Analysis of the Choice of Cement in Construction and Its Impact on Comfort in Togo

Abstract

The cement industry, a key player in globalization and urbanization, has replaced traditional shelters with modern buildings, raising environmental concerns. This study examines the use of cement in construction in Togo, its impact on residents’ thermal comfort, and adaptation strategies for sustainable construction and well-being. The research was conducted in Lomé, Atakpamé, and Kara through documentary research, photography, household surveys, interviews, and temperature recordings, involving 646 households and nine interviews. Findings reveal a high use of cement due to availability, ease of use, strength, affordability, and aesthetics. Cement houses are generally less comfortable than earthen houses, particularly in hot climates. Lomé and Kara experience higher discomfort, while Atakpamé has lower discomfort despite cement dominance. Thermal comfort varies more during the day. Residents adopt strategies like sleeping outside, wearing light clothing, installing awnings and false ceilings, planting trees, staying hydrated, taking cool showers, and ventilating rooms.

1. Introduction

Shelter is one of the basic human rights, and finding decent housing is one of the challenges facing humans in our contemporary societies. Since the dawn of time, human beings have always sought to shape human life through their quest to tame nature and these hazards. Thus, in his quest to protect himself from the elements and external dangers, and to create intimacy and comfort, he made the home an existential living environment. Throughout history, man has sought to build a wide variety of habitats, from the simplest to the most elaborate urban complexes [1]. Since then, housing has become not only an essential sector for mankind [2] but also a heritage of identity for each society. However, since the beginning of the 21st century, affording a home has become an existential challenge with demographic growth. Indeed, with rapid urbanization on a global scale, the demand for housing has exploded significantly in cities.

Since 2008, more than half of the world’s population lives in cities. Slightly lower than 30% in 1950, the urbanization rate crossed the 50% mark in 2007 [3], and, by 2030, 60% of the world’s population will live in cities [4]. This trend will continue, and, by 2050, the number of urban dwellers will double, with almost seven in ten people worldwide living in urban areas [5].

The situation is even more worrying in Africa. Currently, it is the continent where the phenomenon of urbanization is progressing the fastest and displays figures never before seen in the world. Since the 1990s, the continent’s urban population has doubled every twenty years; it is expected to triple by 2050. African cities are expected to accommodate a billion new city dwellers [6], which would lead to an urbanization rate of 60% by 2050 (ADB/UNDP/ECA, 2017) [7]. In sub-Saharan Africa, this urban growth is faster than economic growth and faster than urban planning and management [6]. Like other African countries, Togo is also experiencing accelerated urbanization [8]. Dramatic urbanization is seen as housing supply fails to meet the strong demand. Joan Clos, former director of UN-Habitat, sounded the alarm regarding urbanization in Africa, saying that, “no government can afford to ignore the rapid urban transition underway across the continent. Cities must become priorities for public policies, with huge investments to adapt governance capacities to needs, equitable provision of services, affordable housing and better distribution of wealth” [9]. It underlines that exponential demographic growth in Africa will inevitably drive demand for housing and services. However, “Africa’s cities are already overwhelmed by slums and shantytowns and a tripling of the urban population could well be catastrophic” [10]. In Togo, the housing situation is “symptomatic”; the real estate market is in crisis due to deficiencies in the housing supply. Urgent action must be taken now. It is in this sense that the international community, in 2015, by adopting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), established housing as a primordial issue of sustainability. Thus, SDG11, as defined by the UN in 2015 [11], recommends making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable [12]. It is therefore necessary to respond to the growing demand for housing [5].

Since the UN-Habitat conference in 2015, several initiatives have been taken by various States to improve the housing sector. Meeting the basic need for shelter is of crucial importance in human life. However, the construction sector imposes serious environmental impacts on the planet [13,14]. It is responsible for 37% of energy-related CO₂ emissions [15]. These environmental impacts threaten the proper functioning and integrity of cities, infrastructure, and facilities, as well as key economic sectors [16].

It is clear that in Togo, as in most West African countries, the housing sector is dominated by self-built and self-promoted housing.

The construction frenzy for self-built housing is fueled by the difficulty of having decent housing due to the lack of a good housing policy. Thus, most city dwellers are on an individual quest for property. Generally speaking, all Togolese living in the city are driven by a strong desire to acquire land to build their own house [17]. It is and remains, for the population, a sign of success, a necessary marker to access the status of a mature individual [18].

