Barriers and Enablers for Green Concrete Adoption: A Scientometric Aided Literature Review Approach

Abstract

Green concrete is a concept of concrete that uses waste materials to reduce its environmental impact and has various benefits for the environment, economy, and society, such as lower construction cost, less landfill waste, new waste markets, and better quality of life. This study aims to investigate and analyze the barriers and enablers for green concrete development and implementation, based on a mixed-method approach that combines a scientometric analysis and a literature review. The Scopus database was explored first and then these data were used to investigate and capture six categories of barriers and enablers: awareness, technical, economic and market, implementation, support/promotion, and social. Results reveal that the technical and operational aspects are the main challenges for green concrete, while the awareness and social acceptance are not major issues. The current study surpasses the mere popularization of green concrete. Instead, it delves into its multifaceted dimensions, that is, technical, economic, social, and institutional. By meticulously analyzing a diverse group of research articles, key challenges and opportunities associated with green concrete are pinpointed. The findings not only deepen our understanding of the barriers impeding the widespread adoption of green concrete, but also shed light on potential solutions. In summary, this work bridges theory and practice, providing invaluable insights for future researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in the sustainable construction domain.

1. Introduction

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials globally [1,2,3], but it also has a significant environmental impact due to its high consumption of natural resources, energy-intensive production process, and large carbon footprint [4,5,6,7,8]. To address these issues, a new concept of concrete has emerged, called green concrete, which aims to minimize the environmental impact of concrete by using waste materials as partial replacements for cement or aggregates [9,10,11], enhancing the durability and performance of concrete and improving the sustainability of the concrete life cycle [12,13,14]. In the pursuit of a sustainable future, the construction industry has turned its focus toward green concrete, a material that not only promises environmental benefits, but also encompasses a complex paradigm involving many parameters. Green concrete is defined not just by its composition, which substitutes traditional cement with ecofriendly industrial waste materials like fly ash, blast slag, and silica fume, but also by its application and the broader implications for sustainability [15,16,17,18].

The discussion on green concrete is comprehensive, considering its global relevance and the various parameters that lead to its classification as ‘green’. These parameters include, but are not limited to, the use of recycled materials, reduction of carbon footprint, and energy efficiency in production. The field of application for green concrete is diverse, extending to roadworks, pavements, buildings, and more, each with its unique requirements and challenges [19,20,21].

By establishing this framework, this paper aims to provide a thorough understanding of green concrete, reflecting on its multifaceted nature and the collective efforts required to integrate it into mainstream construction practices worldwide. It is a concept of concrete that aims to meet a holistic approach of sustainability, balancing economic, social, and environmental benefits. It is not only beneficial for the environment, but also for the economy and society, as it can reduce the cost of construction, save landfill space, create new markets for waste materials, and greatly improve the quality of life for the users of concrete structures [22,23,24,25,26].

However, green concrete also faces many challenges and barriers that prevent its widespread adoption and application in the construction industry [18,19]. These include technical, economic, social, and institutional factors, such as the lack of standards and specifications, the uncertainty of material properties and performance, the higher initial cost and risk, the low awareness and acceptance, and the inadequate policies, guidelines, and incentives [27,28,29,30]. The context of green concrete development and implementation is not well-studied, limiting its potential and acceptance. Therefore, the main question here is why the construction industry has not fully embraced the concept of green concrete. To capture the state of the art of green concrete, it is essential to analyze the latest developments, difficulties, and prospects in this area. A comprehensive and systematic analysis of the factors that militate against green concrete development and implementation is strongly needed, considering the views and insights of the key practitioners and specialists in the concrete industry. The discovery of such factors will allow for policy decision makers to be better informed as to how they can develop strategies and guidelines that will increase the use of green concrete to meet the massive demand of urbanization.

2. Methodology

There are many barriers and enablers that contribute significantly to the implementation of green concrete. For example, some recent studies have highlighted the potential of green concrete and the challenges its implementation faces. Innovations like using polluted sediment for ultra-lightweight concrete show promise in recycling and performance, but face adoption barriers such as the need for industry standards [18]. Research into quaternary blended cement points to significant CO₂ reductions, yet further differentiation of green concrete approaches is needed to fully harness their advantages. These insights highlight the importance of targeted research to navigate the complexities of green concrete implementation [17]. Therefore, this study aims to conduct a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the barriers and enablers for green concrete adoption and implementation, based on the perspectives and experiences of the relevant researchers, stakeholders, and experts in the concrete industry. To develop a consistent foundation for addressing green concrete implementation, the current study adopts a mixed-method approach: a scientometric analysis followed by a comprehensive technical literature review. A systematic investigation of existing publications can assist researchers in capturing the current body of knowledge and stimulate inspiration for upcoming research work. The current research used the Scopus database as the main source of data for both methods. It applied the following steps to conduct the research as shown in Figure 1:

Step 1: Search and filter the documents related to the research topic on the Scopus database using a specific query.

Step 2: Perform the scientometric analysis on the selected documents using the R package to generate various statistics and visualizations, such as the main information, annual scientific production, and most relevant sources.

Step 3: Perform the literature review on the selected documents using a thematic analysis approach to identify and classify the barriers and enablers for green concrete into six categories: awareness, technical, economic and market, implementation, support/promotion, and social.

2.1. Scientometric Analysis

To conduct the scientometric analysis, an intense search was done on the Scopus database using the following query: “(ABSTRACT (barrier) OR (enabler)) AND ((ABSTRACT (green AND concrete)))”. This query returned 91 documents, which were then filtered by relevance to the topic of green concrete. With these documents, the biblioshiny under the bibliometrix library of the R package [31] was used to perform the scientometric analysis, which is as follows.

Main Information

Table 1. Main information.

