The Paradox of Kowloon Walled City: Architectural Anomaly and Social Microcosm

Abstract

Kowloon Walled City (KWC), formerly the world’s most densely populated place, is an example of urban density and self-organization in opposition to current urban developments, such as NEOM’s The Line, which illustrates the future of envisioned sustainable living. The main research question addressed in this study is: How can principles of self-organization and resilience from densely populated historical urban areas be applied to enhance the sustainability and livability of future planned urban developments? This study investigates the critical components of urban livability and governance amid severe densities by examining the underlying factors that lead to KWC’s unique sort of urban equilibrium and comparing them to the ideas that motivated the creation of The Line. This multidisciplinary research employs qualitative analysis to focus on architectural styles, community interactions, and governance systems. This approach allows for an in-depth examination of the parallels and dissimilarities between natural city evolution and future city planning. Key findings reveal that KWC’s functioning stems from its complex social fabric and adaptable informal governance, providing valuable lessons in resilience and community-driven urban development. The results suggest that the flexibility and community-driven efforts of KWC are essential for ensuring long-term viability, and these aspects may be integrated into contemporary projects such as The Line. The outcomes highlight the potential of combining KWC’s social cohesiveness with The Line’s technology developments to create urban environments that are both robust and sustainable. The results are supported by evidence obtained from historical analysis, which showcases the practical uses of integrating organic and planned urban development concepts.

1. Introduction

During today’s rapid urbanization, cities throughout the globe confront the challenge of overgrowing population within the constraints of limited urban space. This situation has triggered the creation of innovative initiatives such as The Line in Saudi Arabia, Masdar City in the UAE, and the Songdo International Business District in South Korea, which aim to solve these difficulties by combining high urban density with sustainability and smart technology [1]. These initiatives try to tackle the combined problem of constrained living circumstances while demonstrating people’s resilience and adaptability [2,3]. However, the long-term viability and effectiveness of these highly planned urban developments remain to be fully understood, particularly when compared to historical examples of dense urban environments that developed organically.

This study addresses the research question: What lessons from historical self-regulating societies can inform contemporary planned urban developments to address modern urban challenges? By investigating the adaptive tactics and community-driven solutions observed in historically dense urban areas like Kowloon Walled City (KWC), this research aims to uncover valuable insights for the future of urban planning.

Places with high urban density and informal settlements often emerge beyond the sphere of standard urban planning, raising issues about their viability and the conventional paradigms that drive urban growth [4,5]. Nonetheless, these distinctive metropolitan locations provide remarkable instances of community organization and inventive solutions to urban living difficulties [6,7,8], requiring a study to comprehend the complex mechanisms that maintain urban development, social cohesion, and optimal space use within their physical restrictions [9]. The requirement for inclusive urban development is also underlined in the debate over the role of innovation in tackling urban difficulties [10], emphasizing the relevance of governance in the creation of initiatives like The Line [11,12,13].

The aim of the comparative study is to assess the concepts of self-organization, resilience, and community-driven governance seen in Kowloon Walled City (KWC) and apply these findings to contemporary initiatives such as The Line. KWC has notable qualities in terms of its organic expansion, the community’s ability to recover from adversity, and flexible use of its physical environment. However, it has encountered obstacles such as insufficient infrastructure and the absence of formal governance. In contrast, The Line demonstrates sophisticated strategic foresight, environmental consciousness, and seamless incorporation of technology. However, it runs the danger of marginalizing some social groups and perhaps lacks the authentic interpersonal connections seen in KWC. The study compares various models and highlights notable strengths, such as KWC’s strong social cohesiveness and The Line’s forward-thinking approach to the environment. It also acknowledges areas that need work, such as KWC’s infrastructure and The Line’s inclusion.

As cities grow, the insights gained from dense environments become more useful. They guide the design and development of new urban projects aimed at accommodating high-density people while emphasizing sustainability [14] and resilience [15,16]. Contemporary projects such as Neom in Saudi Arabia, Masdar City in the UAE, and the Songdo International Business District in South Korea are innovative responses to these challenges, incorporating advanced planning, sustainability, and technology into urban design [17,18].

This research investigates the architectural, social, and cultural effects of living in congested metropolitan areas. This study seeks to deconstruct how such living circumstances affect the fabric of community life, government, and urban planning by examining both historical and present instances, with a special emphasis on the renowned Kowloon Walled City [19]. Furthermore, it considers how the information gained from these urban situations might be used in the design and implementation of current urban initiatives that aim to accommodate densely populated regions in a sustainable way [20].

The central subject of this research is how the adaptive tactics and community-driven solutions identified in Kowloon Walled City may be applied to current urban planning to produce sustainable, densely populated urban settings. Specifically, the study explores whether contemporary projects like The Line can foster the same level of community ties and innovative solutions observed in KWC. Furthermore, it investigates how urban planners might strike a balance between the advantages of natural urban expansion and the need for deliberate, long-term development [21].

This research utilizes a multidisciplinary approach, using knowledge from architecture, urban planning, social sciences, and historical analysis to tackle these concerns. The procedures include qualitative data-gathering methods such as interviews, focus groups, and historical research. These methods provide a thorough comprehension of both past and present urban settings. Due to the demolition of Kowloon Walled City, it is not possible to conduct interviews in person. Nevertheless, the social context can be thoroughly examined by utilizing extensive secondary data sources such as archival materials, historical documents, personal memoirs, photographic evidence, and previous research studies that document the real-life experiences and community dynamics within Kowloon Walled City.

The contradictory character of Kowloon Walled City, which was seen as both a tragedy and a sanctuary, provides a unique perspective on urban life, community relations, and humanity’s incredible potential for adaptation. This inquiry into Kowloon’s architectural brilliance, intricate social networks, and persistent cultural narratives sheds light on one of the twentieth century’s most unusual urban occurrences. The case of Kowloon Walled City thus provides invaluable insights and precedents that can inform and possibly inspire current and future urban projects that face similar challenges of dense population accommodation and sustainable urban development [2,4,5,9,17,19,22,23].

2. Literature Review

Cities serve as centers of knowledge and cultural variety, as well as commercial and industrial hubs. They serve as agents of change and innovation, demonstrating how civilizations are evolving. In many respects, cities are a result of both natural and human evolution. However, fast urbanization and unsustainable growth processes have resulted in inadequate planning and absorption of expanding people within restrictive constraints in many cities, as well as a degradation in urban quality [24,25].

