An Exploration of Drivers for Abandonment or Continuation of Summer Pasture Grazing in South Tyrol, Italy

Abstract

Summer pasture grazing is perceived as being under pressure from renewed wolf presence in the Italian Alpine province of South Tyrol. To investigate this, we combined a literature review with expert interviews to (1) get an overview of the situation of small ruminant farming and (2) identify drivers with an influence on summer pasture use, including wolf presence. Firstly, the results show an increase in small ruminant farms and stock numbers in the valley and on summer pastures during the last years. Secondly, subsidy programs, off-farm employment, lack of personnel and tourism are some of the main drivers for summer pasture development in the past and future. Thirdly, this analysis detects the potential pressure of wolf presence on small ruminant summer farming. Nevertheless, this impact should still be considered modest compared to other driving processes that have started before the return of the wolves. Based on this, the study finally discusses the importance of focusing on targeted funding, the revalorization of the shepherd profession and the balance between tourism and livestock farming to support summer pasture farming in the future.

1. Introduction

The term mountain summer pasture (hereinafter summer pasture) is defined as the semi-natural grassland above the permanent settlement boundary used for livestock grazing during the summer months [1,2]. These pastures, also called alpine pasture farming areas [3,4], are examples of habitats created by the interactions of environmental factors, such as climate and topography, and human activities. On one hand, these pastures guarantee the provision of forage to livestock and lead to work relief in the valley; on the other hand, their traditional agricultural use provides an important contribution to site-specific biodiversity and keeping the landscape open, with high recreational and cultural value [1,5,6]. This site-specific biodiversity is the result of small-scale changes in site conditions and the associated mosaic of vegetation types, and it relies on extensive grazing. For these reasons, the European Commission promotes the extensive management of livestock on pastures with low yield as a promising possibility to counter biodiversity decline, and defines it as high nature value farming [7,8].

Summer pasture grazing is widespread in the Alps in different geographic and natural contexts with different livestock breeds, mainly cattle, sheep and goats [9]. Unfortunately, the intensification of agricultural practices at valley bottoms and the abandonment of high elevation agricultural areas and traditional land use types have caused a deterioration of many of these summer pastures during the last decades, including a loss of biodiversity and landscape attractivity [10,11].

Since the return of the wolf, the predator has increasingly been labeled as a threat to a species-rich alpine cultural landscape in public debates, but also in reference books [12,13]. In these discussions, the wolf is often assigned the main blame for the abandonment of summer pastures and the loss of biodiversity. Other influencing factors, such as socio-cultural, agro-political, technological, economic and operational driving forces, which have led to agro-structural changes, are often ignored in these discussions [14,15], and only few scientific studies have investigated the socioeconomic impact of the wolves’ return and the necessity to use herd protection measures on summer pastures [16,17,18,19,20].

1.1. The Situation in South Tyrol

As in other alpine areas, in the Italian province of South Tyrol (hereinafter ST), agriculture is confronted with fundamental agro-structural changes, which mainly started in the 1960s. The livestock sector has shifted towards intensification with fewer but larger dairy farms with intensified land use and the economic marginalization of sheep and goat farming [21]. Additionally, the agricultural focus in the valley floors (up to 1000 m.a.s.l.) has changed from arable and livestock farms towards more profitable permanent crops, mostly apples and grape. This development has led to a decrease in livestock farms with around 35% abandonment between 1982 and 2020 [22].

Changes in livestock farms in the valley are closely connected with changes on summer pastures, which cover around 33% of ST and play an important role for the local economy as a highly frequented tourism destination [23,24]. Many summer pastures are managed from the valley; therefore, staff are not on site permanently and livestock are mostly unattended. Especially in central and eastern parts of the province with predominantly private pastures, the majority have no or only one person responsible for the management of livestock and terrain [11]. Heated discussions on wolf impact also emerged in this region after the predator returned in 2010, following more than 120 years of absence. In 2021, a minimum number of 30 individuals can be assumed [25]. Several demonstrations and petitions to remove wolves from ST to protect traditional summer pasture activities, especially concerning sheep and goats, took place in the last five years [26,27]. Livestock farmers experience wolf predation on their animals, with sheep on summer pastures being most affected, causing more than 130,000€ of damages in 2022 [28]. While the responsible provincial authority offers funding for herd protection, most livestock farmers still doubt the compatibility of fences, shepherds and guardian dogs with the present local circumstances. Besides the conflict with direct predation losses, the main arguments against livestock protection measures are prohibitively high additional costs and workload, especially in steep areas, leading to the abandonment of summer pastures [27,29]. Until now, however, no systematic data analysis on the development and status of summer pastures and the impact of wolves compared to other drivers was conducted in ST. This information could be crucial to objectivizing the polarized discussions during the last thirteen years.

