Towards Sustainable Vegetable Farming: Exploring Agroecological Alternatives to Chemical Products in the Fez-Meknes Region of Morocco
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Areas and Sampling
2.2. Sampling Method
2.3. Data Collection and Processing
3. Results
3.1. Farmers’ Descriptive Information
3.2. Vegetable Crops and Agricultural Practices Adopted by Farmers
3.3. Organic and Non-Organic Fertilizers Used by Farmers
3.4. Pesticides Use and Sources of Agrochemical Information
3.5. Rotation of Active Materials and Calendar of Treatments
3.6. Compliance with Pre-Harvest Interval and Postharvest Treatments with Fungicides
3.7. Alternative Practices and Products to Pesticides Used by the Farmers
3.8. Alternative and Chemical Methods Comparaison in Crop Management
3.9. Damage Caused by Fungicides, Insecticides, Herbicides, and Alternative Practices on Crops
3.10. Farmers’ Awareness of the Danger of Pesticides to Human Health and Environment
3.11. Safety Measures after and during Phytosanitary Treatments
3.12. Status of Adoption and the Importance of Agroecological Practices
3.13. Obstacles and Motivations to Adopt Agroecological Practices
3.14. Major Problems Encountered in the Production of Vegetable Crops
3.15. Relationships between Farmers’ Attributes and Management Behavior in Vegetable Farming Systems
4. Discussion
4.1. Soil Fertilization
4.2. Pesticide Use
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Eigenbrod, C.; Gruda, N. Urban vegetable for food security in cities. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2015, 35, 483–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MAPMDREF. MAPMDREF. 2019. Available online: https://www.agriculture.gov.ma/fr/filiere/maraichage-de-primeurs (accessed on 6 March 2023).
- Triki, B. Lagriculture au Maroc Évaluation du potentiel du Plan Maroc Vert (PMV) et accès aux Fonds Carbone Sommaire. 2012. Available online: https://www.ada.gov.ma/sites/default/files/2019-04/%C3%89valuation%20du%20potentiel%20du%20PMV%20et%20acc%C3%A8s%20aux%20Fonds%20Carbone.pdf (accessed on 16 January 2023).
- Kumar, S.; Layek, S.; Upadhyay, A. Potential impact of climate changes on quality, biotic and abiotic stresses in vegetable production—A Review Potential impact of climate changes on quality, biotic and abiotic stresses in vegetable production—A Review. Int. J. Chem. Stud. 2019, 7, 636–643. [Google Scholar]
- Mondedji, D.; Nyamador, W.S.; Amevoin, K.; Glitho, A. Analyse de quelques aspects du système de production légumière et perception des producteurs de l’utilisation d’extraits botaniques dans la gestion des insectes ravageurs des cultures maraîchères au Sud du Togo. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci. 2015, 9, 98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abbou, M.; Chabbi, M.; Benicha, M. Assessment of phytosanitary practices on the environment: Case study potato of Loukkos. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2022, 195, 352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blankson, G.K.; Osei-Fosu, P.; Adeendze, E.A.; Ashie, D. Contamination levels of organophosphorus and synthetic pyrethroid pesticides in vegetables marketed in Accra, Ghana. Food Control 2016, 68, 174–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salghi, R.; Luis, G.; Rubio, C.; Hormatallah, A.; Bazzi, L.; Gutiérrez, A.J.; Hardisson, A. Pesticide residues in tomatoes from greenhouses in Souss Massa Valley, Morocco. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2012, 88, 358–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bahouq, M.; Bahouq, H.; Soulaymani, A. Bibliographic review of phytopharmacovigilance actions and measures on plant protection products in Morocco. E3S Web Conf. 2021, 319, 1034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Houzir, M. Plan Cadre National pour les MCPD PLAN SECTORIEL ‘Agriculture et alimentation durables’. 2016. Available online: https://switchmed.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/03.-Sectoral-plan-agriculture-Morocco-in-french.pdf (accessed on 16 January 2023).
