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Article

Tourist Nomads, Leisure Constraints, and Social Cohesion: A Study on International Students Living in Istanbul

by
Ali Selman Özdemir
1,*,
Bekir Erhan Orhan
1,
Aydın Karaçam
1,
Ahmed Malka
1,
Dragos Horia Buhociu
2 and
Teodora Mihaela Iconomescu
3,*
1
Faculty of Sports Sciences, Istanbul Aydın University, İnönü Street, No. 38, 34295 Istanbul, Turkey
2
Faculty of Urbanism, Ion Mincu University of Architecture and Urban Planning, Academiei Street, No. 18-20, 010014 București, Romania
3
Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Dunărea de Jos University, Domneasca Street, No. 47, 800008 Galati, Romania
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(9), 7533; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097533
Submission received: 20 March 2023 / Revised: 27 April 2023 / Accepted: 29 April 2023 / Published: 4 May 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Tourism—Achieving Equality in Tourism and Leisure Research)
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study aims to investigate the social cohesion and leisure constraints among international students studying in Istanbul. The research follows a descriptive study design using a relational survey model, and the sample was selected using the convenience sampling method. The study included a total of 584 participants, with 231 females (39.6%) and 353 males (60.4%), ranging in age from 21 to 56, who were studying at various universities in Istanbul (X̅ age = 26.71, sd = 3.36). The data collection tool used in this research consisted of two parts. The first part included questions related to demographic characteristics and recreational participation habits. The second part utilized the Leisure Constraints Questionnaire-Short Form (LCQ-SF) and the Socio-Cultural Adaptation Scale-Revised (SCAS-R). Descriptive statistics, paired t-tests, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with multiple comparisons, ANOVA tests, and Pearson Correlation tests were employed in the data analysis. Statistical analyses were performed at a 95% confidence interval with a significance level set at p = 0.05. The research findings indicate differences in the socio-cultural adaptation scale and leisure constraint scale scores of international students based on the type of university, regular engagement in recreational activities, membership in social clubs or student societies, and the program of study. Furthermore, the results reveal that as the duration of stay in Turkey increased, the students demonstrated higher socio-cultural adaptation skills while experiencing more leisure constraints with increasing age.