Description	Results
Main information about data
Timespan	1977:2024
Sources (Journals, Books, etc.)	80
Documents	91
Annual Growth Rate %	3.48
Document Average Age	7.31
Average citations per doc	18.24
References	3467
Document contents
Keywords Plus	769
Author’s Keywords	294
Authors
Authors	292
Authors of single-authored docs	14
Authors collaboration
Single-authored docs	14
Co-Authors per Doc	3.27
International co-authorships %	26.37
Document types
Article	48
Book	2
Book chapter	1
Conference paper	17
Conference review	11
Review	10

shows the main information about the data used for the analysis. Spanning from 1977 to 2024, the green concrete research dataset comprised 91 documents from 80 distinct sources, reflecting a steady growth in the field with an annual publication rate of 3.48%. The average citation count of 18.24 per document, alongside a total of 3467 references, underscores the significant academic impact of these works. The collaboration is evident with 292 authors, 26.37% of whom have engaged in international co-authorships, highlighting the global commitment to sustainable construction practices. The diversity of document types, including articles, conference papers, and reviews, reveals a dynamic discourse and peer-reviewed insights that are shaping the evolution of green concrete research. This dataset not only charts the historical and current landscape, but also projects a future of continued scholarly exchange and innovation in the pursuit of environmental sustainability in the construction industry. This shows the different formats and venues of the documents, as well as the different stages and purposes of the research.

2.2. Annual Scientific Production

Table 2. Annual scientific production.

Year	Articles	Year	Articles	Year	Articles	Year	Articles
1977	1	1989	0	2001	0	2013	6
1978	0	1990	0	2002	0	2014	10
1979	0	1991	0	2003	0	2015	4
1980	0	1992	0	2004	0	2016	5
1981	0	1993	1	2005	1	2017	5
1982	0	1994	0	2006	1	2018	2
1983	0	1995	0	2007	0	2019	8
1984	0	1996	0	2008	3	2020	4
1985	0	1997	0	2009	2	2021	6
1986	0	1998	0	2010	3	2022	8
1987	0	1999	0	2011	2	2023	13
1988	0	2000	0	2012	1	2024	5

shows the annual scientific production of the documents which reflects the scholarly output on green concrete research from 1977 to 2024. It begins with a solitary article in 1977, followed by a period of minimal activity. A significant increase in publications is observed from 2013, culminating in a peak of 13 articles in 2023, indicative of heightened research interest and activity in recent years. In 2024, the count stands at five articles thus far. This trend suggests an increasing recognition of the importance of green concrete technology in sustainable construction, likely driven by growing environmental concerns and the industry’s push toward ecofriendly materials. The data indicate an emerging field that is rapidly gaining traction, as it tackles critical challenges within the construction industry context. Moreover, there is a discernible trend toward increased academic and practical contributions.

2.3. Most Frequent Words

Figure 2 provides an overview of the frequency of keywords related to sustainable construction and environmental impact of green concrete. The most frequently mentioned term was “concretes”, appearing the most, underscoring the focus on construction materials. The phrase “sustainable development” followed closely after “concretes”, highlighting the importance of sustainability in the construction industry. Other significant terms included “climate change”, “environmental impact”, and “recycling”, indicating a strong emphasis on ecological considerations. Additionally, terms like “reinforced concrete”, “waste management”, and “urban area” appeared multiple times, reflecting the diverse aspects of sustainability and environmental management within the context of urban development and construction practices. This suggests a detailed exploration of how building materials like concrete can be optimized to achieve the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) of sustainability and how the construction industry can adapt to reduce its environmental footprint while developing their economy.

3. Results and Discussions

This study revealed the main barriers and enablers for the adoption of green technologies in concrete production, a major construction material with a high environmental impact. By identifying, investigating, and reviewing the relevant articles from different sources, the study classified the barriers and enablers into six categories: awareness, technical, economic and market, implementation, support/promotion, and social. The frequency analysis showed that the most frequent barriers were technical and implementational, while the most frequent enablers were technical and support/promotion. The study concluded that a comprehensive understanding of the barriers and enablers is essential for the success of the adoption of green technologies in concrete production and suggested some directions for future research.

3.1. Barriers and Their Analysis

Table 3. Green concrete barriers along with their description.