The solution to the housing challenge is found in the informal sector, the only one able to offer the Togolese mechanisms for housing production adapted to their purchasing power and their know-how. The morphology of these self-built habitats differs from one locality to another depending on economic, bioclimatic, and socio-cultural factors. The materials used are also diverse: composite original materials (clay); minerals (limestone); and vegetables (wood, straw, ribs, and shavings of palm nuts, corn stalks, etc.). Thus, since the dawn of time, local materials have been used for the construction of homes.

However, with the wind of modernity coming from the North, most individuals prefer to build the house of their dreams in cement. From then on, concrete housing gained popularity. From the product of the white colonizer to gray gold “Made in Africa” [19], cement is not new in Africa. Its history is closely linked to the colonial era. The colonizers who introduced cement did not take it with them at independence. Cement, this urban gray powder, acts as a binder for materials and, metaphorically, also binds political, economic, social, and environmental issues [20]. Brick constructions made from a mixture of cement, sand, and water have been favored and mainly produced in urban areas for decades [21]. Outlets selling cement and other materials such as rebar and crushed stone can be seen along the roads. In Togo, in the Baguida district of Lomé, many trucks shuttle to the CIMTOGO cement plant. The entrance sign reads: “Let’s build the city with local cement”. A young climate activist often replies: “Let’s build the city with local, non-polluting materials”. Like Mozambican rapper DJ Ardiles in his song titled “A Beer, A Block” [22], some even calculate how many bags of cement could be bought with the money spent on beer. The comedians joke: “Money intended for beer should stay for beer. If you insist on buying cement with that money, the mason might steal the cement, sell it, and use the money to buy beer”. This highlights the value attributed to this gray powder in daily life. According to Archambault, Africa is currently the continent where cement consumption is increasing the most [23].

Thus, cement, a symbol of modernity and success that has become omnipresent, is now widely contested for its carbon footprint [24]. While this choice undoubtedly responds to immediate housing needs, it has significant negative effects on the environment and thermal comfort, exacerbated by the specific climatic context of Togo. Indeed, buildings significantly affect the environment, and construction materials generate environmental effects at different phases of their life cycle [25]. They represent a significant share of energy consumption [26,27] and produce almost a third of carbon dioxide worldwide [27,28]. Cement production is particularly problematic because it represents 5–8% of global carbon dioxide emissions [29]. It can also have impacts on thermal comfort. The use of construction materials like concrete creates greater temperature variations [30], leading to greater thermal discomfort.

In this context, the common challenge facing humanity in the face of urbanization growth, which is taking place informally and increasing heat islands in Togolese cities, is to seek the efficiency of buildings using suitable materials. Indeed, the choice of materials and construction methods can play a crucial role in thermal comfort. They can reduce a building’s energy consumption by 17% and its CO₂ emissions by 30% [25]. These choices are also crucial for the thermal comfort of occupants, who spend 90% of their time indoors [31]. According to the work of Arifin et al. [30], conducted in hot regions, traditional houses have a better capacity to provide indoor thermal comfort over long periods than modern cement houses. The quality of the indoor environment has a major impact on the life quality of the residents [31]. Indeed, a lack of thermal comfort can lead to a significant reduction in work performance [32] and a reduction in health and well-being [33,34]. Despite all its advantages, we are witnessing an abandonment of materials in favor of modern materials such as cement in construction in Togo.

This preference for cement, the ultimate modern material, has been influenced by various factors and raises essential questions about comfort, the well-being of urban residents in Togo, and adaptation strategies, particularly in a hot and demanding climate. The main objective of this article is to understand the reasons for choosing concrete and cement blocks for Togo’s urban construction and their impact on urban residents’ thermal comfort. Specifically, this study aimed to (i) determine the factors influencing the choice of concrete and cement blocks in Togolese construction; (ii) assess the impact of concrete, cement blocks, and temperature increases on residents’ thermal comfort; and (iii) identify adaptation strategies implemented by populations to promote sustainable construction and improve occupants’ well-being.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Togo, a coastal country in West Africa, shares its borders with Ghana, Benin, and Burkina Faso and is home to 8,095,498 inhabitants [35,36]. It is located between 6 and 11° N and 0 and 1°40′ E, with an area of 56,600 km² [37]. Its territory is organized into five economic regions (Maritime, Plateaux, Central, Kara, and Savannas) and enjoys a tropical climate characterized by four seasons in the southern part (two rainy seasons and two dry seasons) and two seasons in the northern part [38]. The average temperature is 28 °C in the northern regions and 27 °C in the coastal area and varies between 24 and 26 °C in other areas. The average relative humidity is also high in the southern regions (73 to 90%) but low in the northern regions (53 to 67%). The average wind speed is 1.93 m/s, and the average sunshine duration is 6 h and 37 min per day [39].