1. Introduction

Human mobility, including that of international students, often referred to as student tourists or tourist nomads, involves millions worldwide who adapt to different cultures and climates in pursuit of education. According to the available data, over 8.9 million international students were enrolled in higher education programs worldwide in 2019 [1]. Turkey is also experiencing an increasing trend in international student mobility, with approximately 224,000 international students studying there as of the 2020–2021 academic year, with Istanbul hosting 65,000 [2].
While human mobility is considered a positive outcome of globalization that helps break down barriers between societies from different geographies [3], it raises questions about social cohesion. Leisure time, in particular, plays a significant role in addressing these questions.
Social cohesion refers to the state of vertical and horizontal interactions between members of society, characterized by attitudes and norms such as trust, a sense of belonging, willingness to participate, and behavioural manifestations [4]. It involves adapting to a new cultural environment and effectively communicating with individuals from the host culture. Social cohesion encompasses communication and social interaction skills, as well as the development of social and cultural competencies needed to handle everyday situations and demands of the mainstream culture. Standard social cohesion measures include difficulties in performing daily tasks such as understanding the local language, making friends, participating in social activities, and managing school or work-related challenges [5]. Drawing on the social learning perspective [6], social cohesion is the ability to acquire culturally appropriate knowledge and skills, interact with the new culture, and navigate the challenges of daily life. It also involves understanding the norms and values of the new culture and adapting to new standards and values to establish positive relations with society [7].
As a sub-dimension of social cohesion, leisure plays a crucial role in fostering a sense of belongingness, improving quality of life, and establishing social relationships [8]. Leisure refers to the time when individuals can engage in various activities, such as resting, having fun, relaxing, learning, discovering, and self-improvement, either individually or in a group, in social, cultural, artistic, or sporting-based settings, both indoors and outdoors, actively or passively, and without the constraints of vital necessities and work. On the other hand, recreation refers to individuals’ participation in any activity during their leisure time, as defined by the criteria above. However, personal or environmental barriers may hinder individuals from participating in leisure activities during their free time.
Leisure constraints limit individuals’ interest in activities, participation, access to programs and recreational areas, and use of these areas [9]. Since the 1980s, leisure constraints have become increasingly important in the leisure literature [10,11]. Constraints are broader in scope than barriers, commonly used in public health and exercise science, and are considered problems that can reduce leisure satisfaction or opportunities [12].
Leisure constraints are shaped by the structure of society, cultural and local values, environmental conditions, and the attitudes and behaviours of people [13,14]. Crawford et al. [15] created the most widely used model for analyzing constraints, which includes three categories: personal, interpersonal, and structural factors. Additionally, social, economic, and demographic characteristics, such as social groups, cultural differences, economic level and welfare, age, gender, and marital status can also negatively affect individuals’ leisure participation, preferences, and behaviours. The deteriorated social structure and physical environmental conditions in the modern era have increased the need for leisure activities as a means for individuals to seek happiness, pleasure, and peace [16]. Despite this need, individuals face various reasons that prevent them from participating in leisure activities [17]. Several studies have found that age, gender, and education level are significantly associated with the formation of these constraints in the United States [9,11,18,19,20].
International students, who come from diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds, often encounter various challenges when studying in a foreign country [21]. Due to cultural and language differences, many international students feel isolated and passive in assignments and activities [22]. Leisure activities have been suggested as a positive way to reduce negative feelings and school-related stress and to improve daily emotional well-being for students, including international students [23,24,25]. Participation in recreational activities effectively alleviates the cultural stress and psychological difficulties of socializing, adapting, and experiencing new cultures. In addition, it promotes academic performance by providing opportunities to form friendships and adjust to school [26,27,28,29].
Understanding the leisure constraints of international students and developing effective strategies can facilitate their access to recreation and promote social cohesion. Moreover, Turkey must ensure equal access to recreation opportunities to continue attracting international students, which is a highly competitive area of international student mobility [26].
The impact of campus recreation, sports, and fitness opportunities on international students has been highlighted in the literature, with approximately 30% of visiting students affected by such opportunities and their quality [30,31]. In addition, sports and recreation experts have widely discussed the benefits of recreational sports activities for personal development, social commitment, university integration, and education sustainability, especially for university recreation center users [32].
Most studies on international students in the literature have centered on socio-economic issues and social cohesion, with limited attention paid to the association between leisure behaviours, leisure constraints, and social cohesion [33,34,35,36,37]. Thus, this study aims to fill a gap in the literature. Specifically, the study seeks to investigate international students’ social cohesion and leisure constraints in Istanbul and compare them based on various factors. By doing so, this study is expected to make an original contribution to the literature.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Model

The current study employs a descriptive relational screening model. While relational studies do not establish strict causality, advanced statistical techniques enable the inference of cause–effect correlations from such studies [38,39]. Before the commencement of the study, approval was obtained from the Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee of Istanbul Aydın University, Social and Human Sciences. Furthermore, ethical guidelines informed all participants about the study during the data collection phase.

2.2. Study Group

The research sample was obtained using a convenience sampling method. It consisted of 584 students residing in Istanbul and studying at various universities. Among the participants, there were 231 female students (39.6%) and 353 male students (60.4%) between the ages of 21 and 56 (X̅ age = 26.71, sd = 3.36). In terms of academic programs, 113 students (19.3%) were enrolled in undergraduate programs, 354 (60.6%) were in master’s programs, and 117 (20.1%) were pursuing PhD degrees. Furthermore, 97 students (16.6%) studied at public universities, while 487 (83.4%) were enrolled in foundation universities.

