Crime Prevention through Environmental Design of Railway Stations as a Specific Soft Target

Abstract

Currently, we observe an increasing number of terrorist attacks and violent crime, resulting in a noticeable increase in nervousness and tension in society. Not only on the territory of Europe, but also throughout the world, terrorist attacks and violent crime are mainly concentrated near objects that are accessible to the public, characterized by a relatively low level of security and a high concentration of people, so-called soft targets. The tendency to control and influence human behaviors by reshaping the environment dates back to ancient times, with the crime prevention through environmental design strategy being a later product that arose as a result of the impact of urbanization and industrialization on the rise of crime in Chicago. The aim of the article is the contribution of new knowledge to society, which is presented through graphic designs of technical measures on the sustainability of the development of public spaces and communities, as well as the reduction of crime. The acquired knowledge is based on a holistic and integrated theory of crime prevention called the concept of CPTED (crime prevention through environmental design), which is dedicated to the identification of the conditions of the physical and social environment that allow the possibility of committing crimes and their subsequent modification intended to limit it. At the end of the article, a use case is presented on the object of the railway station, which is a public space and at the same time falls into the category of soft targets. Human choices shape the built environment, as well as tools that can be used to create sustainable urban and village development, which are also dependent on an acceptable crime rate. We are not testing environmental design as a way of thinking and a field of practices, but we are testing a particular method of environmental design (CPTED concept), which is focused on crime prevention, for a particular set of targets.

1. Introduction

Soft targets represent crowded places which are closely related to the high risk of criminal or other anti-social activity. Despite the absence of an internationally valid definition of soft targets, they are known by experts as objects or events where a large group of people is concentrated in the same place, and such places do not have or do not allow standard security measures to be implemented [1]. The incidents of recent months have shown and confirmed the trend in the world that soft targets are the targets of attacks and security incidents. This is due to their vulnerability, as soft targets are specifically easy to access and have a low degree of protection, high concentration of people in one place, low risk of attack failure and low cost associated with the attack [2].

Jangl, a security expert, draws attention to the fact that even examples from around the world, such as the Las Vegas or Texas shootings, the car attack in Nice or the suicide attack at a concert in Manchester, testify to the urgent need to address the safety of people in open spaces or in freely accessible objects [3]. What this actually means is to solve the problem of protecting soft targets. It is always possible to implement resilience measures by implementing technical, organizational and regime measures [4].

Soft targets can be protected against deliberate anthropogenic threats (violent crime, vandalism, attack with an explosive system, weapon, vehicle, incendiary substance and others) by appropriately disposing of elements of technical protection. It is this issue of protection by planning and designing the layout of the protection of public spaces that deals with the concept of crime prevention through environmental design; the concept is also known as design excluding criminality (DOC) [5].

By implementing the principles of the CPTED concept, we can reduce crime, ensure a sense of security and promote the sustainability of urban and community development. These are preventive measures that lead to a decrease in the likelihood of an attack occurring and a limitation of the scale of the consequences. Secondarily, they can affect the speed and intensity of the reaction. According to the methodology, “Evaluation of the threat to a soft target or what, when, where and from whom you are threatened”, it is difficult to face serious attacks if they have already occurred. However, attackers can be deterred and their attack diverted by visible security features or by media coverage of the security of the citizen/entity.

In this article, we point out the importance of soft targets, due to their vulnerability and insufficient level of solutions for their protection. Despite the fact that in the world crime prevention through environmental design has proven to be effective, it is not connected with the issue of protecting soft targets. This study characterizes the current state of protection of soft targets, as well as the strategies that can lead to the reduction of crimes committed precisely on soft targets. Part of the article is an evaluation of the survey, the aim of which is to find out whether a society considers the design of the environment to be important from the point of view of safety. The results of the survey, which represent a subjective indicator, are compared with the statistical data resulting from the study in Malaysia, which represents an objective indicator. Last but not least, the article contains a unique use case of the CPTED concept for a selected type of soft target, railway infrastructure.

The aim of the article is to connect the issue of protection of soft targets with the concept of CPTED, as well as the contribution of new knowledge to society, which is presented through graphic designs of technical measures for a certain type of soft target and not in general, as has been the case so far. When applying elements of the CPTED concept, it is necessary to assess the specifics of each object or space. Currently, there is no procedure for implementing the various elements, which leads to a lack of understanding of the CPTED concept.

The article is structured in five sections. The first section discusses the reason for the need to protect soft targets through the CPTED method, which not only reduces crime but promotes the sustainability of cities and communities. In the second section, we characterize and categorize soft targets, as there is currently no uniform and internationally valid definition. Through illustrations of terrorist attacks on these targets, we highlight the need to protect them. In the third section, we define in detail the modern crime prevention strategy, the CPTED concept. We point out its advantages and disadvantages as well as practical solutions abroad. We identify the security aspects and the internal and external criteria that need to be taken into account in its application. In the fourth section, we evaluate a survey that has not yet been carried out to confirm the impact of the layout of the space on the feeling of safety. The fourth section also includes our own graphical proposals of technical measures serving to increase the protection of soft targets, as well as the proposal of a new principle of the CPTED concept. In the end, we evaluate the findings resulting from the article.

2. The Importance of Soft Targets Due to Their Vulnerability

One of the first to use the term soft targets was the US state authorities. According to the Oxford dictionary, a soft target is a person or object that is relatively unprotected or vulnerable, especially when it comes to military or terrorist attacks [6].