In the urban development discourse, the notion of sustainable urban development and design emerges as a critical answer to the issues faced by increasing urbanization, environmental degradation, and rising social inequities. The means of sustainability argues for a cohesive approach in urban space development, management, and regeneration through the integration of economic growth, social inclusion [26], and environmental safeguard, thereby generating resilient, inclusive, and thriving urban ecosystems [27], with the goal of ensuring a supportable future for the upcoming generations.

In today’s globalizing and urbanizing world, cities play an important role within the larger international development framework since a huge number of cities are growing at an unprecedented pace, with half of all humankind living in cities by 2050. Cities are critical to the protection of human welfare and health, the growth of social creativity and cultural variety, and the preservation and sustainable use of physical and intangible cultural resources. In this regard, it is critical to recognize cities as a valuable resource for the future. Nonetheless, cities are dynamic, and social structures and requirements are continually altering, as is the physical fabric [24].

In light of the gravity of the problem, creative responses were required that could balance the dynamic needs of dense metropolitan areas with sustainability goals and the integration of modern methods that support the innovative thinking and livelihood of the cities [1,3]. Therefore, the need to address the challenges of urban living in highly populated places fueled the interest in these future urban ideas.

These regions, or what is known as Smart Cities, often characterized by informal settlements, went beyond the borders of conventional urban planning, sparking disagreements over the permanency of their existence and the practicability of commonly used urban development models [4,5,28,29]. Despite the constraints, these urban areas are notable instances of organization and creative methods to overcome limits in housing, infrastructure, and public spaces [6,7,8]. The examination of these contexts demonstrates the complex dynamics that sustain urban growth, social unity, and efficient utilization of space within limitations, highlighting the significance of inclusive urban development regulations [9]. This backdrop highlights the crucial role of innovation and governance in driving initiatives [10,11,12].

2.1. Urban Innovation

As urban populations grow, the lessons learned from densely populated areas become more useful. These ideas guide the design and execution of unique urban developments that aim to accommodate dense populations while maintaining sustainability and resilience. These efforts are at the forefront of urban innovation, combining sophisticated planning approaches, sustainability principles, and cutting-edge technology to rethink the essence of urban environments [17,18]. Neom, for example, represents a new paradigm in urban planning, striving to build a zero-carbon metropolis that blends in with its natural surroundings while providing exceptional levels of livability and technical innovation [3,30]. Similarly, Masdar City’s vision of a sustainable urban future prioritizes renewable energy and resource efficiency, establishing new standards for environmentally responsible construction [31]. Songdo’s attentiveness to smart city technology demonstrates how digital innovation may improve urban functioning, citizens’ quality of life, and environmental sustainability [32].

These initiatives, according to many studies, not only address practical concerns of urban density and sustainability, but they also demonstrate a deeper knowledge of the social dynamics at work in highly inhabited locations. By creating linked and sustainable communities, they provide a look into the future of urban life, in which cities are more than simply places to live but rather ecosystems that support healthy, productive, and satisfying lives. The continued development of such creative urban initiatives emphasizes the need for innovation, sustainability, and inclusion [26] in building future cities, making them more robust and adaptive to the requirements of their expanding populations [33,34,35,36]. However, while the innovative approaches of projects like The Line, Neom, Masdar City, and Songdo International Business District showcase the potential for integrating sustainability and technology in urban design, the aspect of holistic development, including social inclusion [37], requires more focused attention [3,30,31,32]. The challenge lies in ensuring that such ambitious projects do not solely prioritize technological and environmental advancements but also foster communities that are inclusive, equitable, and socially vibrant [10].

Holistic urban development necessitates a framework that equally values social inclusion alongside economic, environmental, and technological progress. This means creating urban environments that not only boast state-of-the-art infrastructure and sustainability credentials but also actively promote social cohesion, accessibility, and affordability for all segments of society [6]. It involves designing spaces that encourage interaction, cultural expression, and the forging of strong community ties, ensuring that the social fabric of the city is as robust as its physical infrastructure [9].

The inclusion of diverse communities in the planning and development process is crucial to achieving this balance. Engaging residents, community organizations, and stakeholders in decision-making not only increases the relevance and acceptability of urban initiatives but also guarantees that varied views and needs are taken into account, resulting in more inclusive results [11,12]. Furthermore, policies and programs that promote affordable housing, access to services, and economic opportunities are critical for minimizing community displacement and ensuring that the advantages of urban growth are broadly shared [22].

2.2. Community-Driven Infrastructure

The move to community-driven infrastructure is considered the heart of many post-modern projects that are witnessed nowadays. This paradigm in urban development practices focuses on moving away from traditional top-down tactics and toward more collaborative and participatory strategies. This concept acknowledges and capitalizes on the unique ideas, experiences, and creative capabilities of local communities, including them in the co-creation of urban solutions. This method not only successfully meets urgent needs but also fosters a feeling of ownership, pride, and dedication to long-term sustainability and resilience among urban residents [38,39,40].

Achieving a holistic balance that combines economic, environmental, and social considerations is critical to megaprojects’ success and sustainability. This requires a creative approach that blends innovative urban design, technology, and community-driven planning to encourage inclusive and sustainable development.

The Line, with its goal of establishing a linear metropolis that emphasizes pedestrian access and incorporates nature into urban life, provides a chance to rethink urban environments in ways that enhance social well-being and environmental health [3]. However, the capacity to include social policies and community engagement techniques in planning and execution processes will determine the effectiveness of such programs in generating genuinely holistic and inclusive urban development [1].

While the combination of sustainability, smart technology, and creative urban design represents a forward-thinking approach to tackling urban density concerns, its ultimate success will be determined by the capacity to build inclusive, egalitarian, and cohesive urban communities. Achieving holistic urban development that includes social inclusion, as well as environmental and technological advancements in response to modernized visions, remains a critical challenge, necessitating a concerted effort from urban planners, policymakers, and communities alike [3,6,9,10,11,12,22].