1.2. Aim

The aim of this study is to explore the relationships between social, economic and natural drivers that determine the development of summer pasture use in ST. The focus lies on small ruminants, especially sheep, as it represents the sector most vulnerable to the wolf’s return and stands at the center of the related discussion on the future of summer grazing [28].

The authors set the hypothesis that there are different drivers to influence summer pasturing in ST and that the wolf is only one among several. This leads to the following research questions:

• What is the recent state of small ruminant farming and summer pasture grazing in ST?
• What are the main drivers to influence the development of summer pasture grazing in ST?

Finally, the study attempts to highlight the most pressing problems and implementable solutions to tackle in order to preserve summer pasturing in the province. The discussion will dedicate a separate chapter to the impact of the wolves’ return as the impetus for this study.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. The Study Area of South Tyrol

The study area of ST lies in the north-eastern part of the Italian Alps (Figure 1). The province covers 7400 km² and counts around 533,000 inhabitants, of which approximately 38% live in the five largest cities. Most people work in the tertiary (69.9%) and secondary sector (23.9%), while the number of persons employed in the agricultural sector decreased from 14% in 1986 to 6.2% in 2020 [30,31]. The provincial territory ranges from 230 to 3900 m above sea level, with about 40% above 2000 m above sea level.

Following the Council Regulation (EC) No.1698/2005, 94% of the total area of ST belongs to mountain territory [32]. Based on this, the local agriculture is divided into two areas: favored valley regions with intensive fruit and wine horticulture and mountain farming regions, also named alpine agriculture [33], focusing on grassland and dairy farming combined with tourism income. With an average of 11.9 ha of cultivated land per farm, the local agriculture is small-structured, almost exclusively done by family smallholders and clearly below the European average of 16 ha. Livestock farms usually manage larger areas, but a considerable part of their land consists of less productive grazing areas or summer pastures which cannot be cultivated by machinery [21].

2.2. Data Collection and Analysis

This study followed an explanatory two-phase mixed method design with a sequential data analysis process to record the past and present situation of small ruminant farming and summer pastures in ST [34]. In the first stage, the study collected and reviewed administrative data published by the national and provincial statistic institute and other provincial administrative offices (especially the Office of Mountain Economy and the Office for Hunting and Fishing). Additionally, a literature review was performed by reviewing the bibliography by Bätzing [2] and by using Google Scholar and local libraries’ search engines under the keywords “mountain summer pasture”, “driver”, “livestock farming” and “small ruminant” in the geographic context of the study area in German, English and Italian language. The study included the key literature related to those keywords in the context of the study area (see Table 1 for the references included).

In the second stage, six qualitative, systematic interviews were conducted with purposively selected local experts (

Table 2. Overview of the expert interviews conducted between January 2022 and February 2022.

Expert	Professional Expertise	Function	Years of Expertise
1	mountain economy, agricultural subsidy schemes, agricultural politics	Collaborator Provincial Office for Mountain Economy	35
2	livestock husbandry, agricultural subsidy schemes	Management Position Provincial Office for Livestock Breeding	25
3	natural resource management, alpine ecology	Professor for Alpine Ecology and Landscape	>30
4	small ruminant breeding, markets and trends	Management Position Small Ruminant Breeders’ Association	31
5	mountain farming, livestock husbandry, agricultural subsidy schemes, agricultural politics	Management Position Mountain Farming Advisory Council	>40
6	rural development, socio-economy in mountain areas, agritourism	Professor for Economic Geography	21

) to amplify and address quantitative data results that needed more in-depth explanation or clarification [34,35]. The semi-structured interviews were conducted between January 2022 and February 2022 and were recorded. Afterwards, an explorative expert interview analysis of the transcribed responses was completed using NVivo software (Release 1.6.1; © 1999–2022 QSR International). Based on the literature review and the expert interviews, the main drivers were defined and discussed. The results section of this study is structured by the themes identified in the analysis.

Table 1. Overview of the drivers identified that influence the development of summer pasture farming in South Tyrol. − = negative impact; + = positive impact; / = no impact.