2.3. Data Collection Tools

The research utilized a two-part data collection tool. The first part included questions related to demographic characteristics and recreational participation habits. The second part utilized the Leisure Constraints Questionnaire-Short Form (LCQ-SF) and the Socio-Cultural Adaptation Scale-Revised (SCAS-R) (Supplementary Materials).
The LCQ-SF, initially developed by Alexandris and Carrol [20], was adapted to Turkish culture by Gürbüz et al. [15]. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted to assess the construct validity of the Turkish short form of the scale and presented in Table 1, which resulted in 6 factors and 18 items. Item factor loading values for the 18-item structure of the scale ranged from 0.49 to 0.89. The internal consistency coefficients of the scale ranged from α = 0.65 (time) to α = 0.86 (lack of information).
The SCAS-R was developed by Ward and Kennedy [40], revised by Wilson [41], and adapted into Turkish by Şalvarcı and Ünüvar [42]. The scale consists of 5 factors and 21 items. The item factor loading values for the 21-item structure of the scale ranged from 0.40 to 0.96. The internal consistency coefficients of the scale ranged from α = 0.71 (ecological adaptation) to α = 0.90 (language proficiency).
The research data were collected through voluntary participation using random sampling methods, both in face-to-face and online settings, during the spring semester of the 2021–2022 academic year at various universities’ central campuses in Istanbul, as well as in student dormitories mainly preferred by international students. Privacy principles were strictly adhered to during the administration and collection of the scales. The application of the scales took an average of 15 min per student.

2.4. Data Analysis

The data set was thoroughly examined for false values, outliers, normality, and multiple correlations in the data analysis process. All correctly entered data were identified during this rigorous scrutiny. The data analysis was carried out utilizing the SPSS 25 software. The normality of the data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test, which revealed that the data followed a normal distribution (p > 0.05). Accordingly, the data analysis involved the utilization of descriptive statistics, t-tests for paired comparisons, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for multiple comparisons, ANOVA tests, and Pearson Correlation tests. All statistical analyses were performed at a 95% confidence interval and a significance level of p = 0.05, which served as the threshold for determining statistical significance.

3. Results

Based on the descriptive data within the research findings, the international students who participated in the study had a mean age of 26.71 (sd = 3.36) and were between the ages of 21 and 56. The sample consisted of 231 female students (39.6%) and 353 male students (60.4%). Regarding their academic programs, 113 students (19.3%) were in undergraduate programs, 354 students (60.6%) were in master’s programs, and 117 students (20.1%) were in Ph.D. programs. Furthermore, 97 students (16.6%) were enrolled in state universities, while 487 (83.4%) were enrolled in foundation universities.
Upon examining Table 2, it was determined that there were no significant differences in the leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores of international students based on gender.
According to the results of the analysis in Table 3, it was determined that there was a significant difference in the leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores of international students according to university types. Therefore, based on this analysis, state university students had higher socio-cultural adaptation scores than foundation university students and experienced more leisure constraints.
When examining the data in Table 4, a significant difference was found in the leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores of international students, depending on whether they had a recreational activity (such as hobbies, amateur activities, or volunteering) that they regularly continued in their leisure time. According to this, it was determined that those who maintained a regular recreational activity had higher socio-cultural adaptation scores than those who did not. On the other hand, those who did not maintain a regular recreational activity experienced leisure constraints more than those who did.
According to the results of the analysis of the data in Table 5, it was determined that there was a significant difference in the leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores of international students according to their membership in any social club or student society. The analysis revealed that students who were members of any community had higher socio-cultural adaptation scores and experienced more leisure constraints than those who were not members.
According to Table 6, a significant difference was found in international students’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores based on their academic programs. Specifically, it was determined that undergraduate students experienced more leisure constraints than graduate students, and PhD students experienced more leisure constraints than graduate students. As for the socio-cultural adaptation analysis, it was determined that undergraduate students had higher socio-cultural adaptation scores than graduate students, and graduate students had higher socio-cultural adaptation scores than PhD students.
When Table 7 was examined, it was determined that there was a significant relationship between the leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores of international students. In addition, there was a significant relationship between age and duration of stay in Turkey. Accordingly, it was understood that as the socio-cultural adaptation scores of international students increased, they experienced more leisure constraints. In addition, it was determined that as the age of the students and the duration of their stay in Turkey increased, they experienced more leisure constraints. Similarly, it was determined that the students’ socio-cultural adaptation scores increased as their stay in Turkey increased.

