Towards Plastic Circularity: Current Practices in Plastic Waste Management in Japan and Sri Lanka

Abstract

Despite their different economic backgrounds, Japan and Sri Lanka share similarities as island nations. As a developing country, Sri Lanka needs to identify the country’s existing situation of Plastic Waste Management (PWM) to improve the circularity in the sector. Japan’s existing PWM strategies are a pointer for Sri Lanka to improve the circularity along the plastic value chain. The main aspects that are considered in this study are quantitative data related to the plastic value chain, plastic recycling technologies, plastic recycling businesses, policies, regulations related to plastic waste management, and public awareness strategies in plastic waste management. The methodology relied on literature review and interviews. The main focus of these interviews was to fill the information gap that was identified during the literature review. Japan is practicing all the stages of the plastic value chain, including virgin plastic production, whereas virgin plastic production is absent in Sri Lanka. Technological and policy advancements like the application of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) in PWM in Japan can be used as a means of achieving circularity in the Sri Lankan PWM sector. The well-established informal plastic recycling industry in Sri Lanka is a significant feature compared to Japan’s formal plastic recycling industry.

1. Introduction

Plastics are polymers with a high molecular weight, and they have the characteristic of being molded or shaped under heat and pressure. Thermoplastics and thermosets are the two main types of plastics in use. Based on the utilization, there are common plastic polymer types such as Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), High-density Polyethylene (HDPE), and Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) [1]. Due to the useful nature and unique characteristics of plastic products, people tend to consider plastics as an essential item in their daily lives. The current annual global plastic production accounted for around 460 million metric tonnes in 2019. From produced plastics, the highest utilization is recorded in the plastic packaging industry; plastic packaging waste is considered the main source of mismanaged plastic waste [2]. As a quantity, global plastic waste generation has soared from 2 million tonnes to 348 million tonnes in the period of 1950 to 2017. The currently existing level of plastic pollution is expected to be doubled in 2040 [3]. The destination of 80% of plastic waste is the open environment [4]. Marine plastic pollution is a disastrous consequence of plastic pollution that every nation with marine resources is grappling with. According to the statistics, around 4 to 12 million metric tonnes of plastic waste end up in the ocean every year [5]. The escalating issue of single-use plastic (SUP) waste is another problem that requires restraint in the global context. Asia is responsible for more than half of global plastic production. Of the global plastic production, 40% is accounted for SUP products [6].

Environmental pollution that occurs due to excessive plastic waste has been increasing over decades. The countries around the world are moving with the challenge of implementing a proper waste management strategy to reduce plastic pollution. In the global context, the majority of nations are struggling to curb the mismanagement of plastic waste. As a green light to that effort, in early 2022, as many as 175 nations gathered together at the UN Environmental Assembly in Nairobi to seek solutions for the plastic pollution catastrophe. These nations will be drafting the legally binding agreement by 2024 to address the issue of plastic pollution align with the whole plastic lifecycle [3]. In the earlier stages of plastic waste handling, most nations were aiming for waste management strategies in the end-of-life stage of the plastic life cycle. But in recent decades, this focus is moving toward waste management along with the whole plastic life cycle. This circular system for plastic waste management is an optimistic approach to curb the mismanagement of plastic waste around the globe.