The percentage of the Togolese population living in cities is increasing, as in 2022, 43.92% of the population lived in urban areas compared to 32.91% in 2000 [40]. In fact, from the coast to the interior, the intensity of urbanization decreases significantly and follows the spine of the country [41]. All the towns develop along the national road, and towns further north are less populated. Thus, this research focuses on the urban areas of Togo, particularly in the Maritime region in the communes of Golfe 4, Golfe 6, and Agoe-Nyive 2; in the Plateaux region in the commune Ogou 1; and the Kara region in the commune Kozah 1.

The Maritime region is located south of Togo along the Atlantic Ocean and extends between 6°00′ and 6°50′ North latitude and 0°25′ and 2°00′ East longitude [42]. With an area of 6395 km² [42], most of its population is concentrated in Greater Lomé, with 2,188,376 inhabitants out of a total population of 3,534,991. Greater Lomé includes the prefectures of Golfe and Agoe-Nyive.

Located between 6° 9′ and 8° 5′ North latitude [43], the Plateaux region lies between the Maritime region to the south and the Central region to the north. It is the largest of all the regions of Togo and has Atakpamé as its regional capital, which is also the capital of the Ogou prefecture [43]. It is characterized by a series of mountainous reliefs and plateaus, with the highest elevations in the region. The prefecture of Ogou has a population of 253,467, while the commune of Ogou 1 has 116,301 inhabitants [36]. The Plateau region enjoys a varied climate, straddling subequatorial, equatorial, and humid tropical climates [43].

The Kara region extends between 9°20′ and 10°05′ North latitude and between 0°55′ and 1°25′ East longitude. It is located 400 km from Lomé, along National Road No. 1, in the northern part of Togo [44], with Kara as its regional capital. The region has 7 prefectures, 22 communes, and a total population of 985,512 people, while the commune of Kozah 1 has 193,625 inhabitants [36]. The climate of the Kara region is tropical to the Sudan-Guinea type [45]. The map in Figure 1 geographically identifies the areas under study.

Temperature Trends

The meteorological data used for the graphs below were obtained from the National Meteorology Agency of Togo. They show the usual temperature trends in Lomé, Atakpamé, and Kara over 30 years (from 1987 to 2019). The average temperatures in Lomé fluctuate between approximately 27.1 °C and 29.1 °C. Although the temperatures are already high, there is a visible upwards trend, represented by the equation y = 0.0324x + 27.623 with R² = 0.5913. This means that as time passes, it becomes hotter and hotter. In Atakpamé, temperatures vary between approximately 26.3 °C and 27.7 °C over the same period. There is also a trend towards higher temperatures, although the increase seems less pronounced than that in Lomé. The climate is cooler than that in Lomé. The temperatures in Kara fluctuated between approximately 26.3 °C and 28 °C over the same period. There was a slight increase overall (Figure 2).

All three towns showed an upwards trend in temperature over the years. However, temperatures are lower in Atakpamé than in the other towns.

2.2. Sampling and Data Used

This study on the cities of Togo cannot be undertaken without considering Greater Lomé, which is located in the Maritime Region. It is the most densely populated city, with a high concentration of buildings. In this context, the Golfe 4 municipality was chosen due to the presence of old constructions characterized by a diversity of materials. Continuing the analysis, attention was directed towards the Golfe 6 municipality, which includes neighborhoods such as Baguida and Avépozo, located along the coast. This selection aimed to examine constructions influenced by seawater. The Agoe-Nyive 2 municipality is part of the expansion zone and is filled with new forms of construction.

Due to its mountainous terrain, the Plateaux region was chosen because of the presence of some stone constructions carried out by populations who considered the environment and the terrain. This choice thus allows for consideration of the diversity of construction styles. In Atakpamé, the capital of the area, the Ogou 1 municipality contains most of the construction, which justifies the investigations conducted in this area.

The Kara Region was selected based on criteria such as its geographical position (north of Togo), its climate distinct from that of the southern region and similarity to that of other northern regions, and the diversity of constructions. The Kozah 1 municipality gathers both old and new neighborhoods, where most constructions are found.

This study was conducted using both qualitative and quantitative methodological approaches. The qualitative approach is based first on documentary research through books, articles, and government publications. It allowed for reviewing similar works addressing the same issue. Finally, photography enriched the results by providing a visual dimension that complements them. Quantitative data was collected from meteorological data, household surveys, discussions, and individual interviews with resource persons consisting of 75 homeowners. These individuals were chosen because of their extensive experience with both cement and earth houses. The meteorological data, obtained from the National Meteorology Agency of Togo, covers temperature data from 1987 to 2019. They helped to assess the usual climate behaviour in the cities of Lomé, Atakpamé, and Kara to better understand its impact on the thermal comfort of the inhabitants. Household surveys provided data on the socioeconomic characteristics, building age, material choice, reasons for this choice, number of occupants, thermal comfort, and adaptation methods used.