- Jallow, M.F.A.; Awadh, D.G.; Albaho, M.S.; Devi, V.Y.; Thomas, B.M. Pesticide knowledge and safety practices among farm workers in Kuwait: Results of a survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramadan, M.F.A.; Abdel-Hamid, M.M.A.; Altorgoman, M.M.F.; AlGaramah, H.A.; Alawi, M.A.; Shati, A.A.; Shweeta, H.A.; Awwad, N.S. Evaluation of pesticide residues in vegetables from the Asir region, Saudi Arabia. Molecules 2020, 25, 205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ben Khadda, Z.; Fagroud, M.; El Karmoudi, Y.; Ezrari, S.; Berni, I.; De Broe, M.; Behl, T.; Bungau, S.G.; Sqalli Houssaini, T. Farmers’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions Regarding Carcinogenic Pesticides in Fez Meknes Region (Morocco). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Punzano, P.; Rahmani, D.; Delgado, M.D.M.C. Adoption and diffusion of agroecological practices in the horticulture of catalonia. Agronomy 2021, 11, 1959. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kerr, R.B.; Madsen, S.; Stüber, M.; Liebert, J.; Enloe, S.; Borghino, N.; Parros, P.; Mutyambai, D.M.; Prudhon, M.; Wezel, A. Can agroecology improve food security and nutrition? A review. Glob. Food Secur. 2021, 29, 100540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wezel, A.; Casagrande, M.; Celette, F.; Vian, J.F.; Ferrer, A.; Peigné, J. Agroecological practices for sustainable agriculture. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2014, 34, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abourabi, Y. Reportage sur l’importance d’adopter l’agroécologie au Maroc; Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung: Rabat, Morocco, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Administratif, D. Découpage Administratif. 2015. Available online: http://www.equipement.gov.ma/Carte-Region/RegionFes/Presentation-de-laregion/Monographie/Pages/Monographie-de-la-region.aspx (accessed on 6 March 2023).
- Hossard, L.; Fadlaoui, A.; Ricote, E.; Belhouchette, H. Assessing the resilience of farming systems on the Saïs plain, Morocco. Reg. Environ. Chang. 2021, 21, 36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nabloussi, A.; Hanine, H.; Harfi, M.E.; Rizki, H. Moroccan sesame: An overview of seed and oil quality. In Science within Food: Up-to-Date Advances on Research and Educational Ideas; Food Science Series; Formatex Research Center S.L.: Badajoz, Spain, 2017; pp. 168–175. ISBN 978-84-947512-1-9. [Google Scholar]
- El Fartassi, I.; Milne, A.E.; El Alami, R.; Rafiqi, M.; Hassall, K.L.; Waine, T.W.; Zawadzka, J.; Diarra, A.; Corstanje, R. Evidence of collaborative opportunities to ensure long-term sustainability in African farming. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 392, 136170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahmed, A.E. Changes in livestock farming systems in the Moroccan Atlas Mountains. Open Agric. 2018, 3, 131–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ben-Daoud, M.; El Mahrad, B.; Elhassnaoui, I.; Moumen, A.; Sayad, A.; ELbouhadioui, M.; Moro, G.A.; El Mezouary, L.; Essahlaoui, A.; Eljaafari, S. Integrated water resources management: An indicator framework for water management system assessment in the R’Dom Sub-basin, Morocco. Environ. Chall. 2021, 3, 100062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alitane, A.; Essahlaoui, A.; Van Griensven, A.; Yimer, E.A.; Essahlaoui, N.; Mohajane, M.; Chawanda, C.J.; Van Rompaey, A. Towards a Decision-Making Approach of Sustainable Water Resources Management Based on Hydrological Modeling: A Case Study in Central Morocco. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Calatrava, J.; Martínez-Granados, D.; Zornoza, R.; González-Rosado, M.; Lozano-García, B.; Vega-Zamora, M.; Gómez-López, M.D. Barriers and Opportunities for the Implementation of Sustainable Farming Practices in Mediterranean Tree Orchards. Agronomy 2021, 11, 821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rocamora-Montiel, B.; Glenk, K.; Colombo, S. Territorial management contracts as a tool to enhance the sustainability of sloping and mountainous olive orchards: Evidence from a case study in Southern Spain. Land Use Policy 2014, 41, 313–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pleguezuelo, C.R.R.; Zuazo, V.H.D.; Martínez, J.R.F.; Peinado, F.J.M.; Martín, F.M.; Tejero, I.F.G. Organic olive farming in Andalusia, Spain. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2018, 38, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pleguezuelo, C.R.R.; Zuazo, V.H.D.; Martínez, J.R.F.; Peinado, F.J.M.; Martín, F.M.; Tejero, I.F.G. Risks and opportunities of increasing yields in organic farming. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2018, 38, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith Olivia, M.; Cohen Abigail, L.; Rieser Cassandra, J.; Davis Alexandra, G.; Taylor Joseph, M.; Adesanya Adekunle, W.; Jones Matthew, S.; Meier Amanda, R.; Reganold John, P.; Orpet Robert, J.; et al. Organic Farming Provides Reliable Environmental Benefits but Increases Variability in Crop Yields: A Global Meta-Analysis. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2019, 3, 82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knapp, S.; van der Heijden, M.G.A. A global meta-analysis of yield stability in organic and conservation agriculture. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 3632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, M.; Kumar, P.; Kumar, V.; Solanki, I.S.; McDonald, A.J.; Kumar, A.; Poonia, S.P.; Kumar, V.; Ajay, A.; Kumar, A.; et al. Intercomparison of crop establishment methods for improving yield and profitability in the rice-wheat system of Eastern India. Field Crops Res. 2020, 250, 107776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jat, H.S.; Datta, A.; Choudhary, M.; Sharma, P.C.; Yadav, A.K.; Choudhary, V.; Gathala, M.K.; Jat, M.L.; McDonald, A. Climate Smart Agriculture practices improve soil organic carbon pools, biological properties and crop productivity in cereal-based systems of North-West India. CATENA 2019, 181, 104059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khedwal, R.S.; Chaudhary, A.; Sindhu, V.K.; Yadav, D.B.; Kumar, N.; Chhokar, R.S.; Poonia, T.M.; Kumar, Y.; Dahiya, S. Challenges and technological interventions in rice—Wheat system for resilient food–water–energy-environment nexus in North-western Indo-Gangetic Plains: A review. Cereal Res. Commun. 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pretty, J. Agricultural sustainability: Concepts principles evidence. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 2008, 363, 447–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Subbarao, V.; Sahrawat, K.L.; Nakahara, K.; Ishikawa, T.; Kishii, M.; Rao, I.M.; Hash, C.T.; George, T.S.; Rao, P.S.; Nardi, P.; et al. Biological Nitrification Inhibition—A Novel Strategy to Regulate Nitrification in Agricultural Systems. Adv. Agron. 2012, 114, 249–302. [Google Scholar]
- Altieri, M.A.; Nicholls, C.I.; Henao, A.; Lana, M.A. Agroecology and the design of climate change-resilient farming systems. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2015, 35, 869–890. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jules, P.; Camilla, T.; Stella, W. Sustainable intensification in African agriculture. Int. J. Agric. Sustain. 2011, 9, 5–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reganold, J.; Wachter, J. Organic agriculture in the twenty-first century. Nat. Plants 2016, 2, 15221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tuomisto, H.L.; Hodge, I.D.; Riordan, P.; Macdonald, D.W. Comparing energy balances, greenhouse gas balances and biodiversity impacts of contrasting farming systems with alternative land uses. Agric. Syst. 2012, 108, 42–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Damalas, C.A.; Eleftherohorinos, I.G. Pesticide exposure, safety issues, and risk assessment indicators. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 1402–1419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, C.; Fenske, R.A.; Simcox, N.J.; Kalman, D. Pesticide exposure of children in an agricultural community: Evidence of household proximity to farmland and take home exposure pathways. Environ Res. 2000, 84, 290–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pretty, J.; Bharucha, Z.P. Integrated Pest Management for Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture in Asia and Africa. Insects 2015, 6, 152–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- New, T.R. Book review: Ecological Engineering for Pest Management: Advances in Habitat Manipulation for Arthropods. Gurr, G.M., Wratten, S.D. and Altieri, M.A. (eds), (2004); CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, 244 pp. Hardback. ISBN 0643090223. Au£145.00. J. Insect. Conserv. 2005, 9, 67–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sahu, G.; Das, S. Regenerative agriculture: Future of sustainable food production. Biot. Res. Today 2020, 2, 745–748. [Google Scholar]
- Tucker, S.; Dumitriu Gabur, G.D.; Teodosiu, C. Pesticides Identification and Sustainable Viticulture Practices to Reduce Their Use: An Overview. Molecules 2022, 27, 8205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muhammad, G.; Rashid, I.; Firyal, S. Practical aspects of treatment of organophosphate and carbamate insecticide poisoning in animals. Matrix Sci. Pharma 2017, 1, 10–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sidhu, G.K.; Singh, S.; Kumar, V.; Dhanjal, D.S.; Datta, S.; Singh, J. Toxicity, monitoring and biodegradation of organophosphate pesticides: A review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 49, 1135–1187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oerke, E.-C.; Dehne, H.-W.; Schönbeck, F.; Weber, A. Crop Production and Crop Protection: Estimated Losses in Major Food and Cash Crops; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1994; 808p. [Google Scholar]
- Shahini, S.; Bërxolli, A.; Kokojka, F. Effectiveness of bio-insecticides and mass trapping based on population fluctuations for controlling Tuta absoluta under greenhouse conditions in Albania. Heliyon 2021, 7, e05753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khalifa, S.A.M.; Elshafiey, E.H.; Shetaia, A.A.; El-Wahed, A.A.A.; Algethami, A.F.; Musharraf, S.G.; AlAjmi, M.F.; Zhao, C.; Masry, S.H.D.; Abdel-Daim, M.M.; et al. Overview of Bee Pollination and Its Economic Value for Crop Production. Insects 2021, 12, 688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Breeze, T.D.; Vaissière, B.E.; Bommarco, R.; Petanidou, T.; Seraphides, N.; Kozák, L.; Scheper, J.; Biesmeijer, J.C.; Kleijn, D.; Gyldenkærne, S.; et al. Agricultural Policies Exacerbate Honeybee Pollination Service Supply-Demand Mismatches Across Europe. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e82996. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pretty, J. Intensification for redesigned and sustainable agricultural systems. Science 2018, 362, eaav0294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bommarco, R.; Kleijn, D.; Potts, S.G. Potts, Ecological intensification: Harnessing ecosystem services for food security. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2013, 28, 230–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, B.P.; Green, T.A.; Loker, A.J. Biological control and integrated pest management in organic and conventional systems. Biol. Control. 2020, 140, 104095. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Çakmakçı, S.; Çakmakçı, R. Quality and Nutritional Parameters of Food in Agri-Food Production Systems. Foods 2023, 12, 351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumar, R.M.; Gadratagi, B.-G.; Paramesh, V.; Kumar, P.; Madivalar, Y.; Narayanappa, N.; Ullah, F. Sustainable Management of Invasive Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda. Agronomy 2022, 12, 2150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gurr, G.M.; Lu, Z.; Zheng, X.; Xu, H.; Zhu, P.; Chen, G.; Yao, X.; Cheng, J.; Zhu, Z.; Catindig, J.L.; et al. Multi-country evidence that crop diversification promotes ecological intensification of agriculture. Nat. Plants 2016, 2, 16014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mansour, S.A. Pesticide exposure—Egyptian scene. Toxicology 2004, 198, 91–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kamel, F.; Hoppin, J.A. Association of pesticide exposure with neurologic dysfunction and disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 2004, 112, 950–958. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pimentel, D. Environmental and Economic Costs of the Application of Pesticides Primarily in the United States. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2005, 7, 229–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rasche, L. Estimating Pesticide Inputs and Yield Outputs of Conventional and Organic Agricultural Systems in Europe under Climate Change. Agronomy 2021, 11, 1300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goulson, D. REVIEW: An overview of the environmental risks posed by neonicotinoid insecticides. J. Appl. Ecol. 2013, 50, 977–987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de-Assis, M.P.; Barcella, R.C.; Padilha, J.C.; Pohl, H.H.; Krug, S.B.F. Health problems in agricultural workers occupationally exposed to pesticides. Rev Bras Med Trab. 2021, 18, 352–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lari, S.; Yamagani, P.; Pandiyan, A.; Vanka, J.; Naidu, M.; Senthil Kumar, B.; Jee, B.; Jonnalagadda, P.R. The impact of the use of personal-protective-equipment on the minimization of effects of exposure to pesticides among farm-workers in India. Front. Public Health 2023, 11, 1075448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharifzadeh, M.S.; Damalas, C.A.; Abdollahzadeh, G. Perceived usefulness of personal protective equipment in pesticide use predicts farmers’ willingness to use it. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 609, 517–523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, D.-C.; Ma, Y.-L.; Li, Z.-Z.; Zhong, C.-S.; Cheng, Z.-B.; Zhan, J. Crop Rotation Enhances Agricultural Sustainability: From an Empirical Evaluation of Eco-Economic Benefits in Rice Production. Agriculture 2021, 11, 91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jat, R.K.; Meena, V.S.; Kumar, M.; Jakkula, V.S.; Reddy, I.R.; Pandey, A.C. Direct Seeded Rice: Strategies to Improve Crop Resilience and Food Security under Adverse Climatic Conditions. Land 2022, 11, 382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knörzer, H.; Graeff-Hönninger, S.; Guo, B.; Wang, P.; Claupein, W. The rediscovery of intercropping in China: A traditional cropping system for future Chinese agriculture—A review. In Climate Change, Intercropping, Pest Control and Beneficial Microorganisms; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2009; pp. 13–44. [Google Scholar]
- Jose, S. Agroforestry for ecosystem services and environmental benefits: An overview. Agroforest Syst. 2009, 76, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Etsay, H.; Negash, T.; Aregay, M. Factors that influence the implementation of sustainable land management practices by rural households in Tigrai region, Ethiopia. Ecol. Process 2019, 8, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klerkx LW, A.; Aarts MN, C.; Leeuwis, C. Adaptive management in agricultural innovation systems: The interactions between innovation networks and their environment. Agric. Syst. 2010, 103, 390–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khoury, C.K.; Bjorkman, A.D.; Dempewolf, H.; Ramirez-Villegas, J.; Guarino, L.; Jarvis, A.; Rieseberg, L.H.; Struik, P.C. Increasing homogeneity in global food supplies and the implications for food security. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2014, 111, 4001–4006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Charatsari, C.; Lioutas, E.D.; De Rosa, M.; Papadaki-Klavdianou, A. Extension and Advisory Organizations on the Road to the Digitalization of Animal Farming: An Organizational Learning Perspective. Animals 2020, 10, 2056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weber, E.; Gut, D. A survey of weeds that are increasingly spreading in Europe. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2005, 25, 109–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ngowi AV, F.; Mbise, T.J.; Ijani, A.S.; London, L.; Ajayi, O.C. Smallholder vegetable farmers in Northern Tanzania: Pesticides use practices, perceptions, cost and health effects. Crop Prot. 2007, 26, 1617–1624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Han, H.Y.; Zhao, L.G. Farmers’ character and behavior of fertilizer application-evidence from a survey of Xinxiang County, Henan Province, China. Agric. Sci. China 2009, 8, 1238–1245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, Y.; Yang, H.; Mosler, H.J.; Abbaspour, K.C. Factors affecting farmers’ decisions on fertilizer use: A case study for the Chaobai watershed in Northern China. Consilience 2010, 4, 80–102. [Google Scholar]
- Ma, L.; Ni, J.; Fleskens, L.; Wang, H.; Xuan, Y. Modelling fertilizer use in relation to farmers’ household characteristics in three gorges reservoir area, China. Agriculture 2021, 11, 472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ibitoye, S.J. Survey of the performance of agricultural cooperative societies in Kogi State, Nigeria. Eur. Sci. J. 2012, 8, 98–114. [Google Scholar]
- Qu, R.; Wu, Y.; Chen, J.; Jones, G.D.; Li, W.; Jin, S.; Chang, Q.; Cao, Y.; Yang, G.; Li, Z.; et al. Effects of Agricultural Cooperative Society on Farmers’ Technical Efficiency: Evidence from Stochastic Frontier Analysis. Sustainability 2020, 12, 8194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kiełbasa, B.; Pietrzak, S.; Ulén, B.; Drangert, J.O.; Tonderski, K. Sustainable agriculture: The study on farmers’ perception and practices regarding nutrient management and limiting losses. J. Water L. Dev. 2018, 36, 67–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naamane, A.; Sadiq, A.; Belhouari, A.; Iounes, N.; El Amrani, S. Enquête sur l’utilisation des engrais et pesticides chez les agriculteurs de la région de Casablanca-Settat. Gest. Des Déchets Au Maroc Au Maroc. 2020, 8, 1–28. [Google Scholar]
- Lahlali, R.; Boulif, M.; Moinina, A. Pratiques phytosanitaires des pomiculteurs: Cas de la région. Rev. Maroc. Des. Sci. Agron. Vétérinaires 2021, 9, 151–157. [Google Scholar]
- Sayara, T.; Basheer-Salimia, R.; Hawamde, F.; Sánchez, A. Recycling of organic wastes through composting: Process performance and compost application in agriculture. Agronomy 2020, 10, 1838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Case SD, C.; Oelofse, M.; Hou, Y.; Oenema, O.; Jensen, L.S. Farmer perceptions and use of organic waste products as fertilisers—A survey study of potential bene fi ts and barriers. AGSY 2017, 151, 84–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abebe, T.G.; Tamtam, M.R.; Abebe, A.A.; Abtemariam, K.A.; Shigut, T.G.; Dejen, Y.A.; Haile, E.G. Growing Use and Impacts of Chemical Fertilizers and Assessing Alternative Organic Fertilizer Sources in Ethiopia. Appl. Environ. Soil Sci. 2022, 2022, 4738416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hashimi, M.H.; Hashimi, R.; Ryan, Q. Toxic Effects of Pesticides on Humans, Plants, Animals, Pollinators and Beneficial Organisms. Asian Plant Res. J. 2020, 5, 37–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, T.; Mahe, L.; Li, Y.; Wei, X.; Deng, X.; Zhang, D. Benefits of crop rotation on climate resilience and its prospects in China. Agronomy 2022, 12, 436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mir, M.S.; Saxena, A.; Kanth, R.H.; Raja, W.; Dar, K.A.; Mahdi, S.S.; Mir, S.A. Role of Intercropping in Sustainable Insect-Pest Management: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Clim. Change 2022, 12, 3390–3403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Islam, K.K.; Fujiwara, T.; Hyakumura, K. Agroforestry, livelihood and biodiversity nexus: The case of Madhupur Tract, Bangladesh. Conservation 2022, 2, 305–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lacey, L.A.; Grzywacz, D.; Shapiro-Ilan, D.I.; Frutos, R.; Brownbridge, M.; Goettel, M.S. Insect pathogens as biological control agents: Back to the future. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 2015, 132, 1–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Amoak, D.; Luginaah, I.; McBean, G. Climate Change, Food Security, and Health: Harnessing Agroecology to Build Climate-Resilient Communities. Sustainability 2022, 14, 13954. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variable | Frequency | % | Tests |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | |||