In his work, Forest (2006) defined the soft objective as follows: “soft targets are networks of civilians in which large numbers of people gather, such as national monuments, hospitals, schools, sports grounds, hotels, cultural centers, theatres and cinemas, cafés and restaurants, places of work, nightclubs, shopping centers and transport networks such as the metro, trains, buses and others” [7].

At the International Global Counterterrorism Forum (GCTF 2017) in Turkey, soft targets were characterized as places that promote social and economic prosperity, where people gather for education, shopping, food, business, entertainment, worship or travel. As a general rule, they are open to facilitate access and therefore do not have sufficient security measures integrated [4].

Despite the fact that mainly objects are designated as soft targets, it should be remembered that they are also the people who are in these buildings.

The perception of soft targets from the point of view of the Fire Rescue Corps of the Czech Republic (HZZ ČR) is more complex, because they do not work terminologically with the concept of “soft targets” but “socially significant objects”. Although many types of objects have a factual overlap and are perceived as a “soft target” from the point of view of both the Police of the Czech Republic and the HZZ of the Czech Republic, this is far from the case for everyone. A big plus of the “firefighting” concept of soft targets is a clear, distinct setting of parameters for the inclusion of a given building among socially significant objects, which allows for the future to graduate possible requirements imposed on the owners or operators of these objects. The difference is also that the HZZ ČR is interested in these objects from the point of view of protection against a very diverse range of threats, not only from the point of view of protection against the carrying out of a possible terrorist or otherwise motivated violent attack in or around such an object [8].

Due to the vague characteristics of soft targets, they are incorrectly associated by some authors with the terms “crowded places” or “places of mass gathering”. Here, it should be noted that these terms are not associated with a security meaning [4].

Soft objectives can be divided according to several criteria, the most significant being considered the division into permanent and temporary, defined in the work by Apeltauer (Figure 1) [2].

According to Kalvach (2016), the most important categories of soft targets include the following:

• Schools and school facilities (canteens, dormitories, libraries);
• Shopping malls;
• Religious venues, events, pilgrimages, community centers and places of worship;
• Sporting and cultural events;
• Transport points (bus, train stations and airport terminals) [7].

According to Apeltauer, a key indicator is the attractiveness of soft targets, which expresses the reason why a certain target is appealing to offenders [6]. The criteria that influence the attractiveness of the soft target are shown in Figure 2.

The Global Database of Terrorist Attacks (GTD), which is the world’s most comprehensive database of terrorist attacks, was used to analyze soft target attacks. It contains information on more than 200,000 terrorist attacks carried out around the world from 1970 to the present day.

GTD is funded by the Government of the United States of America and the Federal Republic of Germany. The National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START) provides this information in order to understand terrorist violence, to know it and to defeat it. The database is operated by a dedicated team of scientific researchers and technical staff [6].

According to research by Czech security expert Kalvach, 5297 terrorist attacks were carried out between 1998 and 2014 [7]. Figure 3 shows the percentage distribution of the targets of these attacks by their hardness.

An analysis of terrorist attacks confirmed the assumption that soft targets, which accounted for up to 53% of terrorists, were the most frequent targets of terrorists.

In view of the above, an analysis was carried out of soft target attacks that have taken place in the world over the last 10 years (Figure 4).

When entering the requirements for searching for given attacks, among the individual groups of attack targets, those that fall into the category of soft targets were selected, including the following:

-

Educational institutions;

-

Public services;

-

Transport (buses, trains, motorways, metros);

-

Religious leaders and institutions (churches, mosques);

-

Tourists, private citizens and property;

-

Non-governmental organizations;

-

Journalists and media;

-

Airports and aircraft;

-

Commercial institutions (bars, shopping centers, restaurants).

The number of soft-targeted terrorist attacks on European territory over a defined period of time is shown in Figure 4.

The graph shows the year-on-year development of terrorist attacks carried out on soft target objects/entities within European territory between 2009 and 2019. A total of 2368 attacks were committed, with 432 resulting in the death of at least one person and 658 attacks in which at least one person was injured.

The most commonly used type of weapon were as follows:

• Explosives;
• Incendiary weapons;
• Firearms;
• Vehicle raid;
• Other.

Between 2014 and 2015, there was a significant increase in terrorist incidents, up to 420 and 480 attacks per year, respectively. In subsequent years, we can observe a decrease until 2019, after which the database became accessible to ordinary users. An overview of attacks on specific soft target objects can be seen in Figure 5.

In addition to terrorist attacks on the lives and health of people located on premises or in the immediate vicinity of soft targets, it is necessary to take into account other violent, moral and property crimes (robbery, theft, theft by burglary, damage to a foreign object, hooliganism, etc.) in which, from officially published statistics, it is in most cases impossible to find out specific numbers of crimes relating to individual soft objectives.