Category	Barrier	Description	References
Awareness	Lack of knowledge and education	Road agencies, contractors, sub-contractor, and the public may not be aware of the benefits and potential of recycled materials or may have misconceptions or negative perceptions about their quality and performance.	[32,33]
	Lack of awareness, knowledge and benefits	Stakeholders and decision-makers may not be aware of the multiple benefits and co-benefits of nature-based solutions compared to grey solutions, or may have doubts about their efficiency, effectiveness, and reliability.	[34]
		Many companies are not fully aware of the benefits of the green competitive advantage or lack the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively adopt green innovation and environmental management practices.	[35,36,37]
		Many managers and employees are not fully aware of the potential benefits that green and digital factors can bring to their organizations, such as improved efficiency, innovation, brand image, and competitiveness.	[38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46]
	Resistance to change	Some stakeholders may perceive standardization and design for disassembly as a threat to their project uniqueness and architectural freedom. They may also lack the effective knowledge and practical skills to implement these principles in a good manner.	[47,48,49,50,51,52,53]
Technical	Availability of alternative energy sources	The current waste management policies in the province and regions do not divert high-calorific materials from landfill, limiting the availability of waste-derived energy sources for the cement industry.	[54,55,56,57]
		Some common substitute materials, such as steel slag and silica fume, are not available in the Pacific Northwest. The availability of fly ash, another substitute material, is uncertain due to the high pressures on the coal-fired electricity sector.
	Energy efficiency improvements	The existing plants in British Columbia have limited potential for significant increases in fuel efficiency, and no new or modernized plants are planned in the near future due to the market conditions and investment climate.	[54,58]
	Lack of specifications and standards	There may not be clear and consistent guidelines for the production, testing, and quality control of recycled materials, or for the design and construction of road structures using recycled materials.	[32,33]
		There is no universally accepted framework or methodology for monitoring the performance and impact of nature-based solutions across different scales, hazards, and contexts. Different indicators may have different definitions, units, and data sources, making it difficult to compare and aggregate results.	[34]
	Inappropriate battens	The use of incorrect or insufficient battens to support the precast concrete products during stacking can cause physical damage and waste.	[2,59,60,61,62,63]
	Unclear identification marks	The lack of clear and waterproof identification marks on the precast concrete products can lead to wrong delivery or double-handling.
	Lack of computer stock control	The use of manual or simple software tools to manage the stock records can result in errors or inefficiencies.
	Building age and condition	The limitations posed by the existing building design, structure, and services, all of which may not be compatible with new green technologies.	[64,65,66,67]
	Availability of space	The lack of adequate space for installing a new plant and equipment, such as solar panels or water tanks.
	Building automation systems	The inefficiency or inadequacy of the systems that control the heating, cooling, lighting, and ventilation of the building. It can be a significant barrier due to the initial high investment costs and the complexity of integrating them with green concrete technologies, which often require new approaches for effective monitoring and control.
	Metering systems	The lack of sufficient and accurate metering systems to monitor and measure the energy and water consumption of the building. It can pose challenges in accurately assessing the environmental benefits of green concrete, which is essential for its adoption and validation.
	Large inventory in factory	The push production system adopted by most precasters leads to a high level of inventory, which increases storage costs and environmental impacts.	[59,61,62]
	Lack of sufficient care	The insufficient care provided by the vehicle drivers or crane operators during loading, unloading, and delivery can cause damage or loss of precast concrete products.
	Reduced mechanical properties.	This barrier affects the performance and reliability of lightweight concrete structures, especially in seismic zones.	[68,69,70]
	Lack of skills, facilities, and technology	There is a severe lack of standards, both at the component level and at the procedure level, which can facilitate the reuse of components and design for disassembly. Moreover, there is a need for more research and development on reversible connection systems, especially for concrete elements, which are difficult to disassemble and reuse. Additionally, there is a need for better information management systems, such as material passports and Building Information Modelling (BIM), to store and share the data on the components’ quality and reusability.	[47,50,52,71,72]
		Many organizations lack the necessary technical skills and capabilities to adopt and implement green and digital factors, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), green human resource management, and investing in environmental management. They also face challenges in integrating these factors with their existing processes and systems.	[38,40,42,73]
	High cost and risks	Implementing the green competitive advantage may require significant investments in green technologies, processes, products, or services, which may not be affordable or feasible for some companies, especially Small–Medium Enterprises (SME). Moreover, there may be uncertainties and risks associated with green innovation, such as market acceptance, customer preferences, regulatory changes, or technological obsolescence.	[35,36]
Economic and Market	British Columbia carbon tax	The carbon tax increases the compliance costs and reduces the competitiveness of the British Columbia cement industry compared to other jurisdictions that do not have a similar price on greenhouse gas emissions.	[54,57,74]
	Cost of renewable energy	The cost of woody biomass, a potential renewable energy source, is much higher than that of coal, the conventional fossil fuel used in cement manufacturing.
	Cost and availability of materials	The cost of recycled materials may not be competitive with conventional materials, or there may not be enough supply or demand for recycled materials in the market.	[32]
	Access to capital	The difficulty of obtaining funds for green improvement works, especially when the payback period is longer than five years.	[64,75]
	Lack of government grants and incentives	The absence of financial support from the government to encourage building owners to invest in green measures.
	Perceived split benefits	The imbalance between the costs borne by the building owners and the benefits enjoyed by the tenants.
	Landlord priorities	The focus of property owners on financial returns and market competitiveness, rather than environmental performance.
	Lack of funding and incentives for nature-based solutions implementation and monitoring	Nature-based solutions projects may face financial constraints due to limited public budgets, lack of private investments, or high upfront costs. Nature-based solutions may also lack adequate incentives or regulations to encourage their adoption and maintenance.	[34]
	High costs and uncertain returns across different regions in Saudi Arabia. Astronomical costs of aggregate and storage facilities.	These barriers increase the production costs and reduce the competitiveness of lightweight concrete in the market.	[68,69]
		Many organizations face high costs and uncertain returns when investing in green and digital factors, such as technological innovation and environmental management. They also face market pressures and high competition from other organizations that may not adopt these factors.	[38,73]
	Additional costs and time investment	The reuse of components may involve extra costs for transportation, storage, testing, certification, and maintenance. It may also require more time for logistics, disassembly, quality assurance measures, and method validation. These factors may discourage the stakeholders from adopting the reuse of components and design for disassembly.	[47,70,72]
	Lack of support and incentives	Some companies may face resistance or opposition from internal or external stakeholders, such as managers, employees, customers, suppliers, or competitors, who may not share the same vision or values of the green competitive advantage. Additionally, there may be a lack of adequate incentives, recognitions, or rewards for pursuing the green competitive advantage, such as tax breaks, subsidies, grants, or recognition.	[35,76,77]
Implementation	Cement standards	The current Canadian Standards Association standards allow for a maximum of 5% limestone utilization, while, in Europe, the standards allow for up to 35%. This limits the potential contribution from limestone substitution unless the US standards are revised as well.	[54,74]
	Equipment and operational issues	The use of recycled materials may require specialized equipment, training, or procedures that are not readily available or feasible for construction industry stakeholders.	[32]
	Inappropriate staffing arrangement	The lack of appropriate staffing arrangement for the lifting process can increase energy consumption and the risk of accidents.	[59,60,63]
	Unclear working instructions	The lack of well-written working instructions for the stacking and handling of precast concrete products can result in confusion or mistakes.
	Lack of periodic stock checks	The lack of regular stock checks can lead to discrepancies between the actual and recorded stock levels, which can affect the delivery and production planning.
	Tenant and staff education	The lack of awareness and knowledge among the building occupants about the benefits and practices of green operation.	[64,66]
	Tenant and staff priorities	The preference of the building occupants for their own comfort and convenience, rather than energy conservation.
	Leasing agreements	The restrictions or conflicts caused by the terms and conditions of the short-term lease contracts, which may not align with the green operation goals.
	Lack of coordination and integration of nature-based solutions across sectors and scales	Nature-based solution projects may involve multiple practitioners and stakeholders from different sectors and levels of governance, something which may pose challenges for coordination and integration. Nature-based solutions may also require long-term planning and a proactive management philosophy, which may not align with short-term objectives cycles or agendas.	[34]
	Client’s and end-user’s resistance to change and uncertainties due to durability and ductility issues of lightweight concrete.	This barrier hinders the adoption and acceptance of lightweight concrete as a viable alternative to normal weight concrete.	[68,70]
	Lack of a legal framework	This is the most significant barrier, as it prevents the stakeholders from operating safely and responsibly in the reuse of components. The article suggests that governments should take on their responsibility to create the necessary regulations and legislation for circular reuse.	[47,51,53]
	Lack of strategic alignment, integration, and collaboration	Achieving the green competitive advantage may require a holistic and systemic approach that integrates various aspects of the organization, such as strategy, culture, structure, processes, procedures, and performance. However, some companies may face difficulties or barriers in aligning and coordinating their green efforts across different functions, departments, or units. Furthermore, some companies may lack effective collaboration or partnership with other practitioners in the green supply chain, such as suppliers, distributors, customers, or regulators, who may have different needs, goals, interests, or expectations. Therefore, effective stakeholder management is highly recommended to gain shared value and reduce conflicts and disputes.	[35,37]
		Many firms lack a clear and coherent strategy and coordination for pursuing twin transitions. They also face difficulties in managing the change and resistance that may arise from different stakeholders, such as employees, customers, and suppliers.	[38,73,78]
Support/promotion	Policy support for the Cement Sector Climate Action Strategy	The provincial Climate Action Plan and the Climate Action Team Report do not include any specific measures that would directly support the implementation of the industry’s own greenhouse gas reduction strategy.	[54,74]
	Lack of incentives and policies	There may not be sufficient financial, regulatory, or institutional incentives or policies to encourage or facilitate the use of recycled materials in road construction.	[32]
	Landlord education	The need to inform and persuade the property owners about the long-term advantages of green operations, such as lower operating costs, higher market value, and improved corporate image.	[64,66,67]
	Lack of communication and dissemination of nature-based solutions results and best practices	Nature-based solution projects may lack effective communication and dissemination strategies to share their results and best practices with relevant stakeholders, such as policymakers, practitioners, researchers, or the general public. This may limit the visibility and uptake of nature-based solutions as viable solutions for hydro-meteorological risks mitigation.	[34]
	Lack of government support	Some companies may not receive sufficient support or guidance from the government to implement the green competitive advantage, such as clear and consistent policies, regulations, standards, or law enforcement. The government may also lack the capacity or resources to monitor and evaluate the environmental performance and impact of the green competitive advantage.	[35,36]
		Many firms lack adequate institutional support and incentives for adopting and implementing green and digital factors, such as policies, regulations, standards, and subsidies. They also face barriers in accessing external resources and networks, such as financing, technology, and knowledge.	[38,78]
Social	Consumer preferences	The demand for cement and cement products is influenced by the consumer preferences for building materials, design, and construction practices. The industry needs to communicate the sustainability benefits of using green concrete products to the consumers and other stakeholders.	[54,55]
	Environmental and social impacts	The use of recycled materials may have positive or negative impacts on the environment and society, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, saving landfill space, or affecting road safety and aesthetics.	[32]
	Lack of top management commitment	The lack of top management commitment to implement environmental management practices can hinder the adoption of green stock management.	[59,61]
	Lack of employee involvement	The lack of employee involvement and training in green stock management can reduce the awareness and motivation of the workers.
	Occupational health and safety	The potential risks or hazards associated with the installation or operation of new green measures, which may affect the safety and well-being of the building users.	[64,66,67]
	Building compliance	The need to adhere to the existing building codes and standards, which may not be compatible with some green measures.
	Architectural and aesthetic implications	The impact of new green measures on the appearance and ambience of the building, which may affect the satisfaction and preference of the building users.
	Lack of stakeholder engagement and participation in nature-based solutions design and monitoring	Nature-based solution projects may not involve sufficient stakeholder engagement and participation in the design and monitoring of nature-based solutions, which may affect their acceptance, ownership, and sustainability. Stakeholders may have different preferences, values, and expectations of nature-based solutions, something which may need to be addressed and balanced.	[34]
	Lack of social responsibility, trust and awareness	Some companies may not have a strong sense of social responsibility or awareness of the environmental and social consequences of their actions. They may prioritize short-term profits over long-term sustainability and ignore the needs and expectations of their stakeholders and society at large. They may also lack the trust and legitimacy to engage in the green competitive advantage.	[35,36]
		Many firms face social barriers in adopting and implementing green and digital factors, such as negative perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors of customers, employees, and society. They also face ethical and legal issues, such as privacy, security, and accountability.	[38,73,78]

