bottoms with Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis was carried out, it was noted that there was no increase in the C. plumosus population, despite the ongoing global warming process that should tend to increase the number of cycles per year of this species which are currently at least four complete cycles. Despite the Bti treatments applied to chironomids, fair biodiversity was observed (18 taxa), unlike that of the central area, which is always extremely low and which also manifested a decrease over the years (2000–2002 vs. 2018–2021). However, the Bti treatment used for the control of the larvae in the littoral area of the lake is not applicable due to the greater depths in the central area of the lake (the effectiveness of the product is guaranteed for shallow waters of less than 2 m).
Considering this, it is necessary to identify new techniques to extend the biological control aimed at containing the C. plumosus populations, especially in the central area of the lake. This can be done by focusing on adults, i.e., enhancing light diversion systems [12], implementing experimental capture machines based on light attraction (i.e., ChiroTraps, [9]), and encouraging biological control by increasing the presence of predators (e.g., Chiroptera). On the other hand, the control of the C. plumosus larval population that colonises the bottoms of the central lake could be carried out through targeted actions of fish repopulation, with native species showing benthic diets, and which are particularly active predators of chironomid larvae (e.g., tench, Tinca tinca, and European eel, Anguilla anguilla). These fish species, although in the past constituting an important fish component of Lake Trasimeno, over time have unfortunately been replaced by allochthonous species that have a different diet and represent a lesser economic resource for professional fishing.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su15065540/s1, Table S1: Individuals of Chironomidae, Naididae (Oligochaeta), and other macroinvertebrates during the 33 sampling occasions carried out at the central zone of Lake Trasimeno (2018–2021); Table S2: Densities and percentages of Chironomus plumosus, total Chironomidae, Naididae (Oligochaeta), and other macroinvertebrates during the 11 sampling occasions carried out at the central zone of Lake Trasimeno (2000–2002); Table S3: Lake Trasimeno average hydrometric level (m) (threshold 257.33 m a.s.l.); Table S4: Lake Trasimeno average air temperature (°C); Table S5: Densities and percentages of Chironomus plumosus, total Chironomidae, Naididae (Oligochaeta), and other macroinvertebrates during the 58 sampling occasions carried out at the littoral zone of Lake Trasimeno (2018–2021).