However, the above statistics show that increased attention needs to be paid to the issue of the protection of soft targets. In order to choose a combination of adequate security measures, it is appropriate to assess each target individually, taking into account its function but especially specifying the security-relevant factors that have an impact on two fundamental criteria, namely the attractiveness of the target from the point of view of the attacker and the real possibilities of securing it [8]. Among the relevant factors, we can include the following: the presence of the media, the openness to the public, the symbolism of the target, the concentration of persons and the presence of the police. To these factors, it is appropriate to add the ability of a soft target to produce cascading effects (e.g., panic and subsequent trampling of people pushing toward the exit) or synergetic effects (e.g., broken window glass panels in an object can have a more fatal impact on lives and health in the event of an explosion than the explosion of an explosive system itself) [2]. From the point of view of planning and designing the layout of the environment, factors such as openness to the public, the quantity and concentration of persons or the ability of a soft target to produce cascading effects or synergetic effects can be influenced. As mentioned above, these are preventive measures that lead to a reduction in the likelihood of an attack occurring, limiting the scale of the consequences and creating a safer and more sustainable environment [2].

3. Materials and Methods

One of the modern preventive means in preventing crime (terrorist attacks, crime) is the very design, implementation and operation of public spaces or other objects. Procedures to achieve a safer environment as well as raise awareness in this area are contained in the CPTED concept, an acronym for crime prevention through environmental design. The concept satisfies the demands of present generations without compromising the demands of future generations to meet their needs [9].

In recent years, crime prevention through environmental design has been used in an increasingly sophisticated way, due to scientific approaches to understanding and solving crime problems [10]. At the same time, there has been a significant change in the way we design and think about selected spaces, objects, cities, etc. In several cases, this development has culminated in a more holistic thinking in the field of urbanization and security due to the constant development of society and technology.

Recent developments in behavioral, cognitive and environmental sciences now offer something new, namely, a look at how people gain satisfaction from their environment, including how they respond to crime and security [11].

At the Conference of European Experts, “Towards a knowledge-based strategy to prevent crime”, the Council of the European Union agreed that the CPTED concept is a proven effective, successful and feasible multi-disciplinary prevention strategy that promotes the sustainability of cities and communities [12].

The most widely used definition of the CPTED concept encountered in the literature is that of Cozens, who argues, “The CPTED strategy predicts that with an adequate design process and effective use of the man-made environment, a reduction in crime and related concerns can be achieved, thereby improving the quality of life, thereby also promoting the sustainability of cities” [13].

Fay (2007) claims that the concept of CPTED is a criminological–environmental theory that is based on the idea that, “by properly arranging and applying the established and surrounding environment, we can improve the quality of life as well as reduce the fear of crime” [14].

We classify the CPTED concept as a natural approach to crime, which, unlike the traditional ones, in which the perpetrator, his act and biography are at the center of the investigation, are measured for human activities. It ranks among multi-disciplinary approaches, which means that it uses knowledge from criminology, environmental psychology and spatial planning. It also places emphasis on contemporary behavioral and social sciences thinking, community organization and compliance with the law [13,14].

Several authors are considered to be the founders: Jane Jacobs, Ray Jeffery and Oscar Newman. In particular, they contributed to the creation of the concept of CPTED by generalizing traditional thinking in criminology and focusing their attention on the sustainability of cities and the physical environment, with an emphasis on its position in the etiology of crime [15].

One of the advantages of the principle is that it can be implemented in any place, regardless of size, so it is universal and suitable for any type of environment. It is essential that the design of public spaces should take into account relevant aspects that will promote sustainable development practices [16].

The advantages the CPTED concept may reap in the long run outweigh its implementation costs. “In addition to delivering long-term social and economic benefits to the group and the nation on a broader scale, its early adoption helps prevent the increased expense of corrections to the later stage applications. Retrofitting or adding on physical solutions after the built stage is costlier than being integrated during the design and building stages. CPTED strategies which are well designed not only reduce cost but also increases the quality of life for its residents” [17].

The disadvantages of the CPTED concept can be considered by the users of publicly accessible spaces themselves, due to the different character traits of people. Although we provide measures to prevent crime, we are able to prevent it in every case. There are perpetrators who, despite the measures taken or appropriately designed spaces, do not change their actions (users acting under the influence of alcohol, narcotic drugs…) [17].

These limitations are known to both professionals and academics. They include ambiguities in community and social intervention. Another limitation is the lack of flexibility to respond to adaptive offenders and the lack of resource disciplines, which causes theoretical confusion. The concept focuses too much on a vulnerability-oriented approach to the detriment of the user in the environment, an excessive interest in final products as opposed to the design process. Other advantages and disadvantages of the CPTED concept are shown in the

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of the CPTED concept (Source: self-processing).

Advantages of the CPTED Concept	Disadvantages of the CPTED Concept
universality, multi-laterally	space users
sustainability of management and communities	individuality of needs/activity of users
reduction of criminality	insufficient flexibility
visual side of the environment	initial investment
increase productivity	“gated communities“
efficient use of the environment	controversial principles
safer environment	misunderstanding
higher quality of life
social benefits (social interaction, cooperation)
economic benefits (cost efficiency, increase in productivity)

.

If the CPTED concept is applied incorrectly, there may be negative consequences of so-called “gated communities”, which are caused by low community cooperation in implementing measures [18].

Application of the CPTED Concept

The safety aspects of the CPTED concept are based on several principles that can be used to acclimatize a suitable environment, thus achieving not only the sustainability of cities and increased safety but also an increased quality of life [17]. In view of the fact that there is no uniform, internationally valid definition of CPTED, nor a procedure for implementing individual principles, several interpretations are encountered in the literature [19]. The most frequently cited principles of the CPTED concept in general are as follows:

• Natural surveillance;
• Access control;
• Visible delimitation of the territory/territoriality;
• Space maintenance [17,18,20].