categorizes the barriers mapped against their description along with key references. The barriers were clustered under categories namely: awareness, technical, economic, implementation, support/promotion, and social respectively.

3.1.1. Barrier’s Explanation

Awareness:

The awareness category refers to the lack of knowledge, education, awareness, or benefits of various green solutions among different stakeholders and decision-makers. One of the barriers in this category is the lack of knowledge and education about the benefits and potential of recycled materials for building construction which may lead to misconceptions or negative perceptions by various stakeholders such as road agencies, contractors, subcontractors, and the public [32,33]. Another barrier is the lack of awareness, knowledge, and benefits of nature-based solutions, which are often overlooked or underestimated compared to grey solutions by stakeholders and decision-makers. They may also have doubts about their efficiency, effectiveness, and reliability [34]. Similarly, many companies are unaware of the benefits of the green competitive advantage or lack the necessary knowledge and practical skills to fully adopt green innovation and environmental management practices [35,36,37]. Moreover, many managers and employees are not fully aware of the potential benefits that green and digital factors can bring to their firms, such as improved efficiency, innovation, and competitiveness [38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46]. A final barrier in this category is the resistance to change that some stakeholders may have toward standardization and design for disassembly which they may perceive as a threat to their project uniqueness and architectural freedom. They may also lack the required knowledge and skills to implement these principles [47,48,49,50,51,52,53].