A simple random sampling method was used to select the households to be surveyed. To determine the sample size, we used the inverse of the margin of error formula proposed by Daniel Schwartz, i.e., n is the sample size for a rounding q [46]. The formula is n = z². p(1 − p)/m², where z is the fixed or risk-reduced variance of 1.96; p is the specific population considered in the study; and m is the margin of error at 5%.

Table 1. Study communes and the number of affected households.

Regions	Communes	Total Population	Number of Households to Be Surveyed
Maritime	Golfe 4	155,842	102
	Golfe 6	181,561	117
	Agoe-Nyive 2	128,164	85
Plateau	Ogou 1	116,301	101
Kara	Kozah 1	193,625	241
Total			646

summarizes the municipalities surveyed and the number of households assigned to each municipality.

To carry out the household surveys, we used version 2023.2.4 of the KoboCollect software, and the information collected was saved on the Kobo Toolbox platform [47]. These surveys were supplemented by photographs of the architectural coverage of the various houses surveyed. Maps of the municipalities surveyed were produced to locate the places surveyed.

2.3. Data Processing and Analysis

The data from household surveys were collected using KoboCollect. Microsoft Excel version 2304 was used to organize and format the collected data. Then, IBM SPSS STATISTICS 26.0 software was used to generate the graphs and tables used in this study. The cartographic illustration of the studied cities was created using Google Earth Pro 7 and Quantum GIS (QGIS3.2) based on data obtained from the SDAU of Greater Lomé and the Geographic Information System services of the municipalities participating in the study.

The collected meteorological data were initially subjected to quality verification using Rclimdex to correct any potential outliers. Microsoft Excel was used to generate graphs, allowing us to understand the temperature trends in the different cities of the study area.

Descriptive statistics were obtained using one-way ANOVA with R 4.4.1 software. One-way ANOVA, or single-factor analysis of variance, was applied to the results, presenting a single independent variable. This included the choice of materials for the wall, floor, structure, and roof, as well as the thermal comfort of the occupants during the night and day based on the materials used. The obtained values were compared using the significance level p (p-value) and the F-ratio. Values of p < 0.05 were considered significant, and those of p < 0.01 were considered highly significant. The F-value indicates the relative magnitude of the variation between groups and within groups. The following hypotheses are retained: H0 (no significant variation between the compared percentages) and H1 (there is a significant variation between the compared percentages). Therefore, if p’ < p, then H1 is accepted, and we conclude that there is a significant variation between the compared percentages. Conversely, if p’ > p, H1 is rejected; thus, there is no significant variation [48].

3. Results

3.1. Reasons for Choosing Cement and Its Derivatives

3.1.1. Predominance of Concrete

The figures below (Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6) illustrate the proportion of urban dwellers surveyed who chose cement and its derivatives for the construction of their buildings. The figure shows that cement and its derivatives (concrete and reinforced concrete) predominate in most of the construction elements studied.

Wall Materials

Figure 3 indicates a marked preference for cement blocks for wall construction, representing a significant 75%. Kara had the highest percentage at 81%, followed by Lomé at 78%, and finally Atakpamé at 66%. This disparity between Atakpamé and the other cities ranges from 11% to 15%. However, the small proportion previously observed in Atakpamé is offset by the more frequent use of earth bricks, reaching 29% compared to 12% in the other two cities. Apart from cement blocks and earth bricks, there is limited use of materials such as sheet metal and wood for wall construction. A one-way ANOVA gives p = 0.021 and F = 4.21, indicating that the preference for wall construction materials varies from one city to another and that there is a difference between the proportions of types of materials used for the wall in the three cities.

Floor Materials

In terms of the materials used in floor homes, both inside and outside rooms (Figure 4), cement is relatively predominant (cement screed and cement paving stones), with an overall average of 54%. The other half is divided between earth (29%), tiles (16%), and other materials (1%). Atakpamé has the highest proportion of cement use, at 67%, followed by Kara at 56% and Lomé at 39%. However, Lomé has the highest proportion of earth floors (38%) and tiles (22%). In Kara, 24% of the floors are made of earth and 18% of the floors are tile, compared with 26% earth floors in Atakpamé. In Atakpamé, tiles were used less frequently, at 7%.