2.3. Urban Inspiration from the Depths of Density

Historical urban cases that have handled significant challenges offer invaluable lessons for contemporary urban development. Cities and old districts like the Kowloon Walled City (Hong Kong), Dharavi, Mumbai (India), and Neza-Chalco-Itza (Mexico City) that faced issues of extreme density, crime, and informal living conditions showcase a high level of adaptability and resilience of urban communities [23,41,42]. These examples serve as compelling studies of how spaces, despite being overwhelmed by seemingly impossible problems, can foster a sense of community, ingenuity, and a unique vibrancy, which by itself is the key factor in sustaining those cities. By exploring those cases, we seek to uncover the principles and strategies that allowed these communities to thrive and how they can inform the planning, development, and revitalization of urban areas today, aiming for resilience, inclusivity, and sustainability in the face of modern urban challenges [13,43,44,45,46].

2.4. Rhizomatic Urbanism: Investigating Non-Hierarchical Networks in City Development

In studying social studies and urban development, incorporating organic variables such as Biomimicry, Circular Economy (Industrial Ecology: This idea tries to make the best use of resources and cuts down on waste by applying green ideas to industry processes. Industrial ecology encourages looking at businesses as part of a bigger environment, where trash from one process can be used as input for another, like in natural cycles), Permaculture (Permaculture: Bill Mollison and David Holmgren developed permaculture, which mimics natural ecosystem patterns and resilience. Sustainable and self-reliant agricultural and living systems are developed using these ideas), and Cradle to Cradle Design (C2C) (Cradle to Cradle Design (C2C) is a biomimetic approach to product and system design created by William McDonough and Michael Braungart. It models human industry after natural processes, using materials as nutrition in healthy, safe metabolisms. The notion promotes product designs that consider the whole lifecycle to reduce waste and increase sustainability) is critical, demonstrating how nature’s methods can address human challenges and foster connections between human innovations and natural systems. These frameworks direct the design of inclusive and environmentally sensitive urban places [47,48,49].

Deleuze and Guattari’s rhizome theory expands on this discussion by suggesting non-hierarchical, linked urban networks that are consistent with sustainable and community-driven planning objectives (Figure 1). This theory emphasizes the value of flexible, complex, and decentralized methods to urban planning, advocating for cities that can adapt to changing demands [50,51]. Implementing the rhizomatic principles on urban contexts enables cities to go beyond simple living spaces, and to support ecosystems that promote well-being, productivity, and satisfaction, therefore directing the creation of sustainable, inclusive, and dynamic urban regions.

3. Research Method

As we transition from our research objective and review the literature to research methodology, the necessity becomes clear; urban planning must embrace the convergence of ecological understanding and civic engagement to create not just livable but life-enhancing urban settings. To better plan and perform future urban developments that sustainably support high population densities, the major goal is to get a better knowledge of living in densely populated locations like Kowloon Walled City (KWC). This study, similar to Jane Jacobs’ case (1962) [10], focuses on providing insights that concentrate on three domains: urban planning, community dynamics, and the importance of understanding city life at the grassroots level. That being said, the study underlines the emphasis on acquiring mostly qualitative data by investigating community structure and socioeconomic variables [9,52,53].

The study will focus on understanding the various approaches to sociocultural alterations in relation to the physical landscapes, providing insights into the complex interaction between identity and urban planning and transformation [54]. Urban planning techniques, such as spatial analysis, architectural surveys, and GIS mapping, will be used to understand the physical structure and development patterns of KWC and The Line.

3.1. Data Collection

Gathering both qualitative and quantitative data is crucial when focusing on social dynamics. Interviews, focus groups, and historical research are among the many sources that shed light on the lived realities of city dwellers, planners, and lawmakers, thereby highlighting the first gap in this research. Given that KWC no longer exists, the social context must be analyzed through secondary data sources. These include archival materials, historical documents, personal memoirs, photographic evidence, and previous research studies, all of which are examined to capture the lived experiences and community dynamics within KWC. The study ensures a comprehensive understanding by including diverse national, ethnic, religious, and gender minorities in the sample, thereby providing a holistic view of the community dynamics within KWC.

3.2. Theoretical Framework

The rhizome theory, created by philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, provides a useful framework for studying urban settings [51]. Unlike hierarchical, tree-like structures where everything comes from a single root, a rhizome indicates a decentralized network in which any point may link to another [50]. This metaphor is especially useful for comprehending the natural, unplanned evolution of heavily populated places. By applying this theory to our research, we hope to gain a better understanding of the complex social and architectural fabric of urban spaces, like Jacobs (1962) [10], who emphasized the importance of understanding city life at the grassroots level (Sennett, 1992, 2018) [53,54].

3.3. Comparative Analysis

The method relies heavily on a thorough examination of KWC as a case study, including architectural style, community structure, governing mechanism, and cultural relevance [55,56]. To round off the investigation, the city compares it to modern urban projects, including The Line in NEOM. Influenced by Talen (2012), the comparative analytic method identifies critical success or failure variables for densely populated cities [57]. This comparison provides insights into how spontaneous urban development can inform contemporary planned initiatives, particularly in terms of adaptability, community engagement, and resilience.

Lastly, the research primarily aims to analyze KWC’s organic growth in comparison to The Line project. Not only does this analysis show how planned urban initiatives differ from spontaneous urban development, but it also provides useful lessons for contemporary urban planning by focusing on tactics to deal with the intricacies of extreme urban congestion and how to effectively manage it. The following diagram (Figure 2) outlines the steps of the research process: starting with defining objectives and reviewing the literature, followed by developing the theoretical framework, data collection, spatial analysis, comparative analysis, and analyzing sociocultural alterations. The findings are synthesized, leading to implications for urban planning and dissemination of results.

4. Findings

4.1. Kowloon Walled City

The Kowloon Walled City, currently known as the Kowloon City Park, was situated in the northeastern part of the Kowloon Peninsula on Hong Kong’s main landmass (Figure 3). Its history dates back to the 1660s when it began as a minor military fort. For centuries, the fort remained small and relatively unremarkable. However, following the cession of Hong Kong Island to the British after the First Opium War in 1842, Chinese authorities decided to expand the fort to prevent further British expansion. Within five years, the Chinese had constructed a large granite wall around the fort’s military offices and barracks, and they equipped the 13-foot-high wall with cannons. This development earned the area the name “Walled City”. Despite these fortifications, the British were not deterred. After the Second Opium War ended in 1860, the Chinese lost more territory, including most of the Kowloon Peninsula, as stipulated in the First Convention of Peking.

