Investigating the Potential of Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation Combined with Modified Biochar for Remediation of Lead-Contaminated Loess
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Testing Materials
2.1. Tested Soil
2.2. Red Mud, Biochar, and Modified Biochar
2.3. Bacteria and Cementation Solutions for MICP Treatment
3. Testing Methods
3.1. Specimen Preparation
3.2. Remediation Process for Lead-Contaminated Loess
3.3. Physicochemical Properties of Soil
3.3.1. Measurement of Soil pH
3.3.2. Measurement of Soil EC
3.4. Measurement of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Soil
3.4.1. Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test
3.4.2. Permeability Test
3.5. Toxic Leaching Test of Soil
3.6. Microstructure Characteristics of Soil
3.6.1. Zeta Potential Measurement
3.6.2. XRD Tests
3.6.3. SEM Tests
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Response of Soil pH and EC Values
4.1.1. Soil pH
4.1.2. Soil EC
4.2. Response of Physical and Mechanical Properties
4.2.1. UCS
4.2.2. Permeability
4.3. Response of Lead Ion Leachate Concentration
4.4. Analysis of Microscopic Results
4.4.1. Zeta Potential Test Results
4.4.2. XRD Test Results
4.4.3. SEM Test Results
4.5. Discussion
- (1)
- MBC solidification of Pb2+: The solidification of Pb2⁺ by MBC occurs through several distinct mechanisms. Firstly, the alkaline nature of biochar elevates the pH of the soil, promoting the reaction between Pb2⁺ and hydroxide ions (OH⁻), which leads to the formation of lead hydroxide (Pb(OH)₂), an insoluble compound that significantly reduces the leaching of lead [52]. Secondly, MBC possesses a large specific surface area, enabling it to adsorb substantial amounts of free Pb2⁺. This adsorption capacity effectively immobilizes the lead ions within the soil matrix, further decreasing the leachate concentration of Pb2⁺.
- (2)
- Influence of MBC on MICP solidification of Pb2+: In the microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) process, the effectiveness of solidifying Pb2⁺ is often hindered by the lack of sufficient nucleation sites for free urease enzymes. This can result in the independent formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) within pore spaces, which prevents the full integration of CaCO₃ with soil particles, thus limiting the solidification efficiency of metal ions [53]. MBC, due to its highly porous structure and strong adsorption capacity, introduces additional binding sites by adsorbing both the enzymes and the substrates needed for enzymatic reactions. This adsorption enhances the catalytic decomposition of urea by urease, allowing for more efficient CaCO₃ formation. Moreover, certain metal ions are adsorbed within the pores of MBC, where mineralization reactions occur, leading to localized high concentrations of metal ions. This environment promotes the timely solidification of metal ions through the MICP mineralization process. Other metal ions are either adsorbed within the porous network of MBC or are integrated into CaCO₃ precipitates formed during mineralization [53,54]. These multiple adsorption and mineralization pathways synergistically contribute to the effective immobilization and solidification of metal ions, resulting in successful remediation of Pb2⁺ contamination.
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- Compared to traditional RM and BC methods, MBC releases more hydroxide and carbonate ions, resulting in a higher pH, lower EC, and reduced leachate concentration. In comparison, MICP introduces even more carbonate ions through biomineralization, leading to further increases in pH and reductions in EC. Additionally, the large amounts of carbonate precipitates produced by MICP increase the density of lead-contaminated loess, enhancing UCS and lowering permeability, while also reducing leachate concentration.
- (2)
- The combination of MICP and MBC in lead-contaminated loess remediation leads to higher pH levels. Carbonate precipitates, along with MBC, fill loess pores, improving UCS and reducing permeability. As the MBC proportion increases, the soil becomes denser, enhancing its bearing capacity while further reducing permeability. This combined method effectively adsorbs and immobilizes lead ions, significantly decreasing their concentration in the leachate and achieving successful remediation.
- (3)
- The combined use of MICP and MBC elevates soil pH, creating an alkaline environment. This enhances the negative charge of MBC, promotes the hydrolysis of acidic functional groups on its surface, and increases cation-exchange site density. These changes facilitate ion exchange and complexation reactions between MBC and lead ions. Additionally, the increased negative charge in lead-contaminated loess promotes the further adsorption of lead ions, reducing their mobility and lowering the concentration of soluble lead ions in the loess.
- (4)
- The present study primarily focuses on the synergistic remediation of microbially induced calcite precipitation (MICP) and microbial biochar (MBC) in lead-contaminated loess. Consequently, the results are applicable solely to the behavior observed during the designated period of MICP remediation. The effects of remediation age and potential enhancements through the integration of other technologies have not been addressed in this work, which may limit the applicability of the findings to contaminated sites.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Physical Index. | Data |
---|---|
Fines (%) | 91.18 |
Sand (%) | 8.82 |
Gravel (%) | 0 |
Specific gravity, Gs | 2.72 |
Void ratio, e | 0.88 |
Dry density, ρdmax/(g/cm3) | 1.78 |
Initial water content, ѡn/% | 16.4 |
The Atterberg limit | |
Liquid limit, ωL/% | 33.42 |
Plastic limit, ωP/% | 20.43 |
Soil classification | CL |
Chemical Element | Loess (%) | Red Mud (%) |
---|---|---|
SiO2 | 55.08 | 31.14 |
CaO | 14.47 | 18.31 |
Al2O3 | 13.58 | 24.32 |
Fe2O3 | 7.73 | 9.41 |
MgO | 2.63 | 1.25 |
K2O | 3.36 | 0.64 |
Na2O | 1.41 | 9.60 |
SO3 | - | 0.18 |
Category | Materials | Incorporation Ratio (%) | Ration of MBC (%) | Treatment Time (d) | Influencing Factors |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CK | CK | 3 | / | 30 | Material type |
RM | RM | 3 | / | 30 | |
BC | BC | 3 | / | 30 | |
MBC | MBC | 3 | / | 30 | |
MICP | MICP | 3 | / | 30 | |
MICP + 1%MBC | MICP | 3 | 1 | 30 | Ration of MBC |
MICP + 3%MBC | MICP | 3 | 3 | 30 | |
MICP + 5%MBC | MICP | 3 | 5 | 30 | |
MICP + 7%MBC | MICP | 3 | 7 | 30 |
Contaminant | Initial Concentration (mg/kg) | Treatment Time (d) | Soil Type | UCS (kPa) | Leaching Concentration (mg/L) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zn | 1000 | 10 | XinJiang soil | 625 | 105 | [55] |
/ | / | 1 | Sand | 730 | / | [56] |
Mn | 836.62 | 45 | Pyrite tailings Sand | 587.86 | 13.68 | [57] |
Cd | 1000 | 21 | Red clay | 229.7 | 0.002 | [58] |
Pb | 400 | 28 | Sand | 512 | / | [59] |
Pb | 100 | 14 | / | 630 | 0.5 | [60] |
Pb | 3000 | 30 | Loess | 812 | 46.4 | This study |
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He, P.; Guo, J.; Zhang, S. Investigating the Potential of Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation Combined with Modified Biochar for Remediation of Lead-Contaminated Loess. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7550. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177550
He P, Guo J, Zhang S. Investigating the Potential of Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation Combined with Modified Biochar for Remediation of Lead-Contaminated Loess. Sustainability. 2024; 16(17):7550. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177550
Chicago/Turabian StyleHe, Pengli, Jinjun Guo, and Shixu Zhang. 2024. "Investigating the Potential of Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation Combined with Modified Biochar for Remediation of Lead-Contaminated Loess" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7550. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177550