The strategies that are adopted by different countries to manage plastic waste are based on their economic, social, geographical, and environmental capabilities. Waste Management technologies, policies, and regulations related to PWM are implemented according to the capacity of a particular nation. In general, high-income countries generate a higher amount of per capita plastic waste compared to low and middle-income countries. But the low-income countries and middle-income countries are suffering from plastic pollution more than high-income countries similar to Japan. The reason behind this situation is the less financial capacity of low and middle-income countries to maintain proper waste management [6]. Most developing countries are using primary strategies to manage plastic waste. These strategies are largely limited to open burning or open dumping. In the context of PWM technologies, there are conventional and advanced technologies available. The disposal of plastic waste by incineration and landfilling is generally concerned with conventional management. The end results of these conventional technologies are comparatively harmful to human and environmental health. Incineration is a technology which has potential to release hazardous emissions as by products under uncontrolled conditions. A large portion of plastic waste has ended up in landfills around the globe and it has an irreversible impact on the environment due to the slow degradation and the leaching of hazardous compounds into the groundwater during the degradation. Mainly, the landfill leachate consists of microplastic particles which are harmful to both the environment and human health. One of the studies has accounted for the general value for the microplastics concentration in landfill leachate is 0–291 particles L⁻¹. This value is highly dependent upon the condition of a landfill. The toxic and persistent hazardous chemicals in microplastics are negatively affecting proper human and environmental health [7]. Moreover, plastic polymers consist of additives such as bisphenols, phthalates, etc., Some of these additives are not chemically attached to the polymer and it has potential to leach out to the environment [8]. According to several studies, a higher number of polymers are made of carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic monomers [9]. In the meantime, landfilling is a challenging technology to use for nations with limited land areas. Therefore, the use of advanced technologies is more appropriate than the continuous application of conventional PWM technologies. The advanced technologies for PWM can be identified as recycling and plastic degradation technologies. From these two options, the recycling of plastic waste is a frequently applied technology globally to handle solid waste. Mechanical recycling, chemical recycling, and thermal recycling are commonly practiced recycling technologies around the world. Based on the feasibility of the application, particular technologies are popular in different countries. Due to the financial feasibility of the application, the majority of developing countries are sticking to mechanical recycling practice rather than shifting to advanced technologies like thermal and chemical recycling [10]. Mechanical recycling evolves in shredding plastic waste in to recyclate or regranualte without changing its chemical structure. Chemical recycling and thermal recycling cause the change of chemical structure [11]. In chemical recycling of plastic waste, the waste material is subject to degradation, and it provides low-molecular compounds as a result. Chemical recycling of plastic waste can be placed under the processes of hydrolysis, glycolysis, methonolysis. The thermal process of plastic recycling is conducted through combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrocracking. The thermal process of plastic recycling is significantly important due to the potential of recovering fuel or thermal energy as a result [12]. Moreover, PWM-related policies and regulations in different countries vary according to the demographic and socioeconomic background of the country. Most of the developed countries are currently focusing on moving toward a circular economy in PWM by developing novel policies and regulations [13]. Most developed countries are practicing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) to combat the plastic pollution issue aligned with circular economy practices. Plastic recycling business models are another important concern of the PWM in developed and developing countries. The government, private and public-private partnerships (PPP) are involved in the plastic recycling business around the world. Identifying differences in the plastic recycling business in different countries is the way forward toward developing a successful PWM system, especially in developing countries that are struggling with an excessive amount of mismanaged plastic waste. Public awareness is another critical requirement to uplift the efficiency of the waste management system in a country. These public awareness tools can be varied based on the socio-economic background of the country.

This study is related to two countries that are very dissimilar in their socioeconomic statuses but are similar in some geographic characteristics, such as both countries being island countries surrounded by sea. Japan is a country which is in east coast of Asia [14]. The current population of the country is 126.5 million and the population density of the country is accounted as 347/km². Total land area of the country is 364,555 km² [15]. Japan has a strongly developed economic background and Japan’s economy is the third largest economy in the world [14]. In 2021, Japan’s per capita GDP is accounted as around US$ 234,315.5 [15]. Japan’s GDP per sector is as follows: services 71.4%, industry 27.5%, and agriculture 1.2% [16].