After the ANOVA test, we obtained p = 0.0000 and F = 15.60. Tukey’s honest significant difference test showed that the difference was significant between Lomé and Atakpamé (p = 0.0000) and between Lomé and Kara (p = 0.0000) but not between Atakpamé and Kara (p = 0.0898). We can conclude that there is a significant difference in the proportions of the types of materials used for flooring among the three cities.

Structural Materials

Figure 5 shows that cement, represented here by concrete, is at the core of the materials used for building structures, with a total proportion of 81%. This predominance breaks down as follows: 85% in Lomé, 80% in Atakpamé, and 77% in Kara.

Other houses, characterized by earth structures (Cooked Earth Block, Adobe, etc.), are more frequent in Kara at 10%, while Lomé shows 4%, and Atakpamé shows only 1%. Some houses have metal structures, of which those made of sheet metal represent both the structure and the exterior of the house. Thus, we recorded a proportion of 15% in Atakpamé and 9% in Kara. Only 1% of the surveyed houses in Lomé have a metal structure. Other materials, accounting for 6%, are also considered.

The ANOVA showed that there is a difference between the proportions of the types of materials used for the structure of the three towns (p = 0.0000 and F = 10.71).

Roof Materials

Contrary to previous observations, cement-based roofing materials (Figure 6) do not dominate. Compared with reinforced concrete slabs, which account for 23%, steel sheet metal predominates, accounting for a total of 67%. Atakpamé has the highest proportion of sheet metal roofs, 81%, and the lowest proportion of reinforced concrete slabs, 16%. It is followed by the town of Kara, with 69% for sheet metal and 23% for reinforced concrete. Lastly, Lomé has a 50% share of sheet metal and a 31% share of reinforced concrete, making it the city with the highest proportion of reinforced concrete slabs. Other roofing materials include tiles, with 17% for Lomé, 7% for Kara, and 2% for Atakpamé. Straw accounts for 1% in each city, while other materials such as tarpaulin are used exclusively in Lomé, with a proportion of 1%. We can therefore corroborate that city dwellers in Atakpamé have a less marked preference for reinforced concrete slabs and tiles, unlike in Lomé, the capital.

The one-way ANOVA shows that there is a difference between the proportions of the types of roofing materials used in the three cities (p = 0.0000 and F = 10.71).

3.1.2. Reasons for Choosing Concrete

The choice of concrete in construction can be explained by the abundant availability of cement, ease of use, the possibility of building upwards, strength, recognition, widespread use, aesthetics, and affordability. These data were obtained from household surveys.

Figure 7, which shows the reasons for choosing concrete in the cities of Lomé, Atakpamé, and Kara in Togo, indicates that the predominant reason is “Most used and known”, with percentages ranging between 12% and 35%. Second, abundant availability is cited between 11% and 24%, followed by the possibility of building upwards/strength, with percentages between 11% and 17%. Other less frequent reasons include lower cost, ease of implementation, aesthetics, and other reasons to be specified.

In Lomé, the primary reason that prevails is the abundant availability of cement, cited by 24%, as opposed to the fact that it is the most used and known, mentioned by only 12%.

In contrast, in Atakpamé and Kara, the dominant reason is that cement is more commonly used and better known, with percentages of 35% and 18%, respectively. In Kara, the reasons are more even, with relatively close proportions.

Nationally, the main justification for choosing cement is “Most used and known”, with 23%, followed by abundant availability (18%), the possibility of building upwards/strength (14%), and the economic criterion “cheaper” (13%). The reasons “I don’t know” and “Aesthetics” occupy the fourth position, with 9%, followed by “Other to be specified” at 4%.

3.2. Thermal Comfort

3.2.1. Impact of the Material on Thermal Comfort

Figure 8 summarizes the thermal comfort of city dwellers in Lomé, Atakpamé, and Kara, based on population surveys. In Lomé, during the day, 52% felt warm, 38% felt comfortable, and 9% felt extreme. At night, the proportions are very similar (53%, 38%, and 9%). In Atakpamé, during the day, 71% of the respondents experienced comfortable conditions and 29% experienced heat. At night, 75% of the respondents were comfortable, while the percentage of respondents who felt heat fell to 25%. During the day in Kara, 47% were hot, 39% were comfortable, and 14% were extremely hot. At night, the proportion of people who feel warm increases slightly to 53%, while the proportion of people who feel comfortable decreases to 26%, and the proportion of people who feel extreme heat increases to 21%.

Table 2. Assessment of thermal comfort on the day with the material used.

Comfort on Day	Wall		Roofing		Floor	Structure
	Cement	Earth	Reinforced Concrete Slab	Metal Sheet	Cement	Reinforced Concrete	Earth
Hot	51	32	33	52	46	49	24
Temperate	39	65	58	38	42	41	76
Very hot	10	3	9	10	12	10	0

,

Table 3. Assessment of thermal comfort at night with the material used.