4. Discussion

According to the findings of the study that examined and compared social cohesion and leisure constraints among international students in Istanbul across various variables, significant differences were observed in the scores of the socio-cultural adaptation scale and leisure constraints scale depending on the type of university, regular participation in recreational activities, membership in social clubs or student societies, and academic programs.
The results indicate that state university students exhibited higher socio-cultural adaptation scores than foundation university students but also experienced more leisure constraints. Furthermore, those who regularly participated in recreational activities demonstrated higher socio-cultural adaptation scores than those who did not, while those who did not engage in regular recreational activities experienced more leisure constraints. Moreover, membership in a community was associated with higher socio-cultural adaptation scores but correlated with higher levels of leisure constraints. In addition, it was found that undergraduate students experienced the highest level of leisure constraints among all academic programs, and PhD students experienced more leisure constraints than graduate students. Regarding the socio-cultural adaptation analysis, undergraduate students had higher scores than graduate and PhD students, while graduate students had higher scores than PhD students. Upon thorough analysis of the findings, it is conjectured that the disparity in leisure constraints experienced by state university students compared to their counterparts in foundation universities may be attributed to the higher per-student expenditures and more developed recreational infrastructure prevalent in foundation universities [43].
Indeed, it is anticipated that individuals who do not partake in regular recreational activities will encounter more challenges in their leisure time. However, research has shown that even engaging in a single activity regularly can positively impact coping with perceived leisure constraints [44,45,46]. Additionally, the higher socio-cultural adaptation scores observed in individuals who engage in regular recreational activities is not surprising, given that "socialization" is considered one of the primary benefits of leisure activities [47,48,49].
The finding that individuals who are members of social clubs or student societies experience more leisure constraints than those who are not may indicate that these individuals seek to access recreation through social clubs to overcome the leisure constraints they experience [50,51]. This finding is supported by the fact that the socio-cultural adaptation scores of community members were higher than those who were not. Additionally, student societies provide various benefits to students who regularly participate in their activities, including socialization, especially within campus recreation programs [52,53]. Similarly, Bonhert et al. [54] and Karahan et al. [55] suggest that participating in various social, cultural, and sports activities on university campuses facilitates students’ social adaptation. Selvaratnam et al. [56] found in their study on constraints to campus recreation participation that international students were more likely than domestic students to perceive facilities as less accessible. Therefore, they suggested that norms taken for granted by recreation staff members may limit or prevent engagement by international students. While the reasons why international students felt that facilities were inaccessible are unclear, they reflect the leisure experiences of newcomers to a country. For instance, Campbell et al. [57] found that many youths new to Canada spent more time in tight spaces but joined unfamiliar leisure spaces with the help of others. Thus, actively welcoming international students with culturally-based concepts in various campus recreation facilities may increase participation. According to the findings of this study, it is believed that the reason why undergraduate and PhD students experience more leisure constraints compared to graduate students is attributed to the rigor of the doctoral program, as well as the constraints on economic and environmental opportunities in undergraduate education, which may also be related to age. Zerengök [33] noted in her study, which investigated the social adaptation of international students through participation in leisure activities, that students may encounter difficulties adapting to their classes and environment during their first year of university, and their participation in leisure activities may be limited due to their focus on graduating in their final year. Furthermore, Yerlisu Lapa and Ardahan [58] indicated that course load is a critical factor preventing university students from participating in leisure activities.