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, M.P., S.P., M.C., G.L.P., R.S., E.G. (Elda Gaino), L.S., A.M.D.G., A.A. and E.G. (Enzo Goretti); data curation, M.P., S.P., M.C., G.L.P., L.S. and E.G. (Enzo Goretti); methodology, M.P., S.P., M.C., G.L.P., R.S., L.S., A.M.D.G., A.A. and E.G. (Enzo Goretti); investigation, M.P., S.P., M.C., G.L.P., R.S., L.S., A.M.D.G. and E.G. (Enzo Goretti); writing—original draft, M.P., G.L.P. and E.G. (Enzo Goretti); writing—review and editing M.P., G.L.P., E.G. (Elda Gaino), A.A. and E.G. (Enzo Goretti). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the “Fondazione Brunello e Federica Cucinelli” within the 2017–2021 research project “Chironomid population control at Lake Trasimeno: evaluation of biological control methods and new systems for the attraction and mechanical-light capture”.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Additional datasets generated and analysed in this study are available upon request to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We thank Michele Baiocco for his fundamental support throughout the 5 years of research; Andrea Pagnotta (amateur fisherman); Alberto Fais, Francesco Giglietti, and Fabio Trotta (USL Umbria1) for their great support in the sampling campaign.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Map of the study area (Lake Trasimeno, Central Italy); pink lines indicate isobaths (numbers indicate water depth every 0.25 m). Central zone sampling area: three sampling sites, dots indicate each sampling occasion; red dots indicate the centres of each sampling site; squares indicate littoral zone sampling areas.
Figure 1. Map of the study area (Lake Trasimeno, Central Italy); pink lines indicate isobaths (numbers indicate water depth every 0.25 m). Central zone sampling area: three sampling sites, dots indicate each sampling occasion; red dots indicate the centres of each sampling site; squares indicate littoral zone sampling areas.
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Figure 2. Compressed air dredge sampling system.
Figure 2. Compressed air dredge sampling system.
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Figure 3. Densities of Chironomus plumosus and total Chironomidae in the 33 sampling occasions carried out at the central zone of Lake Trasimeno (2018–2021).
Figure 3. Densities of Chironomus plumosus and total Chironomidae in the 33 sampling occasions carried out at the central zone of Lake Trasimeno (2018–2021).
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Figure 4. Chironomus plumosus larval instars sampled in the central zone of Lake Trasimeno. (blue, instar II; red, instar III; green, instar IV). (a) 2018–2021; (b) 2000–2002.
Figure 4. Chironomus plumosus larval instars sampled in the central zone of Lake Trasimeno. (blue, instar II; red, instar III; green, instar IV). (a) 2018–2021; (b) 2000–2002.
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Table
Table 1. Densities and percentages of Chironomus plumosus, total Chironomidae, Naididae (Oligochaeta), and other macroinvertebrates during the 33 sampling occasions carried out at the central zone of Lake Trasimeno (2018–2021).
Table 1. Densities and percentages of Chironomus plumosus, total Chironomidae, Naididae (Oligochaeta), and other macroinvertebrates during the 33 sampling occasions carried out at the central zone of Lake Trasimeno (2018–2021).
Chironomus
plumosus		ChironomidaeNaididaeOther TaxaTotal Macroinvertebrates
(ind. m−2)(%)(ind. m−2)(%)(ind. m−2)(%)(ind. m−2)(%)(ind. m−2)
May 201817711.7625216.76125083.24001502
July 201866072.7968575.5522024.2620.18907
August 2018(a)45740.3557750.9654848.4570.591132
August 2018(b)45747.0054255.7543044.2500972
September 201819515.8520216.40102883.60001230
October 201811320.0612021.2444578.7600565
November 201811012.5011312.8876787.1200880
December 201817818.9420822.1273277.7020.18942
January 201913721.3014322.3449877.6600642
February 201910225.1011227.5729372.4300405
March 201914327.1314527.4438372.5600528
April 20196324.846525.4919074.5100255
May 201911526.6412328.5730871.4300432
June 201913019.0214521.2253878.7800683
July 2019(a)12333.9413737.6122561.9320.46363
July 2019(b)99733.56111537.54185362.4020.062970
August 201994541.18100843.94128756.06002295
September 201945835.9051240.0876059.5350.391277
October 201951336.8054539.0784860.8120.121395
November 201928224.8229826.2883773.72001135
December 201922730.0923531.1951868.8100753
January 202027244.9028547.1132052.8900605
February 202035841.6739245.5446854.4600860
July 2020(a)11518.4013521.6049078.4000625
July 2020(b)9220.9910724.4333075.5700437
August 202013512.4823221.4285078.58001082
September 202099540.31115546.79131353.21002468
October 202082268.0985270.5835529.42001207
November 2020131048.73138551.52130348.48002688
December 202082276.4385279.2222320.78001075
January 2021126542.12130843.56169556.44003003
March 2021111765.88111365.6858234.32001695
April 2021155738.61161340.02241859.98004032
min63126512.8819020.7800.00255
mean4683450637.5073762.4410.061244
max155776161379.22241887.1270.594032
SD4301744917.5752817.5910.15900
(a), (b): samplings in the same month.
Table
Table 2. Comparison of the composition of the chironomid community (number of individuals and percentages) in the surveys carried out at Lake Trasimeno central zone (2018–2021 and 2000–2002) and littoral zone (2018–2021).
Table 2. Comparison of the composition of the chironomid community (number of individuals and percentages) in the surveys carried out at Lake Trasimeno central zone (2018–2021 and 2000–2002) and littoral zone (2018–2021).
Central ZoneLittoral Zone
(2018–2021)(2000–2002)(2018–2021)
33 Samplings11 Samplings58 Samplings
TaxonN%N%N%
Chironomus plumosus926498.8469481.94199524.35
Tanypus sp.820.87748.741331.62
Cryptochironomus sp.250.27212.486227.59
Stictochironomus sp.10.01--94411.52
Polypedilum sp.10.01--284134.68
Cladotanytarsus sp.----89410.91
Tanytarsus sp.----1611.97
Dicrotendipes sp.--10.121411.72
Microchironomus sp.--141.651271.55
Glyptotendipes sp.----1221.49
Cladopelma sp.----861.05
Eukiefferella sp.----670.82
Procladius sp.--435.08470.57
Endochironomus sp.----40.05
Microtendipes sp.----40.05
Cryptotendipes sp.----20.02
Parachironomus sp.----20.02
Pseudochironomus sp.----10.01
TOTAL93731008471008193100
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Pallottini, M.; Pagliarini, S.; Catasti, M.; La Porta, G.; Selvaggi, R.; Gaino, E.; Spacone, L.; Di Giulio, A.M.; Ali, A.; Goretti, E. Role of Chironomus plumosus (Diptera, Chironomidae) Population in the Central Zone of the Shallow Lake Trasimeno (Italy). Sustainability 2023, 15, 5540. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065540

AMA Style

Pallottini M, Pagliarini S, Catasti M, La Porta G, Selvaggi R, Gaino E, Spacone L, Di Giulio AM, Ali A, Goretti E. Role of Chironomus plumosus (Diptera, Chironomidae) Population in the Central Zone of the Shallow Lake Trasimeno (Italy). Sustainability. 2023; 15(6):5540. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065540

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pallottini, Matteo, Sarah Pagliarini, Marianna Catasti, Gianandrea La Porta, Roberta Selvaggi, Elda Gaino, Leonardo Spacone, Alessandro Maria Di Giulio, Arshad Ali, and Enzo Goretti. 2023. "Role of Chironomus plumosus (Diptera, Chironomidae) Population in the Central Zone of the Shallow Lake Trasimeno (Italy)" Sustainability 15, no. 6: 5540. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065540

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