The following table (

Table 2. Principles of the CPTED concept from a multi-author perspective (Source: self-processing).

Activity	Hoon	Fay	Benkovicova	Hofreiter	Crowe	FEMA
natural surveillance	✔	✔		✔	✔
natural access control		✔		✔
visible delimitation of territory				✔
maintaining space	✔		✔	✔		✔
territorial reinforcement	✔	✔	✔		✔	✔
natural control					✔
permanent supervision			✔
support for activities			✔
natural access control	✔		✔			✔
making the objective more difficult			✔

) shows an overview of the basic principles of each author, which are elaborated after a detailed analysis of the CPTED concept.

When applying the concept of CPTED, it is necessary to start by asking ourselves the following questions: What is the purpose of the space? How is the space limited? How well does the physical design support the intended function? [14].

The concept of CPTED is not a comprehensive solution to community problems but provides means to eliminate or reduce crime [21].

From the point of view of the riskiness of the selected space, it is necessary to take into account certain internal and external aspects of risk (environmental and situational), which should have an impact on the overall final design of the securing of the space [22]. The internal and external aspects of risk include the following:

Internal factors:

-

The number of people per day;

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Population density (number of persons/m²);

-

“Rush Hour” intervals;

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Density of people in “Rush Hour” (number of persons/m²);

-

Total evacuation time in “Rush Hour” (min);

-

Total permeability of persons (m);

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Average time of stay in station premises, respectively, in perimeter;

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The total ratio of glass surfaces on the shell of the station building (%);

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Layout of windows;

-

Lighting;

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Building material of the building envelope;

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Use of security features;

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Possible range by vehicle (m);

-

Uptime.

External factors:

-

Surrounding buildings:

• With a permanent presence of more people up to 500 m;
• With occasional occurrence of a larger number of people up to 500 m;
• Of religious and social significance up to 500 m.

Based on the evaluation of internal and external aspects of riskiness, we can determine whether an object exhibits a higher level of risk and whether it is necessary to consider the implementation of preventive measures.

In addition to evaluating the internal and external factors of the selected object, we can also assess the safety criteria on the basis of which we can ensure greater safety. It is necessary that these criteria be considered separately for the following situations:

• Interior;
• Exterior;
• Special objects located in the immediate vicinity (e.g., car park).

Table 3. Safety criteria (Source: self-processing).

CCTV system	absence of a camera system
	camera system hammer
	unrecorded CCTV system
	CCTV system with recording
Security/reception service	absence of security/reception service
	presence at the allotted time
	presence 24/7
Security/reception service	1 worker
	more than 1 worker
Security service	physical protection, no armament
	physical protection, with armament without a weapon
	physical protection, with armament with a weapon
Content of the security service	carrying out stationary surveillance at a designated location
	errand activity—not organized
	errand activity—organized
Control by the city police	no
	yes, irregular control
	yes, regular control
Immediate distance of the road to the main entrance to the building	yes
	no
Are there barriers preventing the vehicle from entering the object?	yes
	no
Types of barriers	symbolic
	mechanical
	safety
Lighting	no lighting
	with lighting
	with lighting overlapping
Maintenance	not secured
	irregular maintenance
	regular maintenance
Object zoning	no zones (e.g., the entire building is publicly accessible)
	public part and non-public part (no control, only marking)
	public part and non-public part with entry control system
Regime for controlling access to the non-public part	without control
	random control
	random control and special security (chips, codes)
Marking of escape exits	absence of marking
	marking of escape routes
	marking of escape routes indicating the direction of escape
Delimitation of the zone for smokers	no
	yes

provides an overview of the criteria based on the CPTED concept, on the basis of which we can increase and assess the safety of an object.

4. Results

Sustainable urban planning helps to reduce not only unorganized urban sprawl and loss of habitat but also crime. Ensuring sustainable urban development is a multi-layered process that involves creating the legislative, environmental and economic conditions for the implementation of a cross-cutting policy favorable to the needs of urban dwellers, the environment and development [23]. The emphasis is on the security of the population and a stable environment, as well as on promoting investment in the infrastructure needed for sustainable growth and resource efficiency [23].

By correctly implementing the principles of the CPTED concept, we can promote the sustainability of public places and communities, reduce crime and, to some extent, interfere with the actions of persons who aim to commit illegal activities.

In the next section, a public opinion survey is presented, which focuses on the impact of crime prevention through environmental design in terms of safety and crime.

4.1. The Impact of CPTED Concept Based on Subjective and Objective Indicators

When designing measures based on the CPTED concept, it is necessary to know the opinion of the community and whether and to what extent the design of the environment affects safety and crime. Based on the results of the survey, we obtain an assessment from the users of the selected areas, and, thus, we can assess the validity of the proposed measures.

The aim of the empirical research is to confirm that the arrangement of elements in the environment has an impact on the community’s perception of safety. To date, no such research has been conducted.

Subjective indicator

The survey was conducted in the period between 1 April 2022 and 1 July 2022 at railway stations in Prague, Žilina, Čadca and Zlín; 200 respondents were interviewed. The survey included the following questions:

• Have you encountered the term crime prevention through environmental design?
• In your opinion, does crime prevention through environmental design have an impact on crime and safety?
• What measures or elements in terms of safety do you consider to be the most effective (railway stations)?