Comfort at Night	Wall		Roofing		Floor	Structure
	Cement	Earth	Reinforced Concrete Slab	Metal Sheet	Cement	Reinforced Concrete	Earth
Hot	46	39	30	49	41	44	31
Temperate	41	56	53	40	44	43	66
Very hot	13	5	17	11	15	13	3
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100	100

and

Table 4. Impact of rising temperatures on well-being.

Climate Risk	Elements of Well-Being
	Health	Productivity and Performance	Quality of Life	Increased Vulnerability
High Temperatures	- Increase and exacerbation of cardio-respiratory and chronic diseases and deaths - Sleep disorders - Dehydration and heat stroke - Deterioration of mental health and psychological well-being	- Decrease in concentration and productivity - Increase in errors and accidents	- Difficulties in resting and relaxing - Feeling of anxiety and irritability - Withdrawal, discomfort, and deterioration of quality of life	- High vulnerability of children, elderly individuals, the sick, the poor, and people living in non-insulated housing - Aggravation of social and health inequalities

show the thermal comfort of the residents during the day and night according to the building materials and the results from surveys of the population.

During the day, earth walls and structures offer comfort levels of 65% and 76%, respectively, while cement walls and structures have lower levels at 39% and 41%, respectively. Cement walls were associated with a high proportion of heat among 51% of respondents, with 10% feeling “very hot”. No respondents with earth structures reported feeling very hot. Sheet metal roofs were less comfortable than reinforced concrete slabs, with rates of 52% and 33%, respectively.

ANOVA revealed that the material used had a significant effect on the occupants’ daytime thermal comfort, with p = 0.004 and F = 6.23.

At night, cement walls cause 46% of heat and 13% of strong heat, compared with 39% and 5%, respectively, for earth walls. Cement structures have similar proportions (44% and 13%), while earth structures have lower proportions (31% and 3%). Sheet metal roofs were less comfortable (49% hot and 11% very hot) than reinforced concrete slabs (30% hot and 17% very hot).

The ANOVA showed that the material used had a significant effect on the thermal comfort of the occupants at night, with p = 0.003 and F = 6.61.

3.2.2. Impact of Rising Temperatures on Well-Being

According to the populations of the cities of Lomé, Atakpamé, and Kara and the key informants interviewed, the impact of building materials on thermal comfort is accentuated by rising temperatures. These high temperatures hurt health, productivity, performance, quality of life, and increase vulnerability.

3.3. Adaptation Strategies Adopted by Occupants

To alleviate thermal discomfort in the home (Figure 9), 48% of the population surveyed uses artificial air conditioning (air conditioners and fans), and 52% uses natural air conditioning.

Figure 10, based on data from interviews and household surveys, illustrates the proportions of different strategies adopted by residents to adapt to thermal discomfort. Of these, ventilating rooms by opening windows (VFO) is the most common (53%), followed by wearing light clothing (VLN) (44%). Other strategies are less common, such as sleeping outside the house (SEM) (27%), hydration and cool showers (HDF) (17%), planting trees and green spaces (15%), and improving the home (AMH) (11%), which includes installing false ceilings, awnings, and double walls.

4. Discussion

4.1. Reasons for Choosing Cement and Its Derivatives

The results obtained from this study highlight the significant predominance of cement-based materials and their derivatives in urban construction in Togo. These materials are primarily used in wall construction, building structure, and flooring, although their use is less frequent in building coverings, particularly for roofing. The reasons for this choice are varied, ranging from abundant availability to ease of implementation, structural strength, the possibility of high-rise construction, affordable cost, and aesthetics. Cement, once imported and reserved for colonial neighborhoods, is now produced locally and considered a local material, explaining its abundant availability. This reason is supported by Y. Marguerat [18] and Chopelin [49], whose work revealed that walking through the streets of cities in Togo and other African cities, one notices a succession of containers transformed into shops, displaying cement bags for retail sale. Cement promoters work to make this material available in all corners of the city and even in villages. A. Mawussi [20] explains that governments, cement manufacturers, and international donors often contribute to strengthening the cement industry, making it more powerful than ever before. They justify the need to expand their production to lower the price of cement and make it more accessible to more people. Indeed, through social housing programs and health and community infrastructure, these actors highlight their participation, not hesitating to collaborate with elected officials, thus contributing to the increased spread of cement and, consequently, its recognition. It is not surprising, then, that the population is more familiar with this material and uses it extensively.