Technical:

The technical category includes barriers related to the availability, efficiency, quality, and performance of green technologies and materials. For example, the cement industry faces challenges in finding and using alternative energy sources and improving fuel efficiency in the existing plants [54,55,56,57]. The use of recycled materials in building construction and the monitoring of nature-based solutions lack specifications and standards which can help in promoting best practices [32,33]. The precast concrete industry suffers from physical damage and waste due to inappropriate battens, unclear identification marks, large inventory, and lack of sufficient care [2,59,60,61,62,63]. The existing buildings have limitations in installing and operating new green technologies due to the building age, condition, space, automation systems, and metering systems [64,65,66,67]. The lightweight concrete structures have reduced mechanical properties compared to normal weight concrete [68,69,70]. The reuse of components and design for disassembly require skills, facilities, and technology that are not widely available or feasible [47,50,52,71,72].

Economic and Market:

This section discusses various economic and market barriers that hinder the adoption and implementation of green solutions in different sectors. Some of these barriers are: (i) the British Columbia carbon tax, which increases the compliance costs and reduces the competitiveness of the British Columbia cement industry [54,57,74], (ii) the cost and availability of materials which may make recycled materials less attractive than conventional materials [32], (iii) the cost of renewable energy which is much higher than that of coal, the dominant fossil fuel used in cement manufacturing, (iv) the high costs and uncertain returns of investing in green and digital factors, such as technological innovation and environmental management [64,75], (v) the lack of funding and incentives for nature-based solution implementation and monitoring which may limit the financial feasibility and attractiveness of these projects [34], (vi) the lack of government grants and incentives which may discourage building owners from investing in green measures [64,75], (vii) the lack of government support, which may create policy uncertainty and inconsistency for firms pursuing the green competitive advantage [64], (viii) the lack of support and incentives which may generate resistance or opposition from internal or external stakeholders who do not share the same vision or values of the green competitive advantage, and (ix) the perceived split benefits, which create an imbalance between the costs accepted by the building owners and the benefits appreciated by the tenants [38,47,68,69,70,72,73].

Implementation:

This section discusses various barriers that hinder the adoption or implementation of different green solutions in various sectors, such as cement, road, building construction, and nature-based solutions. The implementation category includes the barriers that affect the execution and operation of the green solutions. Some examples of these barriers are: (i) cement standards that limit the potential contribution from limestone substitution [54,74], (ii) equipment and operational issues that arise from the use of recycled materials in construction projects [32], (iii) inappropriate staffing arrangements and unclear working instructions for the lifting and handling of precast concrete products [59,60], (iv) lack of periodic stock checks that affect the delivery and production planning [59,63], (v) tenant and staff education, behaviors, and priorities that largely influence the energy consumption and conservation in buildings [64,66], (vi) leasing agreements that restrict or conflict with the green operation goals [64], (vii) lack of coordination and integration of nature-based solutions across sectors and scales [34], (viii) clients and end-users resistance and uncertainties due to the durability and ductility issues of lightweight concrete [68,70], (ix) lack of a legal framework that prevents the safe and responsible reuse of components [47,51,53], (x) lack of strategic alignment, integration, and collaboration among the various practitioners and stakeholders in the green supply chain, and (xi) lack of a clear and coherent strategy and coordination for pursuing twin transitions [35,37].

Support/promotion:

The support/promotion category includes various barriers that affect the adoption and implementation of green solutions in different sectors. For example, the British Columbia cement industry lacks specific measures from the provincial government to support its greenhouse gas reduction strategy [54,74]. The use of recycled materials in various construction activities faces insufficient financial, regulatory, or institutional incentives or policies to encourage its adoption and implementation [32]. The property owners need to be informed and persuaded about the long-term advantages of green operation, such as lower operating costs, higher market value, and improved corporate image which will contribute to brand recognitions [64,66,67]. Nature-based solutions projects may not have an effective communication and dissemination strategies to share their results and best practices with relevant audiences, such as policymakers, practitioners, researchers, or the general public [34]. Some companies may not receive sufficient support or guidance from the government to implement the green competitive advantage or twin transitions, such as clear and consistent policies, regulations, standards and guidelines, or law enforcement [35,36,38,78].

Social:

The social category includes various barriers that affect the adoption and implementation of green solutions in different sectors. One of the barriers is consumer preferences, which determine the demand for cement and cement products. The industry needs to communicate the sustainability benefits of using green concrete products to the consumers and other stakeholders [54,55]. Another barrier is the environmental and social impacts of using recycled materials, which may have positive or negative effects on the environment and society, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, saving landfill space, or affecting road safety and aesthetics [32]. A third barrier is the lack of top management commitment to implement environmental management practices, something which can hinder the adoption of green stock management [59,61]. A related barrier is the lack of employee involvement and training in green stock management, a phenomenon which can reduce the awareness and motivation of the workers [59]. A fifth barrier is the occupational health and safety risks associated with the installation or operation of new green measures which may affect the safety and well-being of the building users [64,66,67]. A sixth barrier is the building compliance issue which requires the adherence to the existing building codes and standards which may not always be compatible with some green measures [64]. A seventh barrier is the architectural and aesthetic implications of new green measures which may greatly impact the appearance and ambience of the building, affecting the satisfaction and preference of the building users [64,67]. An eighth barrier is the lack of proactive stakeholder engagement and participation in nature-based solutions design and monitoring which may affect their acceptance, ownership, and sustainability. Stakeholders will always have different preferences, values, and expectations of nature-based solutions which may need to be addressed and balanced in a proactive and iterative process [34]. A ninth barrier is the lack of social responsibility, trust, and awareness among some companies, which may prioritize short-term profits over long-term sustainability and ignore the needs and expectations of their stakeholders and society at large [79,80]. They may also lack the trust and legitimacy to engage in the green competitive advantage [35,36]. A tenth barrier is the social barriers in adopting and implementing green and digital factors, such as negative perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors of customers, employees, and society. They also face ethical and legal issues, such as privacy, security, and accountability [38,73,78].