The results of the survey are presented in the next section.

When asked whether they had encountered the term crime prevention through environmental design, up to 158 respondents answered no, and only 42 respondents knew the term; in most cases, they were university students. In the territory of the Slovak and Czech Republics, the term is not well known, compared to abroad, where the concept of CPTED is used as an effective strategy for reducing crime at the national level.

When asked whether crime prevention through environmental design has an impact on crime and safety, they answered as follows:

From the previous figure (Figure 6), it is clear that community members perceive that the design of the environment and the arrangement of elements affect crime and safety, but they are not aware of the method that deals with this issue. As many as 142 respondents said that they consider the premises that are maintained to be safer; 28 respondents said that they do not think that the arrangement of space has an impact on crime and safety; 18 people marked maybe as an answer; and 12 people said they do not know, adding that they never thought about it.

They gave different answers to the question of what measures or elements in terms of security they consider to be the most effective. The most frequently occurring responses were as follows:

• Camera systems (182 times);
• Police patrols (156 times);
• Concentration of people (143 times);
• Modified environment (189 times);
• Lighting (106 times);
• Presence of nearby businesses (23 times);
• Other.

The results of the survey confirm the assumption about the effectiveness of the strategy through environmental design (CPTED concept). Despite the lack of public awareness of the given method, the community perceives that environmental design affects their safety as well as crime in the neighborhood.

Objective indicator

In Malaysia in 2015, they adopted the CPTED concept as the main strategy to reduce crime at the national level, concluding that the CPTED concept is the main factor in reducing crime. A decrease in crime was recorded throughout Malaysia.

Figure 7 shows the evolution of crime in City X in Malaysia for the period of time between 2015 and 2018 [24].

The following table (

Table 4. Implemented elements of the CPTED concept (Source: self-processing).

Principle	Element
Natural surveillance	ensuring visibility by improving lighting (LED) removal of dark spots CCTV
Access control	marking of entry/exit (directed movement) ramp to the parking lot (restriction of free entry) identification boards
Maintenance	trash cans, ashtrays (regular replacement ensured) modification of the surroundings (modification of branched trees and bushes to the required height)
Territoriality	fencing defining boundaries (private, public space) marking of parking spaces orientation of the sidewalks along the parking lot

) summarizes the applied elements that strengthened the individual principles of the CPTED concept in Malaysia.

The results of the research confirmed that the appropriate arrangement of the elements has an impact on the perception of safety, thus confirming that the CPTED concept is an effective crime prevention strategy. Currently, after the research has been conducted, there are both subjective and objective indicators of effectiveness.

By integrating the elements of the CPTED concept, we can influence crime, especially property crime (theft, damage to other people’s property, vandalism, graffiti) and violent crime (intentional bodily harm, harassment), which contribute significantly to the overall crime rate at railway stations. This fact results from statistical data on the state of crime at several railway stations (Prague main Nádraží, Žilina, Čadca).

Safety and health protection are essential for creating sustainable urban communities, and, therefore, it is necessary to properly plan and implement safety measures. Crime prevention through environmental design is used in many developing countries to protect community members from crime, but as the survey showed, in many countries, this method is not known, despite it being an effective crime prevention strategy that brings many benefits, such as:

• Reduction of crime;
• Increasing the visual aspect of public spaces;
• Higher usability of public spaces;
• Higher quality of life;
• Feeling of security;
• Compliance with regulations;
• Support for sustainable development;
• Economic benefits: early adoption of the CPTED concept prevents increased costs in the future;
• Social benefits (social interaction, cooperation).

Limitations of the study

Of course, as mentioned at the beginning, in some cases, we cannot prevent crime, despite properly integrated measures. This mainly concerns situations where the perpetrators fall under the following categories:

• Persons under the influence of alcohol, narcotic substances or psychotropic substances;
• Socially depressed;
• Terrorists;
• Mentally ill;
• Aggressive individuals.

The limitations of the study include the time period required to evaluate the effectiveness. The objective time to draw a conclusion as to whether the CPTED concept has contributed to the reduction of crime is three years after its application.

The CPTED concept supports the reduction of crime, especially property crime and violent crime, but by applying some principles, it can multiply the impact of unwanted incidents (e.g., explosions). A typical example is natural surveillance, the essence of which, among other things, consists of the support of glass surfaces, which in case, of an explosion has a greater impact on people in the space than, e.g., concrete walls. It is important that the risk of an explosion is reduced to a minimum, especially by controlling access (determining the maximum distance to which a vehicle will be allowed to enter, etc.)

4.2. Use Case of Graphic Designs of Technical Measures

The way in which physical space is designed and subsequently implemented has a direct impact on the commission of crimes. The relationship between crime and the physical environment is understood as an inter-cultural phenomenon [25].

International conferences have found that the relationship between man and the environment is universal in nature. This means that people, despite political and cultural differences, react approximately equally to what they see in the environment. The object on which the technical measures resulting from the CPTED concept is graphically depicted and subsequently described is the railway station and its immediate surroundings.

The issue of the protection of transport infrastructure objects has recently become a concern not only of the security community but also of the wider public, in particular through information on terrorist attacks on transport hubs and possibly vandalism and crime [26]. An overview of the most significant terrorist attacks on railway stations can be seen in the table below (

Table 5. Overview of the most significant attacks on railway infrastructure (Source: self-processing).

