Biological Diversity and Nutritional Importance of Allium Perennial Vegetable Species

Abstract

The Allium genus belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae. These species are native to the Northern Hemisphere and grow in various regions. Among Lithuania’s perennial Allium plant species, the most well known and cultivated are Allium schoenoprasum L., Allium angulosum L., Allium nutans L., Allium fistulosum L., and Allium ursinum L. These Allium species are important for practical insights and are discussed in this review to present their specific features. The changing climate impacts perennial plants’ agrobiological and nutritional properties, but not all kinds can adapt to new conditions, reducing species diversity. Perennial Allium species adapt well in local growing areas, but yields remain constant or may increase when the bulbs are transplanted under conditions similar to the plant’s native growing location. In addition, the susceptibility of garlic to pests and pathogens also poses a serious threat to genetic resources stored in uncontrolled field collections. Since ancient times, Allium species have played a significant role in the human diet, in traditional medicine for many ailments the treatment of, and in official medicine as a supplemental ingredient. This review analyzes the nutritional importance and consumption of the perennial Allium species, their biochemical composition, and their tolerance to environmental conditions.

1. Introduction

The species in the genus Allium belong to the family Amaryllidaceae and the subfamily Allioideae. More than 700 species of the genus Allium are known worldwide [1,2]. Approximately 30 species (e.g., onions, garlic, leeks, scallions, and others) are used for food [2].

Significant global changes have been observed, notably an increased demand for and consumption of healthier and more nutritious food in recent years. Local products are obtained not only from cultivated but especially from wild plants and are valuable in terms of nutritional value [3]. This shift reflects a growing awareness of the importance of diet in contributing to overall human well-being [4,5]. This transformation in eating habits is partly due to the increasing knowledge about the association between certain food consumption patterns and the rates of disease occurrence and control [6,7]. As a result, there has been a surge in the consumption of vegetable crops known to contain various health-promoting substances [3,5]. Vegetables are rich in vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and dietary fiber, thus contributing to better nutrition and the prevention or management of many human health disorders [6,8,9].

The genus Allium contains species of plants known for their spicy properties, typically consumed raw in salads or cooked in various dishes. Cultivation of Allium vegetables contributes to global food and nutritional security by providing a reliable source of sustenance year-round [5,6,10,11]. Allium plants produce secondary metabolites, including polyphenols, organosulfur compounds, saponins, polysaccharides, and tannins [12]. These elements are responsible for playing an essential role in preventing some human diseases, in addition to the flavor and aroma characteristics of Allium species [13]. For instance, the bioactive constituents of these vegetables underlie their antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, immunoregulatory, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties, highlighting their therapeutic value in maintaining and promoting human health, especially when incorporated into diverse diets [14]. The use of Alliums in cooking and medicine has strengthened their status as essential ingredients in cuisines worldwide [15]. Stanisavljević et al. [16] summarize the findings that A. ursinum consumption may have health-promoting properties, including anticancer effects. The main breeding directions for Allium species are disease resistance, high yield, desirable consumer qualities (such as low pungency and high sugar content), and suitability for intensive and conventional farming [17]. In terms of distribution, Allium perennial plants are cultivated in many regions in the world—from East Asia, America, Europe, and Africa [18]. The area richest in Allium species spreads from the Mediterranean basin to Central Asia and Pakistan. There are 56 recorded Allium species in the Balkans; 17 of them are endemic. The most common and well-studied Allium species in the Balkans are A. cepa, A. sativum, A. schoenoprasum, A. fistulosum, and A. ursinum. The western part of North America is listed as the second most diverse area of these species [19]. The adaptability of these plants to different climates and growing conditions has led to their widespread cultivation and consumption [20,21,22]. Allium crops thrive in well-drained, fertile soils and can grow in various soil types, from sandy to loamy [23]. While relatively drought-tolerant, these plants require consistent moisture for optimal growth, making adequate watering crucial, especially during dry spells [24]. Moreover, Nakajima et al. [25] state some species of Allium are susceptible to waterlogging. Climate change has negative consequences—not all species can adapt to new conditions [26]. The most significant detections of climatic changes are phenological phases—from the date of spring regrowth to the beginning of flowering [27]. Climate conditions in the Northern Hemisphere are changing, including frost-free period duration, which has generally increased by several days. The precipitation mode in winter has also changed—the snow cover increased and lasted almost two decades longer [25]. Species of the genus Allium are native to the Northern Hemisphere and species grow widely in various regions [1,27]. Onion (Allium cepa L.), Welsh onion (A. fistulosum L.), garlic (A. sativum L.), leeks (A. tuberosum L.), chives (A. schoenoprasum L.), and shallots (A. trifolium L.) remain the most widely consumed species in Lithuania [21,22]. Five of the most actual perennial Allium species are investigated at the field collection of the Lithuanian Research Centre of Agriculture and Forestry Institute of Horticulture (Figure 1).