This particular site had a significant role in shaping its historical importance and distinct path of development. Originally a Chinese military fort, it became a densely inhabited, mainly ungoverned enclave when Britain leased the New Territories in 1898 [4]. The combination of architectural interest and dismal circumstances, as well as memories of its lively communal life by former inhabitants, such as Fiona Hawthorne, highlight KWC’s multifaceted legacy [59,60,61,62] (Figure 4).

KWC’s history is defined by its density, which far outstripped that of Los Angeles, New York, and even Hong Kong. Its population almost doubled in only a few decades, reflecting the complex shift from a small Chinese military fort to a massive megastructure. Caught in a political tug-of-war between China and Britain, the region was largely abandoned by both nations, resulting in a unique circumstance in which it thrived unchecked, with no official control or police presence. Late in 20th-century Hong Kong, the Kowloon Walled City was home to the highest population density on the planet. By the late 1980s, 6.4 acres were home to over 30,000 residents—over 0.01 square miles. That gave the races a population density of four times three million in one square mile. For some perspective, Manila, the capital of the Philippines and the most crowded city in the entire world in present times, has fewer than 120,000 persons/sq.mi.

World War II’s Impact on the Development of Kowloon Walled City

KWC’s fast development was partly in reaction to the urgent need to absorb the influx of Chinese immigrants after World War II. After World War II, KWC became a haven for Chinese refugees, standing as the only Chinese territory outside Hong Kong’s British rule. It drew those fleeing mainland China’s instability, living in legal limbo and expanding without the usual urban development constraints [63,64].

Immigrant influx transformed the socioeconomic fabric, fostering informal business growth in an unregulated environment. The dense population and minimal government oversight allowed legitimate and illegal businesses to coexist. This period of expansion nurtured a unique community spirit, with residents establishing informal utility and social systems, reinforcing Kowloon Walled City’s self-sufficiency [4]. This distinct group of residents thrived in an environment devoid of regulatory oversight, which not only resulted in an increase in illegal activity but fostered a thriving underground economy at the same time [4].

To meet the enormous population boom, structures inside the Walled City were built quickly and economically into a vertical maze without the original walls, which were demolished during the Second World War (Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7). This was a rational reaction to the demand for housing rather than any determined architectural or urban development requirements. This urbanization process contributed to the Walled City’s urban density, deteriorated infrastructure and convoluted shape, which would later define its physical and social environment [23,65].

4.2. Non-Hierarchical Structure

The absence of hierarchical planning in KWC led to a complex, adaptable network of passageways and buildings, challenging traditional paradigms with its decentralized growth. Unlike conventional cities, KWC’s organic development merged about 350 structures into a unified megastructure, with interconnected roofs creating a continuous space, showcasing the power of bottom-up urban evolution.

The following graphic trend reflects KWC’s transition from open space to an extensive urban mesh, demonstrating a non-linear, decentralized growth pattern that allowed for dynamic, diverse communal life inside a self-organized metropolis. As explored by Sharon Zukin and Lynch’s study on the city’s image, the latter highlights the importance of designing cities with residents’ perceptions in mind, impacting urban planning and environmental psychology significantly through the finding of five fundamental elements—paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks—that contribute to a city’s readability and thus livability [68,69].

As illustrated in the following figures (Figure 8 and Figure 9), in traditional cities, a structured grid is established by urban planners, with designated areas for buildings, streets, and public spaces. Functions and circulation paths are clearly defined and regulated. However, Kowloon Walled City evolved without such a structure. Buildings were constructed in a haphazard manner, maximizing space usage to the point where gaps for air and light became minimal. These gaps, initially left for ventilation, were soon utilized for constructing stairways and connecting structures, often linking multiple buildings together. This organic growth resulted in an intricate, multi-layered urban environment. The city’s population density reached around 300 buildings, all interconnected in a seemingly chaotic yet functional manner. The circulation within Kowloon Walled City was not at the ground level but spread across various layers, creating a unique, vertical network of pathways.

This unique spatial structure fostered a robust, adaptable urban ecosystem. KWC’s design facilitated resource sharing and organic business growth, embodying a collaborative, flexible approach to city living. Its non-hierarchical, rhizomatic form optimized limited space, fostering a strong community spirit (Figure 10). This paradigm shift towards informal urbanism reveals the potential for creating complex, sustainable environments through community-driven innovation.

4.3. Multiplicity and Heterogeneity

KWC’s variety, including a broad range of applications and people, exemplifies the rhizomatic idea of multiplicity. Residential neighborhoods were intermingled with industries, stores, and businesses, resulting in a dynamic tapestry of urban life in which many narratives coexisted and interacted. As illustrated in the following figure (Figure 11), each served the others in a way that contributed to the continuity of the urban ecosystem. This variety not only made the utmost use of limited space but also resulted in a rich, multifaceted communal identity, defying stereotypes about slum areas as places of suffering.

For example, in Figure 12 and Figure 13, the businesses in KWC capitalized on the dense construction, situating a strip club next to a gambling den to enhance the underground economy. The city’s expansion created new corridors that connected many elements of life (Figure 14). Convenience shops sprouted up at stairwell junctions to serve locals and make navigating easier. New infrastructural additions established a network of services and social places, exemplifying the city’s organic, functional urban design.

Decentralized Connectivity

Rhizomatic Urbanism at KWC: KWC’s design exemplifies rhizomatic structures with non-linear, dispersed connectedness, emphasizing cartography’s dynamic mapping beyond traditional grids. This elaborate network of alleys and staircases was not only architectural but also crucial to its social fabric, forming a web of relationships that developed a distinct community spirit inside its convoluted labyrinth. This dispersed connectivity reflects the rhizome’s fluid character, stressing the significance of social cohesiveness and geography in urban environments [23].

Decalcomania and Social Cohesion: KWC’s decalcomania exemplifies the rhizome’s principles by demonstrating its flexibility, as informal social institutions arose to preserve order, showcasing the community’s capacity to rearrange social norms and governance spontaneously (Figure 15). This represents a wider concept of urban resilience and creativity, which challenges conventional urban planning by emphasizing the need to encourage social interconnection and communal well-being in city plans.