5. Conclusions

In this study, the social cohesion process and potential leisure constraints faced by international students during their adaptation to a new culture were investigated through their participation in recreational activities and efforts to access recreation, as well as various other variables. The results obtained in the study demonstrate that regular participation in recreational activities facilitates social cohesion while indicating that participation in recreational activities and the experience of leisure constraints are distinct from each other. Accordingly, it was found that international students may encounter leisure constraints even when they participate in recreational activities regularly. Indeed, this phenomenon is supported by the literature as well. For example, Shifman et al. [59] found that international students who participated in recreational sports activities on university campuses encountered more leisure constraints than local students.
Similarly, Walker et al. [60] found that Chinese international students were more susceptible to leisure constraints than native Canadian students. Morata et al. [61] identified mutual influences among some of the dimensions examined in their study. Specifically, they found that increased participation in leisure-based community activities and neighborhood support positively strengthened perceived social cohesion. However, their analysis revealed that participation in leisure-based community activities had yet to be proven to influence perceived neighborhood support. Despite both dimensions contributing to perceptions of social cohesion in the community, they appear to respond to different levels of influence. In addition, they may not necessarily be related to each other, especially when analyzing participation based solely on the number of activities.
Within the scope of this study, a positive correlation was observed between social adaptation and leisure constraints. From a theoretical perspective, this finding may be interpreted as individuals navigating a new culture and environment may only actively seek out leisure activities once they have achieved a satisfactory level of social cohesion, or when such opportunities are readily provided. They may encounter various challenges and obstacles when they embark on a new search and exploration process to utilize their leisure time after achieving social adaptation. The results obtained in our study are consistent with each other, supporting this interpretation. Furthermore, it was observed that international students experienced more leisure constraints as their age and duration of stay in Turkey increased. This phenomenon can be explained by the additional responsibilities that come with age, such as entering the workforce while being a student, and the challenges of creating a new social environment for themselves after their friends graduate and return to their home countries. Shifman et al. [59] found similar results, indicating that international students may face leisure constraints due to lacking friendship networks with similar interests or values in their educational environment. Sağınç [62] emphasized the importance of participation in social activities and the establishment of new relationships on campus, as well as maintaining and effectively managing existing relationships in the social cohesion of university students. This view is in line with the findings of our study.
Based on these findings, it is recommended that state universities, in particular, restructure their recreation areas and services to accommodate the evolving needs of international students. Furthermore, to account for cultural differences, all universities should adopt an inclusive approach to activities organized by sports and recreation units and student clubs. Encouraging more students to become members of social clubs and student societies and promoting their active engagement can foster a culture of recreation on campus. Organizing training, seminars, and awareness campaigns within the university can also help students to effectively utilize their leisure time, pursue hobbies, engage in volunteer activities, and participate in projects.
However, it is essential to study the unique constraints that hinder international students’ participation to develop and implement programming strategies that mitigate these constraints, thereby optimizing their ability to benefit from the experiences available at these educational institutions. International student services should also promote participating in the various offerings by campus recreation departments to international students as a way to acclimate to the student culture at the institution, develop a stronger sense of campus community, enhance their quality of life, and increase their satisfaction with their academic experience—all of which are expected benefits associated with such participation.
Implementing these recommendations is crucial for Turkey to continue attracting international students, as student mobility has become competitive among countries. In addition, access to and participation in recreational activities are vital in ensuring equal opportunities for all students.