Identified Driver		Direction	Explanation	Source
Agricultural subsidies		−	Inappropriate use of subsidies	[36] Experts (5/6)
		−	Accessibility provokes pasture management neglection	Experts (3/6)
		+	Accessibility favors continuation of farming activities	[21,37] Experts (3/6)
		+	Diverse and extensive income support	[38,39,40,41,42] Experts (4/6)
Off-farm employment		−	Primary employment in more profitable sectors	[33,40,43,44,45] Experts (4/6)
		−	Part-time farming neglects work intensive activities	Experts (3/6)
		+	Part-time farming supports farm continuation	[41,42,46] Experts (3/6)
Personnel		−	Lack of personnel impacts pasture management	[25,44,47,48,49,50] Experts (5/6)
Tourism		−	Prioritization of tourism over livestock	[37,44,46] Experts (5/6)
		+	Additional income	[21,40,41,44,48] Experts (4/6)
Other drivers	Natural conditions	+	Fodder source and work release during summer	[40,50,51] Experts (5/6)
		−	Steepness, low productivity, harsh working conditions	[39,43,46] Experts (3/6)
	Market orientation	−	Intensive fruit cultivation in the valley bottoms	[21,37,39,46,50]
		−	Fewer but larger farms in the valley	[52] Experts (5/6)
		−	Mountain pasture products niche market	[44] Experts (4/6)
		+	Revalorization of high-quality local products	[41] Experts (2/6)
	Farmers’ commitment	−	Narrow-mindedness prevents adaptation	Experts (4/6)
		+	Strong connection to tradition and culture	[33,40,42,53] Experts (6/6)
	The return of wolves	−	Predation by wolves	[45] Experts (3/6)
		+	Wolves chance for pasture revalorization Wolves have no impact	Experts (3/6)

Table 1. Overview of the drivers identified that influence the development of summer pasture farming in South Tyrol. − = negative impact; + = positive impact; / = no impact.

Identified Driver		Direction	Explanation	Source
Agricultural subsidies		−	Inappropriate use of subsidies	[36] Experts (5/6)
		−	Accessibility provokes pasture management neglection	Experts (3/6)
		+	Accessibility favors continuation of farming activities	[21,37] Experts (3/6)
		+	Diverse and extensive income support	[38,39,40,41,42] Experts (4/6)
Off-farm employment		−	Primary employment in more profitable sectors	[33,40,43,44,45] Experts (4/6)
		−	Part-time farming neglects work intensive activities	Experts (3/6)
		+	Part-time farming supports farm continuation	[41,42,46] Experts (3/6)
Personnel		−	Lack of personnel impacts pasture management	[25,44,47,48,49,50] Experts (5/6)
Tourism		−	Prioritization of tourism over livestock	[37,44,46] Experts (5/6)
		+	Additional income	[21,40,41,44,48] Experts (4/6)
Other drivers	Natural conditions	+	Fodder source and work release during summer	[40,50,51] Experts (5/6)
		−	Steepness, low productivity, harsh working conditions	[39,43,46] Experts (3/6)
	Market orientation	−	Intensive fruit cultivation in the valley bottoms	[21,37,39,46,50]
		−	Fewer but larger farms in the valley	[52] Experts (5/6)
		−	Mountain pasture products niche market	[44] Experts (4/6)
		+	Revalorization of high-quality local products	[41] Experts (2/6)
	Farmers’ commitment	−	Narrow-mindedness prevents adaptation	Experts (4/6)
		+	Strong connection to tradition and culture	[33,40,42,53] Experts (6/6)
	The return of wolves	−	Predation by wolves	[45] Experts (3/6)
		+	Wolves chance for pasture revalorization Wolves have no impact	Experts (3/6)

3. Results

The research has revealed a lack of reliable data series related to summer pastures in ST over longer periods. For example, continuous data on the development of summer pasture areas and associated livestock numbers are only available with the start of the digital recordings in 2008 and 2016, respectively (A. Kasal, personal communication, 21 February 2021; Provincial Veterinary Service, personal communication, 16 March 2021). Therefore, the study relied on the total number of livestock retrieved from the national agricultural census data and expert interviews to estimate trends in this context. Data before the 1980s refer to sources evidenced in the literature review. The latter provided very few, and often relatively old references with a direct connection to the situation in the study area. In total, 22 reports and scientific publications coped with the keywords selected and were considered in this analysis (see Table 1). Considering this, the qualitative interviews provided crucial insights to fill the knowledge gaps and minimize the errors in the dataset.

3.1. The State of Small Ruminant Farming and Summer Pasture Grazing

The number of farms holding goat or sheep increased by more than 10% from 1982 to 2020 [22,54], as did the overall number of small ruminants: the goat stock grew considerably by 64% and the sheep stock by 37% within these 40 years (Figure 2) [54,55].