Sri Lanka is an island nation located in the Indian ocean with a population of around 22 million. The population density in the country is accounted as 341/km². The land area of Sri Lanka is around 65,610 km² [15]. In 2021, per capita GDP in Sri Lanka is accounted as around US$ 4013.7. The main economic activities in the country are tourism, tea export, apparel, textile, rice production and other agricultural products. Currently, Sri Lanka is listed under the lower middle-income countries [16]. Even though, Sri Lanka has taken significant initiatives to address the plastic pollution issue, lack of information sources to understand the realistic situation of plastic waste management is a research gap to be filled as a priority. Using Japan as a reference point to analyze Sri Lanka’s situation of plastic waste management provides good learning on how Sri Lanka can avoid the mistakes made by Japan and how they can take advantage of the policies, technologies, business models, and public awareness tools that Japan has created through a longer iteration process. The critical element for both countries is the ocean surrounding them that must be saved from plastic pollution, as we have seen an alarming rise in plastic marine debris, mainly from land-based sources. This study can provide the basis for Sri Lanka to develop a strategy on how to address plastic waste management to control the leakages of plastics in the environment by increasing the effective and efficient recycling system, leading toward plastic circularity.

2. Materials and Methods

A cross-country comparison of waste management is an appropriate method to learn the strengths and weaknesses of a system in one country; it is also a demonstration to another country that is willingly planning to improve its existing waste management system. According to previous studies, most of the cross-country comparisons are based on the existing literature from each country. The study of Kuan et al. (2022) [17] compares the plastic recycling policies and regulations in Japan and Malaysia based on the available secondary data sources. This study gathered secondary information based on the selected keywords. A structured survey questionnaire was used for data gathering. The gathered data was subjected to comparative analysis and a detailed discussion was used to interpret the findings.

A developing country like Sri Lanka can utilize the knowledge of advancements in PWM sector in developed countries to address the weaknesses of PWM system. A study on integrated solid waste management [18] was used to identify the suitable sectors to consider while improving the PWM system. The advancements can be identified and applied to the PWM technologies, PWM-related business models, public awareness tools, PWM-related policies, and regulations.

2.1. Secondary Data Collection

To conduct this cross-country comparison, the main information providers identified are the secondary data sources including government reports, published journal papers, books, news articles, case study reports, etc. Published journal articles were selected based on the keywords of plastic production, plastic consumption, plastic waste generation, plastic waste management, plastic waste management technologies, policies and regulations in plastic waste management, public awareness in plastic waste management, business models in plastic waste management, etc. Government reports reviewing were important to gather recent information related to plastic waste management. Direct interviews and email communication were used to collect updated government reports in both countries.

2.2. Primary Data Collection

Moreover, the primary data was collected to fill the information gap in the secondary data sources. For the primary data collection, the stakeholders were selected from the government, private, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), plastic recycling businesses, and academia. A list of contacts of potential experts was prepared for both countries as an initial step of the survey. The questionnaires were framed based on the type of stakeholder and the gaps identified in the secondary data. For example, In Sri Lanka, the updated quantitative information related to the importation and exportation of virgin plastic material was unavailable to find from the published information sources. This information gap was able to be filled through the conducted direct interviews. The availability of secondary data related to waste management in Japan is comparatively higher than in other developing nations including Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka, the lack of secondary data sources in waste management is a major barrier to addressing the waste problem effectively [19]. Therefore, to gather information related to PWM in Sri Lanka, a questionnaire survey was conducted.

The planned number of direct interviews was limited due to the prevailing COVID-19 pandemic situations. Around 11 direct interviews for Sri Lanka and 7 interviews for Japan were conducted to fill the information gap. Table 1 presents the summary of the stakeholder interviews that were conducted for Sri Lanka. Moreover, several zoom interviews were conducted for experts in the waste management sector in order to verify the collected secondary data. During the COVID-19 pandemic period, several online conferences and discussions were conducted based on waste management; specially, PWM. These virtual sources were used as another supportive information source to fill the existing information gap.

After gathering information under the criteria of quantitative information related to the plastic value chain, plastic recycling technologies, PWM-related policies and regulations, plastic recycling business models, and public awareness of PWM, the content analysis was used to compare the PWM systems in Japan and Sri Lanka. This comparison is based on a detailed discussion of the available data. The conclusions at the end were made based on this detailed discussion.