Insights on Future Urbanism: The teachings from KWC urge for a change in urban projects that prioritize not just physical but also social connectedness, relying on the rhizome’s complexity and flexibility. It challenges the concept of a single reality, supporting a vision of cities as dynamic organisms with various levels of meaning and interactivity. This approach promotes a more open, inquiring view of urban development, in which continual change and the possibility of new connections improve the urban experience, providing insights into managing complexity and encouraging community resilience in future city design [23].

4.4. Zoning and Spatial Dynamics in the Kowloon Walled City

KWC’s zoning supported the commercial, industrial, and residential sectors, demonstrating its inventive spirit (Figure 16). Tung Tau Tsuen Road, a residential neighborhood, profited from the commercial environment. Because of its strategic location, Lung Shing Road attracted a variety of retail and healthcare businesses. Lo Yan Street became an industrial area, while Tai Chang Street, with its water supply, developed into a food production center. These sites demonstrate how adaptive zoning and community-driven improvements made a lasting impact [15,22].

The city’s courtyard provided a common place for sunshine and fresh air, which was controlled by the Welfare Promotion Association to prevent development and provide community access (Figure 17). Furthermore, the yamen, built in 1845, represented the city’s military history and cultural importance before becoming a multipurpose community center under the CNEC Living World Church in 1971. This renovation underlined the yamen and courtyard’s importance in social cohesiveness and generational links, emphasizing the community’s resilience.

4.5. The “Second Life” of Kowloon and Its Cultural Memory

Shortly after China became a republic, there was an attempt to achieve control through urban planning. This began with a scheme in 1921 called “Initial Planning for Kowloon”, which aimed to completely demolish the Kowloon Walled City (KWC) and replace it with a grid-like layout, which was the standard for urban areas in Kowloon. The government first disregarded the KWC, using a forceful strategy. However, they then reversed their decision and proposed a 1933 plan to transform the KWC into a public garden (Figure 18). This proposal included relocating all the occupants, and the Chinese Republican Government did not raise any objections to it.

The Hong Kong government’s intent to demolish the Kowloon Walled City (KWC) sparked the formation of the Kowloon City Anti-Demolition Committee, which rallied diverse community groups, including Triad groups of people, in a long-running challenge. This initiative highlighted the community’s strong longing for continuity, harmony, and stability in the face of urban instability. For instance, the area around the Military Forge’s 1845 headquarters evolved under preservers such as the Christian Evangelist Commission, becoming a valued, conserved environment, demonstrating the significant value of physical spaces in conserving historical and societal links.

This situation exemplifies a larger movement in cultural studies toward seeing memory, though an intangible factor, as a tool of dynamism shaped by social interactions and the contexts in which they occur. Scholars such as Castells, Erll, and Kuhn (2020) stress the shift from static historical narratives to dynamic representations of memory shaped by location, connections, and cultural practices [71,72,73]. This approach views memory through the lens of locations, relationships, and cultural practices, moving from factual histories to their representations [73,74].

Such a dynamic concept of memory is especially significant in Asia, as shown by Hong Kong’s handover and the subsequent cultural interactions motivated by fears of cultural loss [75]. Despite its destruction in 1994, KWC’s legacy lives on via digital channels and collective memory, honoring the community’s perseverance and solidarity [4]. This enduring legacy illustrates how communal memory and cultural traditions can preserve the essence of a place long after its physical demise.

Furthermore, KWC’s multifarious legacy has come to embody Baudrillard’s idea of simulacra (Simulacra: Something that replaces reality with its representation.), in which the city’s images transcend its physical reality while sustaining relevance via cultural appropriation and commercialization [76]. Being transformed into a “replica devoid of an authentic source” signifies not only the disappearance of a tangible space but also the preservation of its fundamental nature via shared recollection and societal customs, guaranteeing the lasting influence of KWC in collective awareness.

KWC’s development was organic, driven by necessity rather than design, resulting in a distinct, self-sufficient community structure. This lack of formal governance created a complex ecosystem in which residential, commercial, and communal spaces interacted, fostering strong social bonds and a distinct cultural identity. KWC became a symbol of human resilience and adaptability, demonstrating how communities can innovate and thrive despite seemingly chaotic circumstances. This organic urbanism, defined by its rhizomatic, decentralized growth, sheds light on unregulated spaces’ potential to evolve into functional urban environments [22].

The analysis of KWC provides an opportunity to reflect on contemporary societies and the evolution of urban spaces. KWC’s expansion was a bottom-up process driven by its residents’ creativity and resilience, while on the other hand, Neom’s development follows a top-down approach supported by significant financial and technological investment. These opposing models highlight the various ways in which human societies adapt to and shape their surroundings, whether through natural development or deliberate innovation [77].

4.6. Neom: The Line

The NEOM project, an ambitious endeavor led by Saudi Arabia, signifies a groundbreaking endeavor in urban development with the goal of establishing a novel paradigm for sustainable living and technological advancement. NEOM is a city located in the northwestern part of Saudi Arabia, along the Red Sea coast (Figure 19). It is designed to be a city that does not allow cars and aims to have zero carbon emissions. NEOM will include advanced technology and promote sustainable living practices. The initiative is a component of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030, which is a strategy framework aimed at diversifying the economy and decreasing reliance on oil [78].

One of the most ambitious components of the NEOM project is “The Line”. Neom’s The Line is an innovative urban planning strategy that emphasizes sustainability, technology integration, and centralized planning. This project aims to turn the desert into a linear, sustainable metropolis that coexists with technology and the environment, providing a model for future eco-friendly and technologically advanced cities. This linear city promises a revolutionary lifestyle, with a 170 km stretch intended to house a million people in a carbon-neutral environment (Figure 20) [77]. The project emphasizes Neom’s commitment to environmental conservation, claiming to protect 95% of the natural landscapes within its territory (Figure 21) [30].

The Line is intended to be constructed in modular pieces, each capable of housing up to 80,000 people, and it symbolizes the ultimate in urban architecture and sustainability. As illustrated in the following visual (Figure 22), this modular idea focuses on providing people easy access to everything they need—work, entertainment, education, and health care—all within a five-minute walk. This strategy aims to eliminate cars and minimize carbon emissions, giving a model for future cities [3]. This modular design, which offers accessibility and sustainability, contrasts sharply with KWC’s maze-like structure, where ad hoc improvisation resulted in a multipurpose urban environment. This comparison not only highlights various urban development strategies but also prompts reflection on cities’ adaptability to future needs and challenges. The Line’s vision of a car-free, zero-emission city marks a significant departure from KWC’s reactive, necessity-driven approach, emphasizing the importance of proactive, integrated planning in urban design [3].