Nevertheless, 5/6 experts confirm the hobby and non-revenue related character of the local small ruminants’ husbandry, although some local companies sell wool products or work with sheep manure [38]. After a clear decrease of slaughtered sheep and goat for meat consumption in the 1970s and 1980s, the number kept increasing in the 1990s, surpassing that recorded in the 1960s, and arrived to the maximum number of 25,000 heads slaughtered in 2020. A similar development can be observed for sheep wool with around 900,000 kg produced in the 1960s, followed by a clear decrease in the 1970–80s and then an increase until 2017 (most recent data source), when 1.1 million kilograms of wool was produced [30,56].

By now, South Tyrol has 1598 active summer pastures that mostly lie on high elevation areas above the tree line (Table 3). Although 5/6 experts classify the number of pastures as stable with only a slight decline during the last decades, they expect numbers to decrease further in the future. In fact, only 55% of the agricultural areas in the subalpine level and less than 30% of the areas in the alpine level are still cultivated today [39].

Today, young cattle spend the summer on mountain pastures alongside most sheep and goats in the province. The high milk prices in the summer and the acid soil on many pastures, which is not so suitable for dairy farming, are the main reason for low adult cattle numbers, as confirmed by the literature [25,57] and 4/6 experts. Small ruminant numbers experience an increasing trend, starting from the systematic registration of livestock taken to summer pastures in 2016, with a 4.6% increase for sheep and 24% for goats until 2021 (Provincial Veterinary Service, personal communication, 9 August 2022). The largest and most numerous sheep or goat pastures can be found in the west, on large farming community areas with 55% of all small ruminants roaming in the forestry districts of Schlanders and Meran (see Figure 1). Nevertheless, the literature [58] and 5/6 experts expect an ongoing trend towards fewer but larger farms, intensification with generation turnover and an increase in the abandonment of small-scale farms in the future. According to 4/6 experts, summer pastures are influenced by this development, as some areas lack livestock and are confronted with scrub encroachment and forest expansion while others, especially in touristic areas, are overused.

Table 3. Summary of summer pastures characteristics in South Tyrol. Data sources: Gross grazing area [38]; Ownership [59]; Livestock numbers: Provincial Veterinary Service, [25]. Percentages based on own calculations. * Numbers include animals from South Tyrolean farms on pastures in South Tyrol and other provinces. Number of animals in other provinces is statistically not relevant (Provincial Veterinary Service, personal communication, 9 August 2022). ** Proportion of animals taken to summer pastures from total stock registered in the province.

Category	Measurement Unit	Percentage
Gross Grazing Area	<10 ha	45
	10–50 ha	26
	50–100 ha	12
	>100 ha	17
Ownership	Private	71
	Farming community	13
	Co-owned	7
	Public body	5
	Others	4
Livestock numbers (status: 2021) *	Cattle	40 **
	Sheep	81 **
	Goat	55 **

Table 3. Summary of summer pastures characteristics in South Tyrol. Data sources: Gross grazing area [38]; Ownership [59]; Livestock numbers: Provincial Veterinary Service, [25]. Percentages based on own calculations. * Numbers include animals from South Tyrolean farms on pastures in South Tyrol and other provinces. Number of animals in other provinces is statistically not relevant (Provincial Veterinary Service, personal communication, 9 August 2022). ** Proportion of animals taken to summer pastures from total stock registered in the province.

Category	Measurement Unit	Percentage
Gross Grazing Area	<10 ha	45
	10–50 ha	26
	50–100 ha	12
	>100 ha	17
Ownership	Private	71
	Farming community	13
	Co-owned	7
	Public body	5
	Others	4
Livestock numbers (status: 2021) *	Cattle	40 **
	Sheep	81 **
	Goat	55 **

3.2. Drivers Affecting the Use of Summer Pastures in ST

Based on the literature review and expert interviews, this explorative study highlights four main drivers which seem to have a particularly strong influence on summer pasture use in ST, and some other drivers that have an influence, but they seem to be less in relation to others (Table 1). The drivers, often with both hindering and supporting aspects, are presented as follows.

3.2.1. Agricultural Subsidies

The extensive and diverse subsidy opportunities for agricultural farms, including summer pastures, play a key role in the preservation and competitiveness of mountain agriculture in ST [25]. The agricultural policy focuses on preserving as many farms as possible and part-time farming is strongly encouraged. One example is the large public investments in infrastructure developments in rural areas. In 1983, 42% of the summer pastures were not accessible by road [40]. By 2017, the percentage dropped to 11%, with 4% of the summer pastures located in protected areas [60]. Three experts explicitly name these investments in accessibility as a massive work relief, which has favored the continuation of summer pasture activities. At the same time, it also means that personnel and farmers spend less time in the area as they can drive up and down every day. Even if accessibility has improved, the same experts underline the risk of neglected pasture management and reduced attention towards the animals.