Attacks on Railway Infrastructure	Soft Target	Number of Victims	Method of Attack
Attack in Bologna (1980)	railway station	85 victims, 200 injured	bombing
Attack in Madrid (2004)	railway station	191 victims, 2057 injured	bombings
Attack in Dusseldorf (2017)	railway station	7 injured	axe attack
Attack in Amsterdam (2018)	railway station	3 injuries	knife attack
Attack in Saint Petersburg (2017)	railway station	14 victims, 50+ injured	bombing
Attack in Berlin (2019)	railway station	undetectable	shooting
Attack in Germany (2018)	railway station	undetectable	steel rope

).

Table 5 shows that attention should be paid to the protection of railway infrastructure. In the case of a terrorist attack, the consequences of insufficiently integrated security measures are fatal. Official statistics on other crimes against railway infrastructure are not available, but individual statistics of selected railway stations in the Slovak and Czech Republic show that property and violent crime is the largest represented, which we can effectively combat through appropriate technological measures [27].

In the following section, we deal with the effectiveness of the individual principles of the CPTED concept through graphic designs of the possible application of technical measures to selected types of railway station objects.

By properly understanding the environmental context of crime, the risk aspects of security and the causes of vulnerability, we can reduce crime in a new or existing environment [28].

Crime and security risks are based on the value of the asset in relation to the vulnerability and threats associated with it [29,30]. Vulnerability represents opportunities for negative impact due to an insufficient level of measures already applied. The traditional procedure for eliminating opportunities for illegal actions is the elimination of one or several factors (Figure 8), which, according to “routine activity theory”, are necessary for the occurrence of a criminal case.

While this document provides general examples of implementation strategies and best practices, it is not intended to provide an exhaustive listing of detailed design, architectural or physical security crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) implementation strategies or restrict the potential applications to only those examples provided in this document.

To begin with, we focus on the perimeter of the car park, which forms part of the railway station. Figure 9 shows the inappropriate type of fencing of a car park or other area that is part of a railway station.

When fencing a car park or other area that is part of the railway station, a highly opaque concrete fence is used, which is contrary to the basic principle of the CPTED concept, natural supervision. With fencing in the above way, an ideal opportunity is created for the potential offender to cause damage to property (vandalism) or health (harassment, sexual violence), since he realizes that he cannot be seen.

The essence of the principle of natural supervision is “to see and be seen”. It is based on the premise that the offender is discouraged from acting unlawfully if he is aware that someone sees him or he can see someone. The purpose of natural surveillance is to ensure continuous supervision and control of what is happening in the area. The effectiveness of the principle has been confirmed by several studies. One of these took place between 2014 and 2016 in West Yorkshire, which analyzed a sample of 22 imprisoned thieves from three prisons in England. The results of this survey confirm that the design of the environment influenced their actions. Up to 90% of the prisoners in the sample selected reported being discouraged by “low or open boundaries of the plot because they felt more exposed if the walls and fences were lower” [5,31].

The following figure (Figure 10) shows a modified type of fencing with the implementation of elements of the CPTED concept.

Figure 10 illustrates an effective way of fencing a perimeter (e.g., mesh fence) that supports the principles of the CPTED concept while fulfilling its primary function (territoriality). A transparent delimitation of the territory ensures natural supervision, as a result of which the potential offender may change his mind about unlawful conduct. According to a study conducted in Chicago, with a properly selected type of fencing, we can significantly reduce the manifestations of vandalism (graffiti). The study confirmed that the perpetrators are attracted by large concrete fences, which give them the opportunity to create graffiti.

If a concrete fence is needed, it is recommended to use a lower height (0.45 m), which will fulfill its purpose and at the same time provide natural supervision. Another alternative to fencing is hedges (0.45 m), which contribute to the visual side of the surroundings but also reduce the surface outflow of precipitation water, thereby also regulating the water balance and thus promoting sustainability.

Figure 11 will assess the problems arising from an extensive analysis of several railway stations and their surroundings. These shortcomings are a problem for the vast majority of public spaces in the Territory of the Slovak Republic.

Figure 11 shows a number of shortcomings. Access to the car park is possible from multiple access points, which gives the impression that the car park is public and at the same time provides a number of escape routes for the potential offender. Another shortcoming is the marking of parking spaces, which are currently often absent, so in most cases improper parking occurs, resulting in a reduction in the capacity of the car park.

In the case of the railway station building itself, the main negative is the absence of marking the entry and exit of the building, which at rush hours causes an increased concentration of people going in the opposite direction in one place. It is precisely such situations, where the directed movement of persons is not observed, that are an ideal opportunity for “pocket” thieves or terrorists, because the recordings from the CCTV systems are opaque due to the high number of passengers arriving and going. Moreover, as a result of these situations, crime in public spaces is increasing, which can be eliminated to some extent at a relatively low cost.

In the following figure (Figure 12), we can observe the efficient way of operating the car park, which is part of the railway station building, as well as the marking of entrance and exit from the building, which most people subconsciously respect. At the same time, the principles of the CPTED concept are supported.

Based on the identified shortcomings (Figure 11), Figure 12 shows the modified environment of the car park. When designing and implementing technical measures, it is important to take into account three basic principles of the CPTED concept:

• Natural surveillance;
• Maintenance;
• Access control.