While The Line presents a bold vision for the future of urban living, drawing inspiration from science fiction, it must address substantial social issues to avoid becoming a dystopian catastrophe. Prince Mohamed Ben Salmane’s ambitious project aims to house a privileged group of highly skilled workers, creating over 380,000 jobs for technicians, engineers, intellectuals, researchers, and other visionaries in key disciplines like computer science, mathematics, architecture, and the arts by 2030. This strategy aligns with Richard Florida’s notion of the “creative class”, which emphasizes talent, technology, and tolerance [11].

However, such privileging of a specific elite could exacerbate existing social divisions and geographic inequalities, especially in a region like Saudi Arabia, which has historically faced issues of social exclusion. Starting first with displacement of the Howeitat tribe (Figure 23), numbering around twenty thousand, due to the construction of The Line exemplifies the severe societal impacts of such grand-scale projects [30]. This forced movement raises significant concerns about social exclusion and the marginalization of those who do not fit into the new global social structure envisioned by Neom.

Furthermore, inhabitants of The Line are expected to maintain a rather expensive lifestyle due to their residence in a highly contemporary facility, which, according to Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, is set to be the most habitable region on Earth [3]. However, the reality might be that only a select few will have the financial means to afford living in such an exclusive setting, potentially making it accessible only to about 9 million people. The financial accessibility of these units is crucial for the project’s viability and underscores the need for careful consideration of economic inclusivity [79].

Neom’s choice to function with a certain level of independence from Saudi laws and traditional culture is intended to enhance its commercial appeal and promote economic development via the adoption of Western liberal social principles. Neom’s distinctive governance structure establishes it as an autonomous entity, akin to a self-governing region, which has the ability to draw in international investments and skilled individuals. Nevertheless, this transition might potentially have significant societal ramifications for the area [80]. Establishing an enclave with progressive policies in a historically conservative nation may result in cultural disharmony and social division.

For example, the disparities in lifestyle, legal systems, and social conventions between Neom and the wider Saudi community might potentially result in a feeling of seclusion or estrangement among its inhabitants and the neighboring villages. In addition, Kinninmont highlights that undertaking such a project runs the danger of worsening disparities and perhaps widening the socioeconomic gap between the technologically advanced and wealthy inhabitants of Neom and the rest of the Saudi populace. Neom’s difficulty is in effectively incorporating these new regulations and managing the arrival of varied groups in a manner that strengthens social unity and preserves cultural authenticity. Therefore, while Neom’s growth plan has the potential to establish Saudi Arabia as a progressive and influential economic force, it is crucial to carefully assess its effects on social cohesion and cultural heritage [81].

The Line reflects the themes present in literary works that examine socioeconomic upheavals in contemporary societies, prompting inquiries about inclusiveness, social fairness, and the actual expenses associated with constructing an ideal urban environment for a privileged few. By drawing on the experiences of densely populated historical urban areas known for their resilience and self-organization, like Kowloon Walled City, future urban projects can successfully combine technological progress, environmental sustainability, social fairness, and cultural diversity. If The Line effectively incorporates these concepts, it has the capacity to not only reinvent urban life but also inspire similar efforts worldwide. This initiative will establish Saudi Arabia as a trailblazer in the establishment of environmentally friendly communities and serve as a standard for future global urban development.

5. Conclusions and Discussion

The contrasting urban development theories represented by Kowloon Walled City (KWC) and NEOM’s The Line highlight differing approaches to urban resilience and innovation. KWC, emerging from the urgent practical demands of its residents, resulted in a densely interwoven community within a spontaneously developed urban framework. This spontaneous development became a symbol of adaptability and community-driven creativity [82]. Conversely, The Line represents a vision for sustainable urban planning through creative design and technology integration. This section juxtaposes KWC’s resilience and grassroots urbanization to The Line’s futuristic strategy, with the goal of extract fundamental lessons for modern urban development.

5.1. Urban Complexity and Adaptive Ecosystems

KWC’s transformation from an infamous reserve to a model of self-organization and resilience reflects a certain level of urban complexity. Its growth without institutional control challenges traditional urban planning and governance norms, demonstrating how a community can establish a practical, complex urban ecosystem where residents navigate and modify their surroundings despite circumstances that would normally limit urban growth. Despite the city’s absence of official authority, residents created complex networks of mutual help, informal economy, and shared resources, creating a resilient urban fabric. This organic urban concept shows how innovation and coordination may solve high-density living problems. Girard and Lambot noted KWC’s contradictory existence, highlighting the city’s dual role as a cautionary tale and an urban development stimulus [4,83].

The Line, on the other hand, is a well-planned strategy for urban growth, distinguished by its emphasis on sustainability, integration of technology, and centralized planning. Unlike KWC, which saw spontaneous growth without institutional monitoring, The Line is a visionary initiative aimed at establishing a sustainable and technologically advanced urban setting. The objective of this project is to convert the desert into a linear city that integrates well with its natural environment while also offering a high standard of living and technical advancements. The design of The Line prioritizes modularity, accessibility, and environmental conservation, with the goal of establishing a carbon-neutral metropolis that has a small ecological footprint.

The striking disparity between the two methods of urban growth underscores the advantages and difficulties associated with spontaneous vs. engineered urban expansion. KWC’s community, which organizes itself and is able to recover quickly from challenges, highlights the potential of grassroots urbanization. On the other hand, The Line’s innovative approach displays the possibilities of sustainable and technologically sophisticated urban design. Nevertheless, The Line must strike a harmonious equilibrium between its groundbreaking design and the need to cultivate community resilience and social cohesion, drawing inspiration from KWC’s model of flexibility and community-led governance. By incorporating these aspects into the construction of The Line, a more comprehensive urban environment might be created that synergizes the advantages of both organic and planned urbanism.