All experts agree that summer pasture management would hardly be feasible without agricultural subsidies and 4/6 state that the amount of income support is sufficiently high. Pasture owners or managers are eligible for monetary support from the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), namely the rural development program between 1978 and 2019 and the direct payments per hectare since 2015 [25,61]. However, 5/6 experts criticize these direct payments without conditions for their lack of targeted use. In their opinion, targeted subsidies are strongly needed to foster the investment in well-trained shepherds and proper pasture management, as already stated by Streifeneder et al. [41] and Hilpold [36]. Additionally, besides the European subsidy schemes, the provincial contribution supports investments in shepherds’ housing and livestock shelters on pastures, and on accessibility and pasture management improvements, such as livestock watering and gathering areas [25].

3.2.2. Off-Farm Employment

The general development in the employment sector exerts a decisive influence; until the middle of the nineteenth century, around 70% of people in ST worked in the primary sector. The situation shifted until 2000, with more than 93% of people working in the secondary and tertiary sector today [30,46]. Streifeneder [42] and 4/6 experts report the attraction of better paid jobs in other sectors which often provoke the decision of the young generation to abandon the family farming activity. The working decision is also based on economic considerations, with more than 60% of the self-managed farms running as an additional or secondary source of income [43,56]. This leads to a balancing act: on one hand, part-time farming reduces the number of farm abandonments in ST; on the other hand, labor-intensive activities, such as dairy farming or the cultivation of marginal areas, are reduced as much as possible due to time constraints [21]. Here, the opinion of the experts differs significantly; while one half underlines the importance of part-time farming against farm and pasture abandonment, the other half doubt the long-term success, as young farmers reject this double burden.

3.2.3. Personnel

The lack of well paid, experienced shepherds is classified by 5/6 experts as a major challenge for summer pastures in ST. The related challenges and consequences are, firstly, that maintenance measures are often neglected, and that these areas suffer from afforestation in the medium term which consequently causes biodiversity losses and over- or underuse of grazing areas [37,52]. Secondly, the daily presence of a shepherd improves animal welfare and is a necessary component of herd protection against large predators [25].

ST counted more than 1300 shepherds for around 101,000 animals on summer pastures in 1881. Between 1881 and 1975, the milk and dairy industry grew and pure sheep pastures, formally available in high numbers, became very rare [40,47]. Since the 1970s, it has become increasingly difficult to find shepherds for multiple seasons, and the employment costs are often too high, especially for small private pastures. Consequently, the number of shepherds diminished, and were often substituted with inexperienced and unpaid family members or old people, or employed with low pay rates [46,48,49]. Today, no official statistics exist, but the number of all day present shepherds is estimated to be very low [25].

3.2.4. Tourism

In the 1970s, the additional pasture income from small tourism businesses made it possible to pay wages above the provincial average and had a positive impact on the continuation of pasture grazing [48].

Today, 5/6 experts highlight a progressing imbalance between income from tourism and livestock husbandry as one of the main aspects influencing summer pasture grazing: firstly, pasture management, including shepherding and shrub clearance, is often neglected because more time is invested in the catering of tourists. Secondly, there is a general trend to invest more time and resources in the more profitable tourism sector than in livestock farming at home farms [46]. Although 4/6 experts agree that additional income from tourism can be crucial, especially for part-time farms, 5/6 experts name this shift from livestock farming to tourism as the primary challenge to preserve traditional summer pasture farming in the future.

3.2.5. Other Drivers

Natural, Market Related and Social Aspects

A positive driver is the crucial work relief and fodder source during the summer months for local livestock farmers [40,46]. Especially in previous decades, many small farms only achieved their arable food sources and the possibility to work as full-time farmers by bringing all their animals to summer pastures [50]. Depending on the location and weather conditions, the animals spend up to seven months away from the home farm, allowing the farmer to focus on other activities, such as haymaking, in this work-intensive period of the year. On the other side, the harsh natural circumstances and low financial viability have a negative effect on the use of summer pasture, interlinked with the general shift in society and labor market [21]. Market orientation towards larger, intensively run farms in the valley must be considered a negative driver as summer pasture products cannot compete with an open market. Today, apple and wine production account for a significantly larger share of added value than the livestock sector, with 60% compared to 36%, respectively [62]. In the last decades, wool has been replaced by other materials and the meat and dairy sector has been increasingly sourced from industrial large-scale livestock farming [44]. The market for summer pasture products is niche with limited financial viability, confirmed by 4/6 experts. Today, steep and small areas are often neglected as the effort to bring livestock there is not compensated by the financial return. Additionally, the number of people interested and capable of working under these harsh conditions over a longer period is limited.