Male | 581 | 96.4 | V = 0.166 |
Female | 22 | 3.6 | χ2 = 0.166 |
Age (years) | |||
18–25 | 3 | 0.5 | V = 0.268 |
25–35 | 127 | 21.1 | χ2 = 0.034 |
35–45 | 140 | 23.2 | |
45–55 | 226 | 37.5 | |
>55 | 107 | 17.7 | |
Education Levels | |||
Illiterate | 156 | 25.9 | V = 0.288 |
Primary | 100 | 16.6 | χ2 = 0.00 |
College | 54 | 8.9 | |
Secondary | 208 | 34.5 | |
University | 85 | 14.1 | |
Farming experience (years) | |||
5–10 | 197 | 32.7 | V = 0.282 |
10–15 | 111 | 18.4 | χ2 = 0.00 |
15–20 | 197 | 32.7 | |
>20 | 98 | 16.2 | |
Benefit from agricultural advisory services (ACS) | |||
Yes | 147 | 24.4 | V = 0.364 |
No | 456 | 75.6 | χ2 = 0.180 |
Previous training/Internship in pesticide use | |||
Yes | 113 | 18.7 | V = 0.194 |
No | 490 | 81.3 | χ2 = 0.004 |
Previous training/Internship in agroecological practices | |||
Yes | 8 | 1.3 | V = 0.099 |
No | 595 | 98.7 | χ2 = 0.660 |
Organic Fertilization | Always | Sometimes | Never |
---|---|---|---|
Manure | 581 (96.35%) | 1 (0.17%) | 21 (3.48%) |
Compost | 164 (27.20%) | 91 (15.09%) | 348(57.71%) |
Plant extracts | 83 (13.76%) | 122 (20.23%) | 398 (66.00%) |
Peat | 28 4.64%) | 42 (6.97%) | 533 (74.14%) |
Liquid Manure | 99 (16.42%) | 89 (14.76%) | 415 (68.82%) |
Green Manure crops | 3 (0.50%) | 18 (2.99%) | 582 (96.52%) |
Mulching | 106 (17.58%) | 142 (23.55%) | 355 (58.87%) |
Poultry droppings | 96 (15.92%) | 65 (10.78%) | 442 (73.30%) |
Respect for the quantities to be brought | 12 (1.99%) | 11 (1.82%) | 580 (96.19%) |
Mineral Fertilizers | Always | Sometimes | Never |
Sulphur | 155 (25.7%) | 344 (57.05%) | 104 (17.25%) |
Potassium sulfate | 203 (33.67%) | 150 (24.88%) | 250 (41.46%) |
Natural phosphates | 3 (0.50%) | 7 (1.16%) | 593 (98.34%) |
Wood ash | 23 (3.81%) | 11 (1.82%) | 569 (94.36%) |
Lime and gypsum | 0 | 7 (1.16%) | 596 (98.84%) |
Respect of the quantities to be brought | 67 (11.11%) | 123 (20.40%) | 413 (68.49%) |
Chemical Fertilization | Always | Sometimes | Never |
NPK | 241 (39.97%) | 17 (2.82%) | 345 (57.21%) |
Ammonitrate 33.5 N | 199 (33.00%) | 93 (15.42%) | 311 (51.58%) |
Urea 46% N | 40 (6.63%) | 132 (21.89%) | 431 (71.48%) |
Ammonia sulfate 21% N | 24 (3.98%) | 30 (4.98%) | 549 (91.04%) |
Respect for the quantities to be brought | 460 (76.29%) | 136(22.55%) | 7 (1.16%) |
Why Chemical Fertilization? | N = 665 | % | Why Organic Fertilization? | N = 573 | % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Efficient | 463 | 69.62 | Action on the long term | 19 | 3.15 |
Well-known formulation | 92 | 13.83 | Cheaper | 574 | 95.19 |
Quick effect | 110 | 16.54 | Available | 11 | 1.82 |
Fertilizer | Yield | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N (%) | Very High | High | Medium | Low | Very Low | |
Organics only | 76 (12.6%) | 0 | 46 (60.5%) | 25 (33%) | 5 (6.6%) | 0 |
Chemical only | 56 (9.3%) | 9 (16.1%) | 36 (64.3%) | 11 (19.6%) | 0 | 0 |
Combination of the two | 471 (78.1%) | 38 (8.1%) | 261 (55.4%) | 172 (36.5%) | 0 | 0 |
Insecticide Alternatives | N | % |
---|---|---|
Yellow adhesive plates | 13 | 2.16 |
Wood ashes | 23 | 3.81 |
Winter cover | 58 | 9.62 |
Black soap | 93 | 15.42 |
Less sensitive varieties | 12 | 5.97 |
Alternatives for Molluscicides | N | % |
Manual collection | 74 | 12.27 |
Barriers and traps | 58 | 9.62 |
Fungicide Alternatives Practices | N | % |
Leaf stripping | 29 | 4.81 |
Cow’s milk | 4 | 0.66 |
Vinegar | 2 | 0.33 |
Lower density | 22 | 3.65 |
Less sensitive varieties | 36 | 5.97 |
Alternative to Herbicides | N | % |
Wood mulch RCW | 20 | 3.32 |
Plastic mulching | 58 | 9.62 |
Mulching Wheat | 16 | 2.65 |
Manual weeding | 244 | 40.46 |
Permaculture | 231 | 38.31 |
False seeding | 18 | 2.99 |