The enthusiasm for cement is also attributable to its ease of use and implementation, unlike its production, which is not easy and requires complex and advanced technical knowledge. The work of F. Comte [50] notes that the technique of using cement is mastered and taught in schools and training centers for Building and Public Works (BTP). Masons and construction workers are familiar with its use, unlike earth, which requires the mastery of certain tests. In Togo, the basis of training in high schools is cement; the curricula of technical high schools are mainly based on cement methods. Additionally, A. Choplin and K. Agbodjinou [24] noted that the necessary dosages for making concrete are indicated by images of the cement bags themselves: three wheelbarrows of cement, two of sand, and one of aggregates (gravel). Children are even taught how to make concrete, and construction sites are widespread, so anyone can observe, says A. Mawussi [20]. Companies manufacturing concrete blocks are multiplying [19], and even if one does not know how to use them, it is possible to order prefabricated elements.

Aesthetics are one of the reasons for the abundant choice of cement for construction. The findings of A. Choplin and K. Agbodjinou [24] and A. Mawussi [20] highlight that the use of cement often signifies success, and the use of so-called traditional materials in urban areas is associated with poor and marginalized populations. Thus, in common parlance, earth constructions are referred to as traditional housing, and concrete constructions are modern. The French reading book “Mamadou et Bineta”, written by André Davesnes, 1995 edition, in lesson 55, describes the idea of beauty seen in cement bricks: “In my village, there are not only huts but also beautiful and solid houses whose walls are built of bricks and cement and whose roofs are covered with tiles or corrugated iron” [24]. Concrete houses are depicted here as aesthetic. Furthermore, not mastering earth construction techniques and materials used in the past prevents appreciation of the value of these constructions. The reason for durability is supported by M. Lovizit [51], who states that local materials are seen by everyone as a sign of precariousness and especially do not withstand harsh conditions. After heavy rains, it is necessary to rebuild because the thatched roof has blown away and the earth walls have collapsed; only the concrete remains, and the brick does not rot, added A. Mawussi [20]. Thus, cement not only signifies aesthetics but also resistance. To emphasize this, the story of the Three Little Pigs, an 18th-century tale, teaches us that cement brick houses can resist the wolf and, therefore, by metaphor, any danger or hazards [20]. Following this, building and living in the city in concrete also became a way of expressing demands for greater integration into the city [52].

4.2. Thermal Comfort

In this study, the results show that due to the abundant use of cement and the rising temperature trend, thermal discomfort in the cities of Lomé and Kara is generally high because a significant proportion of the population feels hot or extremely hot. However, the town of Atakpamé, which has a cooler climate with lower temperatures, has a higher level of comfort during the day and night. In the city of Atakpamé, 71% to 75% of thermal conditions are comfortable, an encouraging result that is higher than the figures of 26% to 39% for Kara and 38% for Lomé. According to ASHRAE, the indoor thermal conditions of a building are acceptable when 80% of occupants are satisfied and comfortable inside [53]; there is no thermal comfort in these predominantly cement-built constructions, although Atakpamé comes close. The thermal discomfort recorded in this study was obtained concerning the climate of the different cities and the materials used. Beaucour et al. [54] showed that the thermal conductivity of concrete is high, approximately 1.5 to 2 W/m/K. Cement-based materials such as concrete absorb heat during the day and release it by conduction at night [55]. This better explains why the results showed greater thermal comfort during the day than at night. Given the Togolese climate, cement houses are not conducive to thermal comfort. Karyono [56] affirmed that the predominantly used metal roofs are a means of heat transfer by radiation, thus warming rooms during sunlight hours.

In addition to construction materials and climate, several factors influence thermal comfort. The results of Hailou et al. [57] on the thermal comfort of inhabitants inside houses designate construction materials as the main source of thermal discomfort and highlight other factors such as openings, types of windows, and construction techniques. Other authors, such as Haruna et al. [58] and Toy and Kantor [59], complement this by introducing other elements of discomfort, such as the interaction and adaptation of environmental parameters and the human body. F. PO [60] and Hamzah et al. [61] reported that the thermal discomfort felt by inhabitants can be linked to other contributing factors, such as the inhabited house and the state of health. Unlike in developed countries that adopt thermoactive techniques during construction [62,63], locally available materials, thatched roofs, and building orientation, among other factors, are traditional cooling techniques used in developing countries. Cross ventilation offers thermal comfort in 70% of cases [64,65] because, for a thatched roof house, small opposing windows fixed at the top of the walls allow hot air to escape from the room [57]. They emphasized that the reduction in ceiling heights observed in buildings leads to a slight increase in temperature for most of the year in regions where the climate is hot, such as in tropical countries. This hot air evacuation technique can be applied even in cement houses if owners consult professionals for their house construction. Additionally, the colors used in buildings can be sources of comfort or not. Singh et al. [66] noted that light colors on house exteriors are used to minimize heat transfer. These tips, when used in modern buildings (modern construction materials), can easily increase thermal comfort [67]. According to the studies of Abbaszadeh et al. [68] and Yadeta et al. [69], good thermal comfort plays an important role in the well-being, health, and productivity of occupants. Therefore, thermal discomfort can induce anxiety, insomnia, poor heart health, etc. [60,70].