Another twofold driver is the farmers’ commitment: on the one hand, the share of farm succession in ST is higher than in many other areas of the Alps. The local mountain farmers show a strong connection to tradition and thus a desire to preserve local culture. Often the economic income is rated lower than the emotional and cultural values [21,53]. All six interviewed experts underlined the reluctancy with which current farmers often give up their farms and the associated preservation of local cultures, which also includes summer pasturing traditions. Interested newcomers without an agricultural background could struggle with the harsh working conditions and low financial viability, and half of the experts underlined the importance of supporting existing livestock farmers on mountain farms and shepherds on pastures in any way possible to avoid abandonment. On the other hand, however, 4/6 experts point out that thinking in terms of traditions often impedes changes in the mindset, which consequently hinders necessary adaptation processes to new developments, such as the return of large carnivores.

The Return of Wolves

The literature review detected only one study that so far investigated the attitude towards wolf return in ST among society [63] and one among the agricultural sector [45], with a clear negative attitude among farmers and a perception of threat for summer pasture activities. The expert interviews conducted here reveal diverging opinions. Most experts name the renewed presence of wolves and the necessity to use livestock protection measures as one of many challenges that summer pasturing is confronted with. The interviewees see the farmers’ emotional attachment to their animals and the forced management changes with protection measures as the central aspects to be considered—which also bring the problem to the forefront in comparison to others. In detail then, three experts consider the wolf as a negative impact, especially for small ruminant farming, and two consider it to have no impact at all. One expert suggests that the wolves’ return is both a challenge and a chance to properly adapt pasture management through the return of shepherds and guided grazing, with benefits for biodiversity and landscape attractiveness.

4. Discussion

The results of this study highlight some interesting findings, including the increasing number of sheep and goat farms and stock numbers. One explanation may be linked with a steady decrease in cattle farms, which decreased by 42% between 1982 and 2020 from 12,792 to 7400 [22]. Here, interviewed experts noted that farmers may give up cattle, but in order not to quit farming altogether, keep sheep or goats, which are less labor-intensive and costly. Goat husbandry especially is currently experiencing an upswing, mostly among hobby farmers. This result contradicts trends in other areas of Europe and Italy [55,64] and shows that the local sector may be more resilient than expected or that other drivers, not detected in this study, must have an impact. Secondly, subsidy programs, off-farm employment and tourism are some main drivers for summer pasture development. This result is in line with Streifeneder et al. [41], who name the same drivers as crucial for safeguarding the livelihood of alpine pasture farms. Additionally, to the authors’ best knowledge, this is the first study to highlight the key function of personnel in ST, especially shepherds, to preserve summer pasture in the future.

4.1. The Guiding Power of Agricultural Subsidies

Agricultural subsidies, especially on the European level, are a considerable driver to influence the preservation of summer pastures and seem to be the only way to compensate for the low rentability and high workload [25,65,66]. Projections from Renwick et al. [67] clearly showed that extensive farming, such as summer pasture grazing, faces a higher level of risk of being abandoned without CAP support. Nevertheless, unconditional income support is being questioned in other contexts [41,68,69] as well as here as unjustified income by mere proof of ownership. These studies highlight the need to target subsides for pasture management and personnel, as also underlined by 5/6 experts in this study. The previous European agri-environmental measures, established to support environmentally friendly farming such as pasture-based farming, have often been criticized for their low impact rates due to their voluntary nature [70]. In this context, O’Rourke et al. [71] and Marini et al. [72] talked about ‘paying by results’ or ‘payment for ecosystem services’ to support High Nature Value farming. For example, in Switzerland, staggered payments supporting permanent shepherds’ presence and guided grazing are already installed [73]. The newly introduced CAP eco-schemes, including “Shepherding on open spaces and between permanent crops, transhumance and common grazing”, could support summer pasture grazing [74]. At the time of this publication, no official document on the future distribution of these subsidies or on targeted payments were available for ST. Another aspect is that tourism profits from the cultural landscape with high aesthetic and recreational value, formed also through the continuous grazing activities on summer pastures. More than half of the yearly tourist numbers visit ST during the summer period and name hiking activities and the attractiveness of the traditional landscape as the main reasons for a holiday in this province [24,30]. A form of tourism taxes could be introduced to support the preservation of this landscape and biodiversity, as already successfully put into practice in the Southern Black Forest Nature Park [75]. The willingness to also pay for the nonmarket function of agriculture is growing [76,77,78] as summer pasture farming forms a variety of regulating, provisioning and cultural ecosystem services [79]. This would allow us to move away from conservative payment structures and develop new communication and marketing strategies to connect with the general public and increase the market value of the products [68]. This strategy must, however, consider the fact that expectations from the landscape and its offers may vary between locals and tourists [78].