3.1.2. Barrier Frequency Analysis

Table 4. Frequencies of different categories of barriers.

Category	Frequency
Awareness	3
Technical	15
Economic and Market	11
Implementation	13
Support/promotion	6
Social	9

shows the frequency of different categories of barriers relative to the adoption of green technologies in concrete production, based on a review of 57 research papers. The categories were awareness, technical, economic and market, implementation, support/promotion, and social. Figure 3 displays a radar diagram to visualize the data. The most frequent category of barriers was found to be technical, with 15 indicators, followed by implementation, with 13 barriers. The least frequent category was awareness, with only three factors. The other categories have moderate frequencies, ranging from six to 11 indicators.

Table 5. Green concrete enablers along with their description.

Category	Barrier	Description	References
Awareness	Key practitioners, advocates, and champions	They initiate, mainstream, and sustain momentum for climate adaptation by raising awareness and mobilizing resources.	[54,57,74,81]
	Scientific-based engineering methods	The use of advanced mechanistic laboratory tests and structural asset management techniques to quantify the benefits of recycled material systems and validate their end-product performance.	[32,33]
	Environmental awareness	The awareness of environmental issues and benefits of GSCM among precasters and their stakeholders.	[59,61]
	Circular economy	A concept that aims to reduce the environmental impact of production and consumption by minimizing resource extraction, waste generation and emissions, and maximizing the value retention of products and materials through reuse, recycling, and recovery.	[47,49,51,52,53]
	Green human resource management	Green human resource management is a set of practices that aim to promote and support employees’ green behavior and environmental awareness.	[38,40,42,43]
	Green innovation	This refers to the development of products, services, or processes that reduce environmental impacts and create value for customers and society.	[35,37]
Technical	Technology development	It involves research and development activities to explore less CO2-intensive cementing materials and manufacturing processes and adopt proven CO2 control technologies and practices.	[54,55]
	Impact crusher	A device that can process rubble materials into high-quality structural base course and substructure drainage aggregates with minimal waste and improved mechanical properties.	[32]
	Site layout design	The design of the site layout to align machinery in close proximity to the physical flow of production	[59,61,63]
	Substantial decrease in density and in building element self-weight.	This factor reduces the dead load, steel reinforcement, and foundation costs of the structures using lightweight concrete.	[68,82,83]
	Internet of things	The internet of things is a key technology that enables the interconnection of and communication among devices, machines, and products.	[38,40]
	Technological innovation	Technological innovation is the development and adoption of new or improved technologies that can create value for the company and its stakeholders.
	Design for disassembly	An approach to the design of a product or constructed asset that facilitates disassembly at the end of its useful life in such a way that it enables components and parts to be reused, recycled, recovered for energy, or, in some other way, diverted from the waste stream.	[47,72,84,85,86,87]
	Standardization	The process of developing and implementing technical standards to ensure the compatibility, interoperability, and quality of construction components and connections, as well as procedures for information sharing, testing, certification, and legislation.
	Environmental management	This refers to the adoption of practices and policies that minimize the negative effects of business activities on the environment and enhance the positive ones.	[35]
Economic and market	Market demand	It refers to the need to maintain and grow the domestic and export market share of the cement industry in order to sustain its operations and investments in low-carbon solutions.	[54,57]
	Reduced aggregate haul	The use of locally processed and recycled materials reduces the transportation costs and energy consumption associated with hauling virgin aggregates from distant sources.	[32]
	Incentive schemes	The schemes that provide financial or non-financial rewards for precasters to adopt green supply chain management practices.	[59,63]
	Cost savings of concrete elements	This factor is achieved by using local waste scoria as an aggregate, as it is cheaper and more sustainable than limestone aggregate.	[68,85]
	Investment in environmental management	Investment in environmental management is the allocation of resources and efforts toward environmentally friendly behaviors and strategies.	[38]
	Green intangible assets	These are the non-physical resources of a firm that contribute to its green competitive advantage, such as green reputation, green knowledge, green culture, and green capabilities.	[35,36]
Implementation	Multilevel institutional coordination	It entails the coordination among different political and administrative levels in society to ensure effective and coherent implementation of climate adaptation measures.	[54,55]
	Conventional road construction equipment	The use of standard road construction equipment to place and compact recycled materials in road structures, without requiring special modifications or adaptations.	[32]
	Stock control system	The system that helps precasters monitor and manage their inventory levels and reduce waste	[59]
	Structural flexibility	This factor allows the engineers to design smaller structural elements and greater span to depth ratio using lightweight concrete.	[68,83]
	Green work climate perception	Green work climate perception is the employees’ perception of the extent to which the company supports and encourages green behavior and sustainability.	[38,40,42]
	Green organizational identity	This is the extent to which a firm perceives itself as being environmentally responsible and committed to green values and goals.	[35]
Support/Promotion	Policy support	It encompasses the provision of policy support from the government to address the competitiveness risks and leakage potential of the carbon tax and enable the industry to access alternative and renewable energy sources, supplementary cementing materials, and new technologies.	[54]
	Green street program	A collaborative initiative between the City of Saskatoon and the University of Saskatchewan to investigate and demonstrate the use of recycled materials in urban road rehabilitation projects.	[32]
	Green labelling scheme	The scheme that certifies and promotes the products with low environmental impact.	[59,63]
	Enhanced energy dissipation	This factor improves the seismic performance of the structures using lightweight concrete, as they can withstand higher lateral forces and accelerations.	[68,81,83]
	Green human resource management	Green human resource management can help companies foster a green work climate, develop green skills and competencies, and motivate employees to engage in green initiatives.	[38]
		This entails a broad aspect of sustainable development as it fosters green innovation and enables organizations to gain a competitive advantage.	[35,36]
	Investment in environmental management	Investment in environmental management can help companies comply with environmental regulations, improve their environmental performance, and gain a green competitive advantage.	[38]
	Stakeholder cooperation	The collaboration and communication among different practitioners in the construction sector, such as designers, contractors, manufacturers, clients, governments, knowledge institutions and federations, to create and support the necessary construction standards for component reuse.	[47,72]
Social	Industry collaboration	It involves the collaboration with the global counterparts and other stakeholders of the cement industry to advance its climate action strategy and share best practices.	[54,56]
	Environmental stewardship	The use of recycled materials reduces the landfilling of waste materials, conserves natural resources, and mitigates greenhouse gas emissions associated with road construction.	[32]
	Employee involvement	The involvement of employees in the decision-making and implementation of GSCM practices.	[59,63]
	Improved thermal insulation and sound absorption.	This factor enhances the comfort and quality of the buildings using lightweight concrete, as they can reduce heat loss and noise pollution.	[68,83]
	Green work climate perception	Green work climate perception can help companies enhance their green culture, increase their employees’ satisfaction and commitment, and strengthen their green reputation and image.	[38]
	Green human capital	This is the knowledge, skills, and abilities of employees that enable them to perform green tasks and activities effectively and efficiently.	[35,37]