Table 1. A Summary of Stakeholder Interviews in Sri Lanka.

Focused Sector	Institute/Organization	Criteria Considered
Government Sector	Central Environmental Authority	Quantitative information related to the plastic value chain, Plastic recycling business models, PWM-related policies and regulations
	Waste Management Authority, Western Province	Plastic waste collection and recycling businesses, quantitative information related to plastic value chain
Private Sector	INSEE Eco Cycles	Plastic recycling technologies
	Chamber of Commerce	Proposed Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) model in PWM
	Business and Industry Development Services (Pvt) Ltd.	National Action Plan for PWM in Sri Lanka
NGOs	SLYCAN Trust	Public awareness in PWM
	Janathakshan (Gte) Ltd.	Projects related to PWM, public awareness in PWM
Plastic Recyclers	Katana Upcycle	Plastic recycling technologies, Functions of the plastic recycling business models
	Eco Spindles	PET recycling technologies, Impact of policies and regulations related to PWM, PPP for plastic waste collection and recycling
Plastic recycler/Government	Kandy Municipal Council	Plastic recycling technologies, functions of public recycling business model
Academia	University of Peradeniya	Quantitative information related to plastic value chain, Plastic recycling business models, policies and regulations related to PWM, PWM technologies, public awareness tolls in PWM

Table 1. A Summary of Stakeholder Interviews in Sri Lanka.

Focused Sector	Institute/Organization	Criteria Considered
Government Sector	Central Environmental Authority	Quantitative information related to the plastic value chain, Plastic recycling business models, PWM-related policies and regulations
	Waste Management Authority, Western Province	Plastic waste collection and recycling businesses, quantitative information related to plastic value chain
Private Sector	INSEE Eco Cycles	Plastic recycling technologies
	Chamber of Commerce	Proposed Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) model in PWM
	Business and Industry Development Services (Pvt) Ltd.	National Action Plan for PWM in Sri Lanka
NGOs	SLYCAN Trust	Public awareness in PWM
	Janathakshan (Gte) Ltd.	Projects related to PWM, public awareness in PWM
Plastic Recyclers	Katana Upcycle	Plastic recycling technologies, Functions of the plastic recycling business models
	Eco Spindles	PET recycling technologies, Impact of policies and regulations related to PWM, PPP for plastic waste collection and recycling
Plastic recycler/Government	Kandy Municipal Council	Plastic recycling technologies, functions of public recycling business model
Academia	University of Peradeniya	Quantitative information related to plastic value chain, Plastic recycling business models, policies and regulations related to PWM, PWM technologies, public awareness tolls in PWM

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Quantitative Information Related to Plastic Value Chain

The plastic industry in Sri Lanka and Japan has significant differences in terms of the availability of processes in the plastic value chain. The process of virgin plastic production is absent in Sri Lanka [19], while Japan is practicing all the stages of the plastic value chain, including virgin plastic production, plastic product derivation from virgin plastics, plastic product consumption, plastic waste generation, and disposal.

Plastic import is the primary means of direct entry of plastics into Sri Lanka. Therefore, the amounts of plastics imported over the years are important to understand the circulation of plastic raw materials and finished products inside the country. Figure 1 illustrates the trend of plastic raw materials imported from the year 2015 to the year 2019 by Sri Lanka and Japan.

In Sri Lanka, the import of plastic raw materials has gradually increased from 2015 to 2017; from 2018 to 2019 there has been a slow decrement in plastic import value [20] This reduction was a result of the ban imposed on the single-use plastic product in Sri Lanka from 2017. As Japan is a developed country with higher GDP, plastic raw material importation has always been nearly 90% higher than Sri Lanka over the years from 2015 to 2019. Japan’s plastic raw material importation has increased gradually from 2.5 MT to 3.1 MT from 2015 to 2019 [21]. According to the statistics from the year 2022, the GDP of Japan is 50 times higher compared to the GDP of Sri Lanka. But according to Figure 1, the difference in average plastic raw material importation of both countries remains around 2–3 MT/year. This value is comparatively low for Japan compared to the country’s high GDP. The reason for this low value of plastic raw material importation in Japan is due to the extensive domestic production of plastic raw materials. The average annual value of plastic raw material production in Japan accounted for 10.5 MT between the years 2012 and 2019 [22].