4.2. The Impact of Side Farming

The impact of part-time farming on agricultural activities in general is considered controversial in the literature, with some studies arguing it could increase the chance for farm abandonment [80,81] and others viewing it as a factor of stability [41,82]. A recent study on part-time farming in Europe showed a decrease in secondary income farming and a slight increase in additional farming and expects an increase in larger, more professional farms [83]. For summer pasture use, part-time farming is often problematic as proper pasture management would need manual labor and time, which is often lacking [66]. Politics, associations and administration support part-time farming in ST as a factor of stability, however a representative study measuring its impact on livestock farming is not available at this time [25].

4.3. The Rediscovery of the Personnel’s Role

The lack of professional personnel to control the animals and manage the pasture in a positive way is a key challenge for local summer pasture use, but notable also in other areas of Europe [15,84]. The role of the shepherd to prevent forest regrowth and keep the open landscape through guided grazing, especially in the face of decreasing livestock numbers, as stated by Lombardi [85] and 4/6 experts, is evident. Additionally, today the shepherd profession experiences a revival, linked with the return of wolves and the necessity to implement herd protection measures [86]. However, the costs for shepherds often seem too high, especially for small herds, and the social recognition of the shepherd profession is still too low to pay an appropriate salary [66]. In ST, the first initiatives to revalorize this profession started in 2020 with the launch of the European LIFE project LIFEstockProtect and the introduction of a shepherd training course with an official profession recognition by the provincial administration. Nevertheless, the number of experienced shepherds is still very low [25] and no salary benchmarks are set.

4.4. The Ambivalent Relationship to Tourism

Tourism is another driver to impact summer pasture use in the study area. Farms offering rooms for tourists have more than doubled in the last 25 years [87], with a 10% share of all overnight stays in the province in 2021 [88]. The direct and indirect impacts could be positive by generating additional income on the summer pasture or the home farm, or negative by shifting the attention towards hospitality and away from livestock. The results from this study indicate a negative impact, but further research is needed to make general valid statements. Research from other areas is twofold: on the positive side, tourism may offer a complementary income, which may reduce or prevent farm and summer pasture abandonment [10,41,89], it requires the preservation of the semi-natural landscape as a desired destination [65,72] and it offers multifunctional use and fosters the innovation potential of farms [90]. On the negative side, better income opportunities in tourism may lead to the marginalization or abandonment of livestock related activities [91], provoke a neglection or loss of knowledge of the optimal use of pasture [66,92], or may overload personnel [93]. For sure, an integrative concept is needed to combine agriculture, tourism and rural development in a fruitful way, such as mentioned in the form of tourism taxes before [89,94].

4.5. Natural, Market Related and Social Considerations

The impact of natural circumstances as a driver of summer pasture use must be classified as two-sided. On the negative side, the high cultivation costs combined with low yield provoke the abandonment of marginal areas in steep slopes as no longer being economically or timely rentable [95,96]. Additionally, the harsh working conditions which involve working long hours during extreme weather may be difficult to endure for a longer period [97]. On the positive side, firstly, the use of summer pastures was and still is an essential fodder source and an important work relief for the farms in the valley. Secondly, the land in the valley is more fertile and can also be used for crop cultivation [3]. Thirdly, the benefits for the animals’ health, resistance and fitness are undoubted [65,95]. Additionally, the natural constraints could be turned into an added value with the ability of providing environmental, historical and cultural insights. The recent demand for high quality products, animal welfare and traceability of food sources favors this opportunity [41,94,98] and could open new perspectives in the face of difficult competitiveness with intensive agriculture in the valley [80]. Nevertheless, a clear strategy is necessary to open the market to the marginal sheep sector and guarantee a coverage of production costs [66,99].

From a social viewpoint, passion, tradition and place attachment are relevant and fundamentally contribute to continuing high mountain farming and summer pasturing in spite of fewer economic gains in ST and in other mountainous areas [100,101]. Schmitt (1997), quoted by Strijker [102] and named again by Terres et al. [82], noted in general a high willingness to be a farmer where the income must be very low to leave the primary sector. On the other side, long-established habits may impede innovation and provoke conflict between modern and traditional values, such as a change in animal husbandry systems on pasture due to the return of wolves [15].