4.3. Adaptation Strategies

Due to the thermal discomfort noted in our results, the occupants chose various adaptation methods. Some opted for artificial air conditioning and others opted for natural ventilation accompanied by certain measures such as room ventilation by opening windows, wearing light clothing, sleeping outside the houses, hydrating, taking cool showers, planting trees, and creating green spaces. Allarané et al. [46] reported that the population of N’Djamena uses the ecosystem services of trees, sleeping outside at night, using electrical energy for air conditioning, and ventilating rooms as adaptation strategies in hot weather. Li et al. [71] showed that ventilating rooms and sleeping outside in the evening are adaptation strategies used by some urban residents in African cities in hot weather. Hailu et al. [57] also showed that modern cement houses are not suitable for Sèmera because, due to thermal discomfort, the inhabitants prefer to sleep on their balconies or in the yard. The results of these authors also reveal that natural ventilation can be a means of achieving thermal comfort, provided that the building is well-oriented. Properly oriented buildings have a significant advantage in promoting better indoor thermal comfort [72]. The orientation must consider the sun to reduce the extent to which facades face east and west and accept local prevailing winds [73]. In hot weather, using water to cool down and bathe are solutions used by citizens [74]. According to Atchadé et al. [75], the population of Cotonou opts for the urban ecosystem services of trees to defend against climatic hazards such as heatwaves. Hailu et al. [57] encouraged greenery practices, as vegetation can modify the microclimate of a place and should be integrated into the design, preferably on the east and west sides of the building. The benefits of trees and plants are mentioned by Raeissi and Taheri [76] because, according to them, planting trees helps temper the air and has psychological benefits for humans.

5. Conclusions

This study on the analysis of the choice of cement in urban construction and its impact on comfort conducted in Togo in the cities of Lomé, Atakpamé, and Kara reveals a notable complexity associated with this material. Indeed, cement is a ubiquitous construction material in the urban landscape, used for 75% of walls, 54% of floors, and 81% of structures. It is chosen for a variety of reasons, ranging from its availability and practicality to considerations of structural strength, economy, and aesthetics. At the national level, the main reason for choosing cement is that it is “the most widely used and known”, cited by 23% of respondents, followed by its abundant availability (18%), the possibility of building high, and its resistance (14%), and economic factors such as being “cheaper” (13%).

However, its impact on thermal comfort and the environment is a subject of debate, particularly because of its carbon dioxide emissions and its effects on the climate. In Lomé, 52% of residents feel hot during the day, and 53% feel similar discomfort at night. In Kara, 47% of residents are hot during the day, and this figure rises to 53% at night. On the other hand, Atakpamé, with a higher use of earth bricks (29% compared to 12% in Lomé and Kara) and lower temperatures, shows better thermal comfort, with 71% of residents feeling comfortable during the day and 75% at night. To alleviate thermal discomfort in homes, 48% of the surveyed population uses artificial air conditioning (air conditioners and fans), while 52% use natural cooling methods. Among these, most include ventilating rooms by opening windows (53%) and wearing light clothing (44%).

These results suggest that there is an urgent need to rethink the choice of building materials in Togo, considering environmental challenges and the thermal comfort needs of city dwellers. To overcome environmental challenges and improve the thermal comfort of residents, it is essential to rethink the choice of building materials and adopt more sustainable practices.

It is also important to emphasize that this study is just the beginning. There is still much to learn about the impact of construction material choices on thermal comfort and the environment. Further research is needed to explore other potential construction materials and understand how construction practices can be modified to improve thermal comfort while minimizing environmental impact.

By revealing the detrimental effects of cement on thermal comfort and the environment, the study prompts a critical reassessment of construction material choices. By identifying residents’ adaptation strategies and highlighting the benefits of alternative materials such as rammed earth, this research paves the way for more sustainable solutions. It contributes to raising awareness among construction industry stakeholders and policymakers and educating the public about the need to prioritize materials and construction techniques that are environmentally friendly and focused on occupant comfort. The study’s findings can serve as a foundation for developing public policies that promote sustainable building materials and foster innovation in sustainable construction.