The types of plastic raw materials imported differ in both countries. PET, HDPE, LDPE, PP, PS, and PVC are frequently imported resin types in both countries. Figure 2 shows the variation in plastic resin importation in Sri Lanka.

According to the statistics related to plastic resin importation in Sri Lanka, PVC, LDPE, PP, and HDPE were the commonly imported resin types from 2014 to 2018. Figure 3 shows the plastic resin importation in Japan.

Among several polymer types, PET importation in Japan has been significantly higher over the years whereas PVC and LDPE are the most imported polymer types in Sri Lanka, according to the statistics from National Audit Report (2019).

In terms of quantitative information related to waste management, Sri Lanka has limited sources to gather verified statistics at the national level. As a result of this, the “National Action Plan on Plastic Waste Management” launched in the year 2021 focuses on developing an inventory of plastic flow as a priority before going for other strategies to tackle plastic waste in Sri Lanka.

The amount of plastic waste generation in Japan and Sri Lanka has a significant difference. The annual plastic waste generation in Japan has accounted for 8.22 MMT [22] while the estimated value for plastic waste generation in Sri Lanka is 1.59 MMT [19]. Even though Japan generates a comparatively higher amount of plastic waste, the efficiency of plastic waste management within the country is in the optimal stage. According to the statistics from Japan, the level of mismanaged plastic waste is only around 1.75% of annually generated plastic waste. For Sri Lanka, the percentage of mismanaged plastic waste is estimated at 5% of annually generated plastic waste [19]. The properly recorded statistics related to the plastic value chain in Japan are important to address the plastic pollution issue successfully at the national level. Sri Lanka requires to reach this level by developing and maintaining a database to record the statistics related to plastic waste management at the local and national levels.

3.2. Plastic Recycling Technologies

Plastic waste management relies on several conventional and modern technologies. Among these technologies, plastic recycling is an extensively applied technology to cope with plastic wastes [10]. The recycling system in Japan and Sri Lanka has its specifications based on geographical, social, and economic aspects.

Table 2. Highlights of plastic recycling technologies in Japan and Sri Lanka.

Question	Sri Lanka	Japan
What is the main plastic recycling technology?	Mechanical recycling is the main plastic recycling technology. 4.1% of collected plastic is recycled by using mechanical recycling.	Thermal recycling is the mainly used plastic recycling technology. It has accounted for 61%.
What is the main plastic polymer type which is used in the recycling industry?	PET recycling is popular in the formal recycling industry.	PET recycling is the highest.

shows the specifications related to technologies in the plastic recycling systems in Japan and Sri Lanka.

From plastic recycling technologies point of view, Sri Lanka prioritizes mechanical recycling technology over chemical and thermal recycling technologies. The main reason for this is the technological and economic feasibility of using mechanical recycling rather than using chemical or thermal recycling technologies. As an estimated value, 4.1% of collected plastic waste is processed through mechanical recycling [19]. In Japan, thermal recycling is the major recycling pathway to manage plastic waste. This value accounted for 61% of total collected plastic waste [23]. Japan’s application of advanced technologies in waste management is reflected in the popularity of thermal recycling among the other recycling technologies. The plastic recycling industry normally has formal and informal plastic recycling chains. In Sri Lanka, the informal plastic recycling chain is the major system of the plastic recycling industry and these informal plastic recyclers are relying on mechanical recycling practices.