and Figure 3 suggest that the main challenges for green technologies in concrete production are related to the technical and operational aspects of the technologies, rather than the awareness or social acceptance of them.

3.2. Enablers and Their Analysis

3.2.1. Enabler’s Explanation

Awareness:

One of the categories of enablers is awareness, which refers to the level of environmental awareness and knowledge among the practitioners involved in the construction sector. Some examples of enablers in this category are: (i) key practitioners, advocates, and champions who initiate, mainstream, and sustain momentum for climate adaptation by raising awareness and mobilizing resources [54,57,74,81], (ii) science-based engineering methods that use advanced mechanistic laboratory tests and structural asset management techniques to quantify the benefits of recycled material systems and validate their end-product performance [32,33], (iii) environmental awareness among precasters and their stakeholders of the environmental issues and benefits of green supply chain management [59,61], (iv) circular economy, a concept that aims to reduce the environmental impact of production and consumption by minimizing resource extraction, waste generation and emissions, and maximizing the value retention of products and materials through reuse, recycling, and recovery [47,49,51,53], (v) green human resource management, a set of practices that aim to promote and support employees’ green behavior and environmental awareness [38,40,42,43], and (vi) green innovation, the development of products, services, or processes that reduce environmental impacts and create value for customers and society [35,37].

Technical:

This section identifies technology development as one of the enablers of green construction. It involves research and development activities to explore less CO₂-intensive cementing materials and manufacturing processes and adopt proven CO₂ control technologies and practices [54,55]. Some examples of technology development include the impact crusher [32], site layout design [59,61,63], substantial decrease in density and in building element self-weight [68,82,83], internet of things [38], technological innovation [38,40], design for disassembly, standardization and specific guidelines and strategies [47,72,84,85,86,87], and environmental management and effective waste management protocol [35]. For instance, the impact crusher is a device that can process rubble materials into high-quality structural base course and substructure drainage aggregates with minimal waste and improved mechanical properties. Similarly, design for disassembly is an approach to the design of a product or constructed asset that facilitates disassembly at the end of its useful life in such a way that it enables components and parts to be reused, recycled, recovered for energy or, in some other way, diverted from the waste stream.

Economic and Market:

The economic and market category of enablers covers the aspects that influence the financial performance and market position of the construction sector, as well as the demand and supply of green products and services. Some examples of enablers in this category include (i) market demand, which drives the cement industry to maintain and increase its market share by investing in low-carbon solutions [54,57], (ii) reduced aggregate haul, which lowers the transportation costs and energy consumption by using local and recycled materials [32], (iii) incentive schemes, which reward precasters for adopting green supply chain management practices [59,63], (iv) cost savings of concrete elements which are achieved by using local waste scoria as a cheaper and greener alternative to limestone aggregate [68,85], (v) investment in environmental management which involves allocating resources and efforts toward environmentally friendly behaviors and strategies [38], and (vi) green intangible assets, which are the non-physical resources of a firm that give it a green competitive advantage, such as green reputation, green knowledge, green culture, and green capabilities [35,36].

Implementation:

The implementation category of enablers of green construction consists of several factors that facilitate the execution and delivery of green construction projects. One of these factors is multilevel institutional coordination, which entails the coordination between different political and administrative levels in society to ensure effective and coherent implementation of climate adaptation measures [54]. Another factor is the use of conventional road construction equipment to place and compact recycled materials in road structures, without requiring special modifications or adaptations [32]. A third factor is the stock control system that helps precasters monitor and manage their inventory levels and reduce waste [59,63]. A fourth factor is the structural flexibility that allows the engineers to design smaller structural elements and greater span to depth ratio using lightweight concrete [68,81,83]. A fifth factor is the green work climate perception, which is the employees’ perception of the extent to which the company supports and encourages green behavior and sustainability [38]. A sixth factor is the green organizational identity, which is the extent to which a firm perceives itself as being environmentally responsible and committed to green values and goals [35,36].