As this study adopts a perceptual and descriptive approach, it has the potential to provide valuable insights for future practical studies. The perceptual and descriptive data obtained from this study may serve as a foundation for designing practical studies in the future. For instance, future research could be designed to investigate the negotiation strategies employed by international students to overcome leisure constraints or to assess the effectiveness of these strategies. Such studies may contribute to a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by international students and inform the development of interventions or programs aimed at enhancing their leisure experiences and social cohesion. Furthermore, conducting future research on a larger sample of international students and immigrants, focusing on cultural differences in participation in leisure activities and needs, and providing practical suggestions, can facilitate social cohesion and development in international human mobility.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su15097533/s1, Leisure Constraints Questionnaire-Short Form (LCQ-SF) and the Socio-Cultural Adaptation Scale-Revised (SCAS-R).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; methodology, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; software, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; validation A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; formal analysis, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; investigation, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; resources, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; data curation, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; writing—original draft preparation, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; writing—review and editing, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; visualization, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; supervision, A.S.Ö., B.E.O., A.K., A.M., D.H.B. and T.M.I.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. All authors had an equal contribution.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of Aydin University, protocol code 2022/14 E-88083623-020-63534.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the authors: Özdemir Ali Selman ([email protected]) and Iconomescu Teodora Mihaela ([email protected]).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table
Table 1. Confirmatory factor analysis results of the LCQ-SF.
Table 1. Confirmatory factor analysis results of the LCQ-SF.
Itemχ2dfχ2/dfRMSEARMRSRMRCFIGFIAGFINFI
18397.771203.320.070.050.060.930.930.890.91
Table
Table 2. The t-test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores by gender.
Table 2. The t-test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores by gender.
GendernX̅sstp
Leisure ConstraintsFemale23150.005.54−0.9540.340
Male35350.465.83
Socio-Cultural
Adaptation		Female23171.009.94−1.5050.133
Male35372.3611.14
p < 0.05.
Table
Table 3. The t-test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores by university type.
Table 3. The t-test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores by university type.
University TypenX̅sstp
Leisure ConstraintsFoundation48749.985.60−2.8090.005
State9751.766.09
Socio-Cultural
Adaptation		Foundation23171.3410.85−2.4390.015
State35374.239.57
p < 0.05.
Table
Table 4. The t-test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores according to whether they engaged in regular recreational activities (such as hobbies, amateur activities, or volunteering).
Table 4. The t-test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores according to whether they engaged in regular recreational activities (such as hobbies, amateur activities, or volunteering).
Regular
Recreational Activity		nX̅sstp
Leisure
Constraints		Yes10149.116.68−1.9770.050
No48350.525.47
Socio-Cultural AdaptationYes23177.3813.255.9050.000
No35370.669.70
p < 0.05.
Table
Table 5. The t-test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores according to whether they were members of any social club or student society.
Table 5. The t-test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores according to whether they were members of any social club or student society.
Community MembershipnX̅sstp
Leisure ConstraintsYes6051.705.472.1080.038
No52450.115.73
Socio-Cultural
Adaptation		Yes23183.7313.659.8140.000
No35370.469.40
p < 0.05.
Table
Table 6. ANOVA test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores according to their programs of study.
Table 6. ANOVA test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores according to their programs of study.
ProgramnX̅ssFpDifference
LSD
Leisure ConstraintsUndergraduate a11351.915.908.7510.000a-b, c-b
Graduate b35449.525.16
PhD c11750.986.71
Total58450.285.72
Socio-CulturalAdaptationUndergraduate a11374.609.9610.8330.000a-b, a-c, b-c
Graduate b35472.1211.64
PhD c11768.246.79
Total58471.8210.70
p < 0.05. “a, b, c” indicate which groups the statistically significant difference is between.
Table
Table 7. Correlation test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores according to age and duration of stay in Turkey.
Table 7. Correlation test results of the participants’ leisure constraints and socio-cultural adaptation scale scores according to age and duration of stay in Turkey.
nCorrelation Between
LC and SCA		AgeDuration of stay
in Turkey
Leisure Constraints5840.095 *0.093 *0.110 **
Socio-Cultural
Adaptation		5840.0690.279 **
** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.
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Özdemir, A.S.; Orhan, B.E.; Karaçam, A.; Malka, A.; Buhociu, D.H.; Iconomescu, T.M. Tourist Nomads, Leisure Constraints, and Social Cohesion: A Study on International Students Living in Istanbul. Sustainability 2023, 15, 7533. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097533

AMA Style

Özdemir AS, Orhan BE, Karaçam A, Malka A, Buhociu DH, Iconomescu TM. Tourist Nomads, Leisure Constraints, and Social Cohesion: A Study on International Students Living in Istanbul. Sustainability. 2023; 15(9):7533. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097533

Chicago/Turabian Style

Özdemir, Ali Selman, Bekir Erhan Orhan, Aydın Karaçam, Ahmed Malka, Dragos Horia Buhociu, and Teodora Mihaela Iconomescu. 2023. "Tourist Nomads, Leisure Constraints, and Social Cohesion: A Study on International Students Living in Istanbul" Sustainability 15, no. 9: 7533. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097533

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