Among the plastic polymer recycling technologies, PET recycling is popular in both Sri Lanka and Japan. In both countries PET recycling has priority in the formal recycling industry. In Japan, the PET bottle recycling rate is around 85% [24]. In Sri Lanka, the PET bottle collection and recycling rate is expected to reach 100% by 2025 [25]. Currently, the rate of PET bottle collection and recycling accounted for around 27% in Sri Lanka. The large-scale formal recycling business of “Eco-spindles” is playing a major role in the PET recycling industry in Sri Lanka. Based on the currently existing PET recycling rates, Japan’s PET recycling rate is four times higher than Sri Lanka’s PET recycling rate. This difference is undoubtedly due to Japan’s GDP and the systemized waste collection mechanism.

Even though PET recycling has a priority in Sri Lanka, small-scale informal recyclers recycle a higher amount of PP waste compared to other polymer types [26]. According to the direct interview discussion, the main reason for this PP recycling is the ease of collection and availability of PP-based packaging waste. Small-scale informal recyclers usually crush PP waste and sell crushed PP to large-scale plastic recyclers. The majority of small-scale informal recyclers in Sri Lanka are using simple technology to manage their industry. Usually, the machinery parts for these industries are imported from other countries.

In Japan PWM is geared by Waste-to-Energy (WTE) technologies rather than other recycling technologies. It might not be suitable for smaller island countries like Sri Lanka due to the prevailing economic issues.

3.3. Policies in Plastic Waste Management

Sri Lanka has grappled with an increasing amount of solid waste since the late 1970s due to changes in consumption patterns, economic growth, etc. Therefore, the need for policies and regulations for solid waste management emerged in 1970. In 1970 “Sri Lankan Environmental Management Law” commenced and this law was aimed at protecting the environment and biodiversity. The policies related to waste management are imposed by respective ministries and the power to manage the waste in the end-of-life stage is exercised by the local authorities (LA) [27].

In the case of Japan, policy development has been governed by a centralized system. In earlier stages of policy development in Japan, the main focus was on the end-of-life stage which is the disposal of generated waste [28]. Figure 4 illustrates the policy implementation in Sri Lanka and Japan with regard to the PWM along with the timeline from the 1970s to the present. Even though Sri Lanka has imposed policies related to solid waste management since the 1970s, the specific policies aimed at PWM have been implemented only in recent decades. According to the Information, these PWM policies proposed recently (in 2017) are based on banning and prohibition. The proponents stated that the rationale behind this policy banning SUP was the influence of the sudden collapsing incident of the main dumpsite in 2017 at Meethotamulla, Sri Lanka [19].

Table 3. Specification in Japan and Sri Lanka related to the PWM policies.

	Japan	Sri Lanka
Policies about the local government’s responsibility	The waste management act defines the responsibilities of prefectures and municipalities in the waste management process This regulation aims at almost 100% waste collection system in Japan	The local authority is responsible for waste collection including plastic waste in urban and suburban areas. Although there is a responsibility for LAs to collect the waste, the waste collection rate recorded is only 32%
EPR	financial and physical responsibility from municipalities to producers to some extent. Incentivized producers to think of environmentally sound approaches/technologies while designing their products.	Based on the voluntary/mandatory reporting and collect-back system
Single use plastic ban	Ban on single use plastic bag is introduced in 2019 [27]. Retailers are banned from offering a single use plastic bag for free.	Introduced in 2017 for selected plastic items by focusing more on single use packaging materials.

implies the specifications in policy implementation related to PWM in Japan and Sri Lanka.

Due to the rapidly increasing production and consumption of mass-manufactured goods in the time of 1990s, Japan faced several environmental constraints. The few major issues are scarcity of available landfill sites, hazardous emissions from waste management facilities.