5.2. Innovative Urban Development and Rhizome Theory

The sharp contrast between the naturally formed Kowloon Walled City (KWC) and the painstakingly designed The Line by NEOM sparks an important issue in urban planning: the benefits and drawbacks of spontaneous vs. engineered urban expansion. KWC’s story, emphasized by its absence of institutional control, depicts an urban fabric that is both strong and adaptive, surviving on rhizomatic, self-organizing principles. This approach, with its flexibility and resilience, contrasts sharply with The Line’s image of order and technical accuracy [50,84,85,86].

This comparison not only differentiates between various urban development techniques but also critically evaluates the sustainability and effectiveness of top-down vs. bottom-up approaches. The Line’s vision for a streamlined, eco-conscious urban future, although admirable for its architectural and technical foresight, may neglect the inherent advantages of KWC’s spontaneous adaptation and community-driven resilience. Such a contrast demands a rethinking of urban design’s primary aims, raising the issue of whether the ultimate goal is just to create livable places or to cultivate ecosystems that really reflect and accommodate the intricate interaction of human and natural networks.

The provided diagram (Figure 24) highlights the fundamental differences between the urban development models of The Line and Kowloon Walled City (KWC) by employing the concepts of “tree-like” and “rhizomatic” systems. These illustrations serve as visual metaphors to better understand the contrasting organizational structures and growth patterns of these two urban environments. The comparison between the tree-like system of The Line and the rhizomatic system of KWC underscores the advantages and disadvantages of top-down versus bottom-up urban development approaches.

While The Line’s centralized, hierarchical structure ensures efficient management and technological integration, it may lack the flexibility and community engagement necessary for long-term sustainability and social cohesion. Conversely, KWC’s decentralized, rhizomatic structure fosters resilience and adaptability through community-driven initiatives, but it can also lead to challenges in maintaining order and providing essential services.

This contrast invites a rethinking of urban design’s primary aims. Instead of focusing solely on creating livable places through top-down planning, urban design should also consider cultivating ecosystems that reflect and accommodate the intricate interactions of human and natural networks. Integrating the strengths of both models—a visionary, technologically advanced approach with the adaptability and resilience of grassroots urbanism—could lead to more holistic and sustainable urban environments. This hybrid approach would leverage technological advancements while fostering community participation, ensuring that urban spaces remain dynamic, resilient, and responsive to the evolving needs of their inhabitants.

5.3. Historic Resilience vs. Urban Innovation

The change of KWC to The Line by NEOM exemplifies a watershed moment in urban development: from organic, culturally rich enclaves to technologically driven, sustainable futures. KWC’s narrative, which emphasizes cultural identity and community resilience, contrasts with The Line’s technical and environmental goals. This juxtaposition emphasizes a major flaw in contemporary urban planning: the possibility of sacrificing cultural variation and individuality in favor of homogenous, technologically sophisticated environs.

This research advocates for a sophisticated approach to urban planning that combines technical development with the preservation of cultural identity. Future initiatives, such as The Line, should strive to be more than just architectural marvels; they should create spaces that promote cultural variety and communal togetherness, combining cultural legacy with innovation to ensure that cities are not just sustainable and efficient but also lively hubs of human variety and cultural history [77].

5.4. Bottom-Up vs. Top-Bottom Advancement

KWC and The Line by NEOM represent opposing urban development approaches, demonstrating a range from spontaneous, community-led growth to planned, technology-centered design. KWC’s growth is characterized by a grassroots approach, in which need and low monitoring resulted in an organically dense and adaptive urban environment that thrived on community activity and inventiveness despite limited government intervention [82]. In contrast, The Line is a utopian concept of urbanism, aiming for a 100-km-long, car-free, carbon-neutral city that combines environmental sustainability with technology improvements to improve livability [22].

This contrast highlights the significance of integrating human-centric design principles to promote community engagement and unplanned events, which are essential for sustaining urban liveliness. While The Line aims to convey a future image of urban efficiency, KWC’s record of innovation under restrictions offers a more complicated picture of urban resilience. However, KWC’s lack of essential services and infrastructure emphasizes the importance of a balanced urban strategy that combines regulatory support with the organic essence of city life, with the goal of creating a model that not only anticipates technological and environmental sustainability but also honors the dynamic, adaptive spirit that defines urban existence.

5.5. Visionary vs. Organic Urbanism

The difference between Kowloon Walled City (KWC) and NEOM’s The Line demonstrates two opposing urban development philosophies: organic and visionary urbanism. KWC represents organic urbanization, which is defined by self-organization and informal government. The Line, on the other hand, focuses on sustainability, modernism, and thorough planning. Each model offers a distinct perspective on urban development, emphasizing the importance of sustainability and technology integration.

KWC’s success indicates that organic, bottom-up tactics may result in sustainable urban ecosystems that meet community needs. This highlights the importance of flexibility, adaptation, and informal networks. The Line emphasizes how smart design and technical innovation may enhance sustainability, demonstrating that a creative approach can handle urban concerns. However, integrating community resilience, flexibility, and spatial efficiency into urban construction helps prevent technology and sustainability programs from undermining social cohesion and identity. This necessitates a hybrid urbanism strategy blending organic urbanism’s adaptability and community emphasis with visionary planning’s technological and environmental advantages.

5.6. Social Cohesion, Community Identity, and Space

The Kowloon Walled City (KWC) and NEOM’s The Line demonstrate the importance of social cohesion and community identity in urban development. KWC’s rich social fabric and spontaneous zoning illustrate the importance of community-driven spatial organization, demonstrating how strong social bonds and cultural identity promote urban development. Its history demonstrates the importance of community engagement and informal networks in generating responsive urban settings, with dense social networks and multifunctional space usage improving residents’ feelings of identity and belonging.

The Line, on the other hand, symbolizes a contemporary approach to urban planning, emphasizing modular design, accessibility, sustainability, and the promotion of social cohesion via well-designed public areas. However, it highlights concerns about the possible limits on residents’ freedom and community engagement, underlining the need to balance technological and environmental aims with community participation. Both KWC and The Line emphasize the significance of human-centered design in urban planning, advocating for communities that foster strong social links while adapting to inhabitants’ changing demands. This comparison demonstrates how effective urban settings rely on social cohesion, community identity, and adaptive areas.