Support/promotion:

The support/promotion category in the table includes various enablers that can facilitate or encourage the adoption of green and sustainable practices in the construction sector. Some of the enablers are (i) policy support from the government which can help the industry cope with the carbon tax and access alternative and renewable energy sources, supplementary cementing materials, and new technologies [54], (ii) green street program, which is a collaborative initiative between the City of Saskatoon and the University of Saskatchewan to investigate and demonstrate the use of recycled materials in urban road rehabilitation projects [32], (iii) green labelling scheme, which is the scheme that certifies and promotes the products with low environmental impact [59,63], (iv) investment in environmental management, consisting of the allocation of resources and efforts toward environmentally friendly behaviors and strategies [38], and (v) stakeholder cooperation, which is the collaboration and communication among different practitioners in the construction sector, such as designers, contractors, manufacturers, clients, governments, knowledge institutions and federations, to create and support the necessary construction standards for component reuse [47,72].

Social:

The social category of enablers of green construction includes factors that relate to the human and social aspects of the industry and the society. Some of the enablers in this category are industry collaboration [54,56], environmental stewardship [32], employee involvement [59,63], improved thermal insulation and sound absorption [68,83], green work climate perception [38], and green human capital [35,37]. Industry collaboration involves the collaboration with the global counterparts and other stakeholders of the cement industry to advance its climate action strategy and share best practices. Environmental stewardship refers to the use of recycled materials, reducing the landfilling of waste materials, conserving natural resources, and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions associated with various construction activities. Employee involvement means the involvement of employees in the decision-making and implementation of GSCM practices. Improved thermal insulation and sound absorption enhances the comfort and quality of the buildings using lightweight concrete, as they can reduce heat loss and noise pollution. Green work climate perception can help companies enhance their green culture, increase their employees’ satisfaction and commitment, and strengthen their green reputation and image, achieving intangible values. Green human capital is the knowledge, skills, and abilities of employees that enable them to perform green tasks and activities effectively and efficiently.

3.2.2. Enabler Frequency Analysis

This section analyses the enablers for the adoption of green technologies in concrete production, including factors that facilitate or hinder the implementation of such initiatives. The enablers are classified into six categories: awareness, technical, economic and market, implementation, support/promotion, and social.

Table 6. Frequencies of different categories of enablers.

Category	Frequency
Awareness	6
Technical	9
Economic and Market	6
Implementation	6
Support/promotion	7
Social	6

and the radar diagram shown in Figure 4 illustrate the frequency of each category of enablers, based on a review. The results show that technical enablers were the most common, with nine occurrences, followed by support/promotion enablers, with seven occurrences. The other four categories had the same frequency, with six occurrences each, indicating that they are equally important for green technologies in concrete production. It concludes that a comprehensive understanding of the enablers is essential for the success of the adoption of green technologies in concrete.

4. Conclusions

The current research paper adopted a holistic methodology to identify and analyze barriers and enablers for green concrete implementation. This research developed its own model to capture relevant factors which may be helpful for upcoming research as a theoretical foundation. This research could support all stakeholders, including practitioners, policymakers, and researchers in the field of “architecture, engineering, construction and operations” (AECO) who may benefit from the findings of this research by gaining an in-depth understanding of the barriers and enablers of green concrete implementation buildings and construction industry. The limitations and the possible research directions may serve as guidelines for streamlining the practical adoption and implementation of green concrete for buildings by the construction industry. The conclusions that were drawn from this study are:

• As a theoretical contribution to the body of knowledge, this study summarizes the main barriers and enablers related to green concrete implementation in the extant literature, providing insights into the nexus of green concrete and the building sector for subsequent empirical development.
• Six categories of factors are identified that affect green concrete implementation: awareness, technical, economic and market, implementation, support/promotion, and social as:

  ○

  Technical challenges: the study identifies technical issues as the primary obstacles to the development and implementation of green concrete. These include the availability of alternative energy sources, the efficiency of existing plants, and the lack of clear standards for recycled materials.

  ○

  Economic and market barriers: economic factors, such as the British Columbia carbon tax, affect the competitiveness of the cement industry. The cost of renewable energy and recycled materials also presents a challenge, alongside the lack of government grants and incentives.

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  Implementation hurdles: the adoption of green concrete is hindered by implementation barriers such as restrictive cement standards, equipment and operational issues, and the need for appropriate staffing arrangements.

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  Support and promotion: the study highlights a lack of policy support and incentives for the use of recycled materials in construction, something which is crucial for the promotion of green concrete.

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  Social acceptance: consumer preferences and the environmental and social impacts of using recycled materials are social factors that influence the adoption of green concrete.

• It reveals that technical and operational aspects are the main barriers, while awareness and social acceptance are not major issues.
• Highlights the need for more research and innovation to overcome the technical and operational barriers and promote the adoption of green concrete.
• The study concludes that overcoming these barriers requires a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and a collaborative effort from all stakeholders involved in the construction industry. Future research directions include developing clear guidelines, improving technical standards, and fostering greater awareness and education about the benefits of green concrete.
• The study also concludes that green concrete is a promising solution for the sustainable development of the construction industry, but it requires more collaboration and coordination among the stakeholders and experts.

Based on the analysis, future research may focus on identifying and modelling significant barriers to green concrete adoption within the context of the construction sector worldwide by using the interpretive structural modelling technique. This technique is a multi-criteria decision-making methodology which is always applied to identify interrelationships among various barriers and highlight the main barriers that hamper effective implementation and adoption of green concrete.

Limitations and Future Directions

Some potential limitations and future directions are as follows:

• Geographical limitations: the research findings may be influenced by regional factors, and, thus, may not be universally applicable. The study is primarily relevant to the regions and countries represented in the dataset.
• Methodological constraints: the mixed-method approach, combining a scientometric analysis and a literature review, may have inherent limitations in capturing the nuanced perspectives of practitioners and experts in the field.
• Subjectivity in classification: the classification of barriers and enablers into six categories may introduce subjectivity, as certain factors could overlap or fit into multiple categories.
• Quantitative analysis: the current study focuses on quantitative analysis and might overlook the qualitative aspects of green concrete adoption, such as stakeholder perceptions and experiences.
• Economic and market dynamics: the current research may not fully capture the complex economic and market dynamics that influence the adoption of green concrete, such as policy changes or shifts in industry practices.