In mid-to-late 1990s waste disposal became a focal consideration in Japanese political drive and new laws and regulations were created with the expectation of improving the waste management in the country effectively [29]. In 1991, Japan addressed responsible resource utilization through the “promotion act of effective resource utilization”. Japan started applying EPR for managing plastic waste in the earlier part of the year 2000. “The Container and Packaging Recycling Law CPRL)” is the first law in Japan that reflects the EPR concept. Initially, this law applied for the PET bottles and glass wastes management. Later, it has expanded to paper, plastic container and packaging waste recycling. The main advantages of applying EPR are reduction of plastic waste and promotion of recycling by shifting the responsibility of waste management from municipality to producers. But Japan identified EPR as a temporary solution for the plastic pollution until recycled material becoming a secured product in the market. The main lesson Japan provides from the existing EPR concept, is the importance of developing adequate policies and regulations to promote the recycled products in the market [30].

Compared to Japan, Sri Lanka is still in the preliminary stage of implementing EPR for the waste management process. The proponents who have designed the EPR roadmap for Sri Lanka are taking their lessons/ insights from successful EPR applications in Japan’s PWM sector. Currently, Sri Lanka is practicing reporting and the collect-back system as an EPR strategy on a voluntary basis. The “take back” system based EPR is a common practice in several countries and Japan also approached to the EPR policy from that direction. EPR application in Sri Lanka is a collaborative attempt of the private and government sectors. As per the lesson from Japan, Sri Lanka can look forward to establishing the laws and regulations to promote the recycled product in the market. This approach will drive towards the successful application of EPR policy to manage the plastic waste in Sri Lanka.

Even though Sri Lanka focuses on implementing policies related to the banning and prohibition of SUP, there is a lack of a proper monitoring process to evaluate the effectiveness of these policies. Japan is successful in maintaining systematic policies and regulations toward the PWM in the country. According to a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for selected single use plastic (SUP) products in Sri Lanka, the country needs a holistic approach to address the SUP waste. Banning only a few selected SUP products is not effectively contributing to reducing plastic pollution from SUP products [31].

Several findings related to PWM were observed during the primary data collection in Sri Lanka. Contamination of recyclable waste due to the improper waste segregation is a common limitation to improve the plastic recycling business in the country. Therefore, development of effective laws and regulations related to the waste segregation is an important factor to consider. During the interview with Ceylon Chamber and Commerce (CCC), they highlighted this issue as a barrier to progress the EPR policy in the country.

Figure 4. Chronology of specific policies and regulations development related to PWM in Japan and Sri Lanka [27].

Figure 4. Chronology of specific policies and regulations development related to PWM in Japan and Sri Lanka [27].

3.4. Plastic Recycling Business Models

The major difference in the plastic recycling business model in Sri Lanka compared to Japan is the existence of stabilized informal recycling business sector in Sri Lanka. Figure 5 illustrates the typical plastic recycling value chain in Sri Lanka.

As per the plastic recycling value chain in Sri Lanka, local authorities have the main responsibility for waste collection and disposal in the formal plastic recycling stream. In Sri Lanka, small-scale informal plastic recycling businesses are creating a job market for a considerable number of low-income people including informal door-to-door waste collectors, dumpsite collectors, and streetside collectors [32]. In Sri Lanka, large-scale plastic recycling businesses are not common except for very few large-scale PET recycling industries like Eco-spindles.

Figure 6 illustrates the plastic recycling value chain in Japan. Japan’s situation is different due to the absence of an informal recycling stream.

As formal recycling businesses are the prioritized business model in Japan, the government sector is playing a major role in terms of plastic waste collection and PWM. In Japan, the government engages actively with the private sectors in the waste management system, primarily through public-private partnerships (PPP). On the other hand, in Sri Lanka, PPP is being conducted only on a project mode led by international organizations. There is no transparent PPP system in Sri Lanka.