At the same time, it is important that roads for vehicles and roads for pedestrians are clearly identified. Natural supervision will be provided by a security officer or occasional security guard, which will create a sense of security and at the same time discourage offenders from committing crimes. Proper design as well as landscaping can significantly influence the actions of potential offenders.

From the point of view of safety, so-called closed car parks are better, e.g., underground parking spaces and garages, mainly for access control. They are mostly accessible to residents within one community, and entry is only allowed on the basis of a security feature.

In the case of so-called open car parks, most often, these are parking spaces in public areas, where it is not possible to ensure control of entry/exit. It is important to put emphasis on maintenance. This means modifying the surroundings, providing public lighting, maintaining the appearance of bushes, removing blind spots and providing occasional security patrol. Studies show that crime rates within parking spaces are higher in urban and suburban environments. Many car parks are not poorly designed but are only poorly maintained.

In the case of lighting parking garages, it is recommended to paint the ceilings white to make the best use of lighting. As for the type of lighting, it is good to consider LED lighting, which has proven to be the most energy efficient and, in addition, produces white light. It is recommended to have the walls painted white, which will emphasize the effect of the concept of supervision through environmental design but also access control (visual feeling). It is important to place the lighting appropriately, also in relation to the CCTV system, so that there is no glare [5,28,32].

In the case of larger car parks (near major railway stations), where access control can be ensured, several options can be used: ramp, porter, etc. The ideal solution is a ramp, which, although it requires an initial investment, of the several objects in which this measure was implemented, the initial investment was returned within a short time horizon [5,33].

In the case that access to the car park is possible from several access points and would not be effective, or the financial possibilities do not allow for the establishment of limited access to each of them, it is recommended to use temporary roadblocks, especially when traffic is low. Such a symbolic barrier gives the potential offender the impression that the escape is blocked.

In Figure 13, we can observe the surroundings of the railway station, which are not regularly or not maintained at all. There are tall, branched trees in the vicinity, which create dark places and prevent natural sight. The car park, as well as the immediate vicinity of the railway station, does not have lighting or garbage bins, marking of formal and informal places, nor a camera system. It is such places that are referred to as crime magnets. As a result of the above, these places attract criminals, reduce the visual side of the surroundings and provoke a sense of fear in residents.

In the following figure (Figure 14), we see a properly designed design and effective use of the environment, which can lead to the elimination of fear and the reduction of various criminal incidents.

In Figure 14, we see a graphic design of the technical measures of the modified environment of the selected railway station, which promotes the principles of environmental design (CPTED concept) and at the same time evokes a sense of safety and security in passengers. When adjusting the environment, it is important to ensure the principle of territoriality by designating formal and informal spaces. Within the public area in the immediate vicinity of the railway station, there are clearly defined zones for smoking, waiting, eating and parking, while they are constantly monitored by a camera system, which ensures supervision of what is happening on the premises. Garbage bins are available throughout the area, where their regular replacement is ensured. There are ashtrays in the smoker zone, which prevents cigarette residue from being thrown all over the area. A study carried out in the UK showed that even a person who is taught to throw chewing gum and cigarettes on the ground when he sees a clean and well-maintained environment is subconsciously forced to follow community rules. Of course, this study, as well as the concept itself, has its limits, which are the users themselves. These include, in particular, subjects under the influence of alcohol, narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances; those who are aggressive; the mentally ill; the socially deprived; etc. [31].

Another important aspect of the environment is the lighting, which is provided throughout the railway station area, unlike the previous figure (Figure 13), which prevents the appearance of dark spots and allows passengers to move safely. The way in which public lighting is designed and subsequently implemented has a significant impact on crime but also on the visual side of the environment.

In the following figure (Figure 15), we can observe lighting that, due to insufficient or no maintenance of the surroundings, does not fulfill its function in full.

Currently, the function of public lighting in terms of crime and transport safety is, in many cases, underestimated, despite the fact that it can be a significant factor in reducing crime and various accidents. In Figure 15, we can see that the public lighting is shaded by a branched tree and, thus, a substantial part of the pedestrian walkway is not illuminated, creating dark spots. People do not feel safe in such spaces, and at the same time the visual level of the environment due to insufficient maintenance is reduced.

In the next figure (Figure 16), we can see an environment that supports the principles of the CPTED concept. In the area along the walkway, there are small bushes that are regularly trimmed, so they do not prevent the impact of light rays. In addition to maintenance, an important factor is the correct placement of public lighting poles (at sufficient distances). If possible, the light source should be directed from top to bottom and should be located at the maximum possible height (Figure 16 on the right).

Pedestrian walkways from the car park, as well as entrances to buildings, must be adequately illuminated. The lighting recommendations according to the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America in accordance with the CPTED concept for public spaces are as follows:

• Pedestrian entrances should be illuminated up to 5 fc (footcandle);
• Open parking should be illuminated in the range of 0.20–0.90 fc.

Footcandle (fc) represents the rate of illumination in lumens per square meter: 1 fc = 10.76 lux (10 lux is used as equivalent) [5,25].

Based on the concept of CPTED, it is recommended to plant low bushes and ensure their regular maintenance. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recommends a bush height of 18 inches (0.45 m), while tree branches should be adjusted to 7 to 8 feet (2.14 m), ensuring natural surveillance, eliminating hidden places, and thus being able to spot a potential offender sooner [34]. In areas where there are high trees, it is recommended to adjust the minimum height of the tree crown to 2 m (Figure 17) [27].