Mechanical weeding | 6 | 1 |
Protection Measures during the Application of Pesticides N = 324 | Always | Sometime | Never |
---|---|---|---|
Use of waterproof gloves | 231 (71.3%) | 16 (4.94%) | 76 (23.46%) |
Use of masks | 55 (16.97%) | 59 (18.21%) | 210 (64.81%) |
Use of goggles | 60 (18.51%) | 18 (5.56%) | 246 (75.93%) |
Use of appropriate combinations of pesticides | 53 (16.36%) | 15 (4.63%) | 256 (79.01%) |
Protection Measures after the Application of Pesticides N = 242 | Always | Sometime | Never |
Hand washing | 105(43.39%) | 103 (42.56%) | 34 (14.05%) |
Clothing change | 187(77.27%) | 50 (20.66%) | 6 (2.48%) |
Showering | 67 (27.69%) | 45 (18.59%) | 130 (53.72%) |
Washing equipment | 80 (33.06%) | 34 (14.05%) | 128 (52.89%) |
Practices | Number of Adopters | Benefits Noted | % |
---|---|---|---|
Rotation | 601 (99.67%) | Management and reduction of weeds | 41.23 |
Crop yields increased | 29.79 | ||
Soil fertility improvement | 18.99 | ||
Pest and diseases control | 9.98 | ||
No-till | 13 (2.16%) | Save tillage costs | 50 |
Management and reduction of weeds | 50 | ||
Intercropping | 417 (69%) | Reduces weed density | 30.84 |
Saves space | 100 | ||
Optimal use of resources | 47.85 | ||
Controls the spread of diseases and pests | 12.37 | ||
Agroforestry | 561 (93.03%) | Exploitation of space | 100 |
Exploitation of irrigation water by trees | 100 |
Barriers | Percentage |
---|---|
High perception of the efficacy of pesticides | 53.6% |
lack of agroecological training for farmers | 44.7% |
Lack of technical advice and support | 70.8% |
Lack of knowledge about new biological plant protection products | 20.2% |
Lack of citizen and consumer awareness | 11.34% |
Difficulties to control diseases, pests, and weeds without pesticides | 73.2% |
Low efficiency of organic products | 54.6% |
Low yields of agroecological practices among others | 58.7% |
Marketing difficulties due to the price | 40.9% |
Motivations | Percentage |
Success of other farmers | 50% |
Tradition practiced for a long time | 50% |
Consumer demand for sustainable products | 20% |
Training received by experts to promote the adoption of agroecological practices | 1.33% |
Major Problems Encountered in the Production of Vegetable Crops | Percentage |
---|---|
Invasive weeds | 95.85% |
High price of fertilizers and pesticides | 79.44% |
Diseases and pests | 80.27% |
Commercialization | 4.15% |
Labor too expensive | 18.57% |
Dryness | 12.49% |
Statement | Strongly Disagree | Somewhat Disagree | Neither Agree nor Disagree | Somewhat Agree | Strongly Agree | Total | Mean |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Likelihood of converting my farm to organic in the future | 152 | 5 | 60 | 94 | 292 | 603 | 3.61 |
(25.21%) | (0.01%) | (9.95%) | (15.59%) | (48.42%) | (100%) | ||
Availability of more organic alternatives in the market with a reasonable cost | 4 | 15 | 1 | 233 | 353 | 603 | 1.47 |
(0.66%) | (2.49%) | (0.17%) | (38.64%) | (58.54%) | (100%) |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rhioui, W.; Al Figuigui, J.; Lahlali, R.; Laasli, S.-E.; Boutagayout, A.; El Jarroudi, M.; Belmalha, S. Towards Sustainable Vegetable Farming: Exploring Agroecological Alternatives to Chemical Products in the Fez-Meknes Region of Morocco. Sustainability 2023, 15, 7412. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097412
Rhioui W, Al Figuigui J, Lahlali R, Laasli S-E, Boutagayout A, El Jarroudi M, Belmalha S. Towards Sustainable Vegetable Farming: Exploring Agroecological Alternatives to Chemical Products in the Fez-Meknes Region of Morocco. Sustainability. 2023; 15(9):7412. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097412
Chicago/Turabian StyleRhioui, Wijdane, Jamila Al Figuigui, Rachid Lahlali, Salah-Eddine Laasli, Abdellatif Boutagayout, Moussa El Jarroudi, and Saâdia Belmalha. 2023. "Towards Sustainable Vegetable Farming: Exploring Agroecological Alternatives to Chemical Products in the Fez-Meknes Region of Morocco" Sustainability 15, no. 9: 7412. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097412