Japan’s practice of 100% source segregation is a positive driver for maintaining the formal recycling business model. Local Authorities of Sri Lanka are facing the barrier of collecting mixed waste due to the absence of proper source segregation of waste. According to the information, small-scale recyclers are willing to get the support of the government to increase the collection of waste plastic. But the government does not have enough capacity to provide segregated, cleaned plastic waste to these recyclers. Therefore, the government needs to build systematic awareness among the people regarding the importance of source segregation to develop recycling businesses in the country.

Based on the economic background in the countries like Sri Lanka, it is important to strengthen the informal plastic recycling businesses as a solution to reduce the plastic pollution rather than relying on technology driven solutions like WTE.

3.5. Public Awareness in Plastic Waste Management

Public awareness is key to improving the existing plastic waste management system in both Sri Lanka and Japan. According to the information gathered from the government, private, and NGOs in Sri Lanka, they all are using TV/Radio programs for creating awareness among the people. But there is not enough information to evaluate the most appropriate method to make people aware of the PWM effectively.

According to the studies related to PWM in Sri Lanka, 99% of people in both urban and rural areas are aware of the waste management issue in general. Even though they are willing to contribute to the PWM process, the existing system of waste collection and management is not supportive. Based on the research outcomes, it is apparent that the existing media platforms are not adequately involved in addressing the gradually increasing plastic pollution issue. Similarly, several studies imply the importance of using the educational system to influence the PWM system within the country [33]. Sustaining a proper school curriculum to address the issue of plastic pollution is a futuristic approach to Japan’s plastic waste management system. This might be the driver of the high waste segregation practice in Japan compared to Sri Lanka.

Recently, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) had a collaborative discussion with Government of Sri Lanka to improve the PWM system in the country. The main objective of this discussion is to strengthen the PWM capacity of the country through developing a database and monitoring process for PWM, developing action plans, conducting pilot activities to reduce plastic waste, and developing human resources for PWM [34].

4. Conclusions

This study focused on identifying the current practices of plastic waste management in Japan and Sri Lanka. Even though, it is challenging to compare PWM systems in developed and developing country, this study assists to get a clear picture of differences in PWM strategies. This identification is important in decision making process that helps to improve the circularity in plastic waste management sector. Considering to the plastic value chain, Japan’s plastic industry consists of all the processes related to the plastic value chain including virgin plastic production. Virgin plastic production is absent in the Sri Lankan plastic industry necessitating the import of virgin plastics into the country. From the perspective of plastic recycling technologies; the majority of the recycling industries in Sri Lanka rely on mechanical recycling technology while Japan has been practicing thermal recycling as the most preferred technology for plastic recycling. There is a strongly built network of informal plastic waste collection and recycling businesses in Sri Lanka. Generally, Japan’s plastic recycling businesses are more formalized in terms of collection and recycling. Most of Japan’s policies for plastic waste management were developed to address the aspect of a circular economy (to achieve the effective usage of plastic waste via recycling based on the proper formal collection systems). Prohibition/ banning is the main strategy behind the policies and regulations which are developed to manage plastic waste in Sri Lanka. Japan has a systematic approach to building public awareness related to plastic waste management. Framing the school curriculum, which includes information on plastic waste management, is one of the significant features of this systematic approach. The general media streams, TV, and radio for information dissemination are the most practiced method for creating public awareness related to waste management in Sri Lanka. Related to all the aspects, both countries have their significant features in plastic waste management. Sri Lanka has considerable gap in all aspects and it needs to be filled in order to reduce the negative impact from plastic pollution.

A developing country such as Sri Lanka needs to identify both technical and policy options to reduce its plastic pollution to its marine environment. These options can adopt the leap frogging approach, by comparing the plastic waste management approach in Japan. Both countries have geographical similarity of being island nations and the countries have threat of plastic leakage to the marine environment. Moreover, Japan has more detailed documented plastic waste management technical and policy development data. This comparative study certainly helps Sri Lanka to identify and adopt some of the positive developments in Japan. The intervention of the JICA to improve the PWM system in Sri Lanka is a important collaboration to transfer the lessons from Japan to Sri Lanka.