5.7. Adaptability, Pride, and Resilience

KWC’s community’s adaptation and resilience demonstrated the fundamental human capacity for self-organization. Like a rhizome, KWC’s people showed a strong capacity to develop interconnected systems for handling their daily requirements. In the absence of formal governance, this community constructed a network of commerce, barter, and community assistance, often outperforming formal bureaucracies. KWC residents not only adapted but flourished, resulting in a lively ecology inside the city’s borders. Social organizations filled the gaps left by the state in many instances, providing services tailored to the local needs better than any government program. This culture of resilience led to a strong sense of identity and pride in their ability to navigate life in a complex urban environment. KWC’s legacy inspires modern urban communities, highlighting the capacity to create habitable areas out of the most unappealing situations and raises important considerations for contemporary urban planners about community engagement and the informal networks in urban sustainability [23].

6. Recommendations

This research proposes the establishment of urban places that are inclusive, adaptable, and ecologically aware, emphasizing the need to harmonize cutting-edge technology with the essential human elements of community, resilience, and cultural identity. The following recommendations seek to be actionable for policymakers, ensuring they align with both strategic objectives and practical implementation:

• Empowering the community in urban development to cultivate a feeling of ownership and connection, using structured methods to include the community in ongoing urban planning and development processes. This entails establishing periodic town hall meetings, interactive seminars, and Internet venues where citizens may provide input and perspectives. This method not only increases community ownership but also guarantees that urban areas fulfill the changing requirements of their people. Policymakers have to establish legislation that requires community discussions throughout all phases of urban project development, ranging from the early planning stage to the post-construction phase.
• Implement a versatile urban design framework and zoning system capable of accommodating dynamic changes in demographics, economy, and social patterns. This involves the implementation of a modular infrastructure and the revision of zoning rules to permit the creation of mixed-use places that may adapt and develop over time. Policymakers should implement dynamic zoning regulations that are routinely reassessed and revised to accurately represent present circumstances and future forecasts. This will guarantee that cities maintain their relevance and functionality in the long run.
• Promote social cohesion by designing urban surroundings that facilitate social interaction and foster community formation. This entails the creation of mixed-use buildings, public amenities, and communal spaces that foster social interaction among inhabitants. It is essential for policymakers to give utmost importance to allocating funds and providing assistance for initiatives that include the development of parks, community centers, and roadways that are conducive to pedestrian activities. In addition, rules should mandate that developers provide locations that promote community activities and meetings.
• Strategic incorporation of technologies: Leverage intelligent infrastructure and digital channels to enhance the quality of urban life, ensuring that technology complements human interactions rather than supplanting them. Regulators should require the incorporation of technological advances that allow participation by communities, exchange of assets, and effective urban administration. Restrictions ought to be in place to guarantee that technology used in urban contexts increases social connections and community resilience while also prioritizing the needs and well-being of humans.
• Incorporate the elements of local culture, history, and identity into the urban planning and design process. Although The Line concept does not include the destruction of historical sites, this suggestion is especially relevant for urban designs that encompass archaeological sites and monuments. Its primary focus is on promoting cultural activities inside urban areas. Policymakers should develop and enforce preservation rules that ensure the integration of cultural assets into modern urban initiatives. This entails creating incentives for developers to maintain and respect local history and traditions in their projects, guaranteeing that urban settings retain their cultural legacy and identity.
• Urban development should give significance to the creation of universally accessible and inclusive settings. This involves the implementation of universal design principles and the equitable allocation of resources. It is important to provide a wide range of housing choices to cater to different socioeconomic groups, including both inexpensive housing units and market-rate dwellings. To promote economic prospects, it is necessary to provide specific financial assistance to small firms, implement thorough job training programs, and provide strong backing for local entrepreneurship. Policymakers should create and implement laws that require equal and unrestricted access to all urban projects and encourage a diverse economy. This method will maintain a harmonious and varied society, reduce socioeconomic segregation, and improve the general ability of urban ecosystems to withstand and recover from challenges.
• Transforming hierarchical structures into interconnected networks for optimal performance in large-scale projects: Facilitate streamlined exchange of resources and communication by establishing bidirectional linkages between essential nodes. This may be achieved by setting regulations that call for each node to fulfill its given operation while encouraging collaboration with surrounding nodes. This strategy promotes self-sufficiency, allowing the network to endure and bounce back from difficulties, including system failures, limited resources, and environmental shifts. Improving interpersonal relationships using various means of communication facilitates social development and enhances overall well-being. This approach is well-suited for large projects such as NEOM’s The Line since it combines the advantages of decentralized networks with the adaptability of hierarchical systems.

This research suggests a complete urban framework that achieves a balance between technological progress and the well-being and sustainability of citizens by adhering to these guidelines. This urban development strategy prioritizes the construction of communities that are both technologically advanced and deeply connected to human experiences. It also highlights the importance of adaptability and inclusivity. This initiative sets a fresh model for urban development that is both sustainable and community-oriented, using key insights from the natural progression of Kowloon Walled City.

7. Implications for Practice and Advancement of Research

The research of KWC and The Line sparks an important conversation on urban resilience and design, showing the potential to incorporate these findings into ongoing urban projects in the face of urbanization and sustainability issues. This study paves the way for further exploration and practical applications to enhance our knowledge and practices in urban development. Long-term urban initiative studies emphasize monitoring contemporary projects like The Line while drawing on past urban patterns like KWC to gain insight into the problems and triumphs of ambitious urban designs. Expanding the study scope involves carrying out a comparative assessment of global urban scopes and models, which includes evaluating different approaches to governance, community engagement, and sustainability in innovative urban projects throughout the globe. This comparative study aims to provide a comprehensive knowledge of various urban development plans and assess their efficacy.

Additionally, investigating technology’s impact on the community proposes research into how technology improvements might promote community cohesiveness in urban settings. Emphasizing on smart cities and digital governance, this research explores ways to strengthen community bonds through technological integration. Environmental impact assessment proposes conducting comprehensive evaluations of the environmental sustainability of different urban models. By comparing the ecological footprints of spontaneous and planned cities, this assessment aims to align urban growth with sustainability objectives. Lastly, the prospect for application encourages urban planners, politicians, and researchers to address the challenges of contemporary urban development, with a focus on creating environments that are technologically advanced, sustainable, and centered on human and community values. This guideline seeks to build on the foundational research by proposing methods for advancing knowledge and practice in urban development while maintaining the integrity of the original references.