4.6. The Impact of Wolves

The return of wolves can be considered one of many drivers to impact summer pasture farming in the study area. The additional costs and efforts related to herd protection measures discourage livestock farmers and cause doubt on the future of summer grazing, as also reported in other studies [2,100,103]. In this context, Gervasi et al. [104] emphasized the higher difficulties with reinstalling traditional grazing practices with necessary protection measures in an area where they have been forgotten, compared to maintaining them in areas with continuous historic use. Especially “hobby” farmers with small herds are under pressure with wolf presence, and herd protection measures are a limited option due to financial and time restrictions [17]. These difficulties in husbandry adaptations and small herds largely reflect the situation in ST and may explain the low willingness to reduce the impact of wolves on summer pasturing through livestock protection measures [25]. In Switzerland, with longer wolf presence and similar conditions on pastures as in ST, the process of adaptation has been ongoing for more than 25 years. Firstly, it has led to a general increase in goat numbers and a decrease in sheep numbers, which seem to be more difficult to protect, and secondly to a positive increase in guided grazing and permanent shepherding on pastures [103]. This is a development that could be transferred to ST, if trends in livestock number and initiatives to revalorize the shepherd profession continue in the upcoming years. On one side, the financial burden and workload linked to this change in animal husbandry must be considered [94,105]. Additionally, the stress that livestock farmers experience with wolves can trigger negative reactions, such as pasture abandonment or small-scale fencing, with negative consequences for species richness and abundance [106]. On the other side, the necessity to adopt guided grazing could also result in an added benefit for landscape preservation, biodiversity and animal welfare, with the constant presence of shepherds and the cultivation of marginal areas [107]. Forest regrowth linked to the abandonment of marginal areas on summer pastures has been documented since the 1950s in ST and is an ongoing process [21]. Additional nutrient inputs and changing climatic conditions enhance fodder growth, and livestock only consume around half of the fodder resources produced on summer pastures [21]. Taking this into account, the open, species-rich cultural landscape and the image of the alpine pastures will change fundamentally [10,72]. Future discussions on the value of summer pastures for biodiversity must therefore also reflect on another conservation perspective, as from a process-oriented, dynamic point of view, the abandonment of pasture areas and passive rewilding can also have positive impacts on ecosystems [108,109].

To sum up, until now the impact of wolves on small ruminant farming and the abandonment of summer pastures should still be considered modest compared to other driving forces discussed here and in other studies [15,51,110]. As for ST, these processes go back to before the return of the wolf, and within this explorative study, no long-term cause and effect relationship could yet be determined. Nevertheless, a holistic approach will be necessary to counteract the ongoing abandonment of pastoralism due to economic and social drivers, which could be fortified with damages caused by an inappropriate management related to the wolf presence [14,104].

4.7. Limitations

A limitation of this study concerns the lack of reliable data series. Since no continuous data on the development of summer pasture areas and associated livestock numbers were available for a longer period of time, a quantitative data analysis was not possible. Additionally, concerning the impact drivers, data monitoring and previous research were too sparse or missing, so we could not talk about cause-effect relations. Therefore, caution should be exercised when extending these results to other regions and trying to prioritize drivers of impact quantitatively.

5. Conclusions

This study provides a first overview on the status of small livestock farming and summer pasture use in ST and should serve as a starting point for future research on this topic. One conclusion of this study is the lack of a comprehensive, long-term dataset for summer pastures and the related livestock movement in the study area. This fact makes it difficult to describe the development, current situation and likely future scenarios in a reliable way, not only for strict scientific use, but also in a more general way for dissemination and educational purposes. A second insight is that impact drivers are interrelated with the wider economic, social and natural development and a one-to-one relation is blurred. Their number is manifold but based on the current experts’ experiences, and the major challenges to consider in the near future seem to be the re-evaluation of subsidies, the unclear impact of side farming, the lack of personnel and the balance between tourism and agriculture. Based on results of our research, the following suggestions are presented:

1.

Efforts to improve long-term datasets should further be intensified to be able to work in a more targeted way. Related to this, more research is needed to give a balanced overall picture of drivers or even allow for a quantitative weighting of impacts.

2.

The high dependence of farmers on public subsidies could make them vulnerable to political and societal changes in subsidy distribution. A new form of support must be introduced, such as compensation for environmental services or landscape tourism taxes.

3.

As shown, shepherds will play a key role in the preservation of high nature value areas, especially in steep zones, and contribute to landscape preservation, biodiversity and animal welfare. The first initiatives to revalorize this profession have been launched, but there is still a considerable need for improvement of working conditions, such as appropriate housing, regulation of working hours and payment.

4.

As long as tourism serves to maintain summer pasturing, it should be recognized as a good opportunity to increase income. However, when there is a growing imbalance between agriculture and hospitality, tourism may cause more harm in the long term. Careful management and monitoring should prevent such a development.

5.

The issue of the wolf return is relatively new compared to the other drivers, but due to its emotional value, it will be important to tackle in a proactive way.