Another problem with railway stations, but also with generally publicly accessible areas, is homeless people sleeping and drinking alcohol on benches, thus making it impossible for passengers to use them while waiting for an oncoming train. Based on the CPTED concept, the rest area in the railway station area (Figure 13) has been modified with a small architectural detail, which is the armrest. If the benches are divided with armrests, it will be impossible for homeless people to sleep, and they will start looking for other, more attractive spaces for them. This has been confirmed by several studies that examined selected public spaces before and after the implementation of such benches [25,34]. In most cases, they came to the conclusion of a significant decrease in the presence of homeless people. Abroad, such benches are used more and more often, but they are rarely seen in the Slovak Republic. Benches do not have to be divided only by an armrest; they can be designed in such a way to make it impossible to sleep with their design (see Figure 18).

The safety and protection of the life, health and property of citizens depends on the proper functioning of many systems [35]. Transport is one of the essential infrastructure elements needed to ensure living conditions, with the need to address vulnerabilities in the sector, such as railway and bus stations, which are referred to as soft targets [21].

In general, soft targets, as a specifically defined area with a high number and concentration of people that is easily accessible, relatively unprotected and therefore relatively vulnerable, can be protected by appropriately arranging elements of technical protection against deliberate anthropogenic threats [2,3,4].

According to Fay, “the architect is key to opening up the opportunities associated with crime prevention through an environmental-based approach. The architect is an essential element in creating a structure that will work in tandem with the different principles of the CPTED concept. However, it must be effective in this regard, as well as skilled in a number of areas” [15].

Architecture proves its complexity, which also intervenes in the field of crime prevention. It is clear that interventions on its part alone will not provide a solution to the whole problem, and, therefore, cooperation with the community is necessary for the overall effect [21].

The CPTED concept has been applied in a variety of settings, including commercial, school, residential, university, hospital, office, sports and public spaces, and although a significant elimination of crime has been observed after its application, there is insufficient awareness and procedure for the application of individual principles [36,37,38].

4.3. Continuous Supervision

The CPTED concept is primarily oriented toward public spaces but has never been applied to a specific object. As shown above, we applied its principles to the railway station building, which is a public space but also falls into the category of soft targets. There is currently no correlation between the concept of CPTED and soft objectives being an effective tool for promoting the sustainability of development as well as reducing criminal and other anti-social activities.

The different naming of individual principles by several authors is due to the absence of a procedure for implementing preventive measures, but in general, we can conclude that the concept of CPTED is based on four primary principles:

• Natural surveillance;
• Natural control;
• Maintenance;
• Territoriality.

The above principles may not be sufficient to prevent all types of crimes and other anti-social activities. These include, in particular, serious crimes such as terrorist attacks and sabotage. In the case that, on the basis of an assessment of internal and external factors (e.g., the presence of a high number of people, easy access by vehicle to the premises of the building, the close proximity of objects increasing the risk of a security incident), it is established that the object is exposed to a higher risk of endangerment, it is necessary to consider the introduction of permanent surveillance. The basis of permanent surveillance lies in the use of alarm systems, such as direct physical surveillance (SBS, members of the city/state police, etc.) [30,39].

The security system, by its arrangement of protective measures, makes it possible to prevent an unauthorized person from achieving his goal, which may be to endanger the life and health of citizens. Under such a security system can be understood a system implemented by technical and regime protective measures, which can be divided into the following categories:

• Mechanical means of protection (deterrence, slowing down and stopping);
• Alarm systems (detection and triggering of the alarm state);
• Security forces (early intervention and detention of the intruder);
• Regime measures [35,39].

Since railway stations and transport terminals are specific objects meeting soft target attributes, not all of the above systems can be deployed to the same extent and with the same efficiency. The most effective from the point of view of permanent surveillance can may image surveillance systems and electronic input control systems with a link to a surveillance center operated by security personnel.

5. Conclusions

In regard to the increasing number of terrorist attacks, crimes and other anti-social activities carried out mainly on objects and places falling under the category of soft targets, increased attention should be paid to their protection.

A modern means of preventing crime is the concept of CPTED, the basis of which lies, among other things, in improving the quality of life of citizens. Through environmental design (CPTED concept), we can effectively reduce crime and thus promote the sustainability of the development of towns and villages, which depends on an acceptable crime rate. Due to the fact that there is no comprehensive procedure for the application of the individual principles of the CPTED concept, in the article, we presented a use case of graphical designs of technical measures on the object of the railway station and its surroundings. From the point of view of the riskiness of the railway station space, it is necessary to take into account certain internal and external aspects of riskiness, which have an impact on the overall final design of the security of the railway station space.

The primary principles of the CPTED concept may not be sufficient to prevent or respond to all groups of crimes, especially in the case of terrorist attacks. If, based on the assessment of internal, external, environmental and situational aspects of riskiness, the object exhibits a higher level of risk, it is necessary to consider the implementation of the principle of constant supervision, implemented by a security system. This system performs the function of a timely response to a security incident from the moment of its detection. This reaction, or the detection itself, is not provided by the civilians present but by the personnel of the professional security forces. Currently, the detection of a security incident is realized by modern alarm systems, mainly image surveillance systems and an electronic input control system.