Allium plants’ adaptability to diverse conditions facilitates their year-round cultivation and consumption, ensuring a steady supply of fresh onions in local markets and contributing to their global popularity [28]. From a biological perspective, species and cultivars of Allium perennial plants exhibit variations in stem color (green, white, red, or purple), stem thickness, leaf length (color, size, and shape), bulb formation, and flavor intensity, contributing to the species’ overall diversity [29]. For agronomic traits, uniformity, disease resistance, growth habits, and duration of vegetation are important considerations for breeders and growers [15]. The review aims to present the nutritional importance and consumption of different perennial Allium species and their tolerance to environmental conditions.

2. Characteristics of A. schoenoprasum, A. fistulosum, A. angulosum, A. nutants, and A. ursinum

2.1. Allium schoenoprasum L.

Allium schoenoprasum L., known as chives, is a bulb-forming herbaceous perennial plant [30]. A. schoenoprasum L. is stated to grow wild in the British Isles, continental Europe, Asia, and North America [31], and it is also widely cultivated as a garnish for various foods [32]. It has been cultivated throughout the ages and is commonly found in home gardens [33]. In floriculture, A. schoenoprasum L. can be planted in herbaceous beds, rock gardens, or used as cut flowers, with many ornamental varieties selected from this polymorphous species [34]. Additionally, A. schoenoprasum L. possesses insect-repelling properties, making it useful in gardens for pest control [35].

The bulbs are slender and conical in shape 2–3 cm long and 1 cm broad [36]. A bulb remains dormant in winter, and the leaves begin to grow in February or March. The flowering period occurs from May to June or July, with a possible second bloom in late summer. The flowers range in color from white to pink to carmine, with a dark center and tepals twice the length of the filaments. Other specific morphological characteristics include thin, cylindrical, hollow leaves arranged in 10–50 cm diameter foliage, and dense, subglobose flower heads [22,37]. The plant is well adapted to dry and sunny locations and tolerates cold and hot temperatures [38]. Seeds germinate at temperatures as low as 3–5 °C, with the most suitable range being from 15 to 20 °C. It can grow in all kinds of soils, with sandy loam with a fair content of organic matter and a pH of 6–6.5 being the most preferable [39]. Chives can be propagated from seeds or by bush dividing [40].

2.2. Allium fistulosum L.

Allium fistulosum L., called the Japanese bunching onion, Welsh onion, or spring onion. Historically, it was the main Allium vegetable in China and Japan, where it has been cultivated for longer than 2000 years and remains very important [19]. In Western countries, the Japanese bunching onion is primarily consumed as a scallion and is the topmost selling plant [9]. The plant has a mild and onion-like flavor that enhances many dishes and is a staple ingredient in various cuisines [41]. The green pseudostems, leaves, and unexpanded bulbs are used in salads, stews, side dishes, and various culinary preparations [15,42].

The species has unique botanical features that distinguish it from its close relatives [43]. While growing, A. fistulosum L. resembles the common onion but does not form bulbs. It has hollow, green leaves with smooth, waxy surfaces, which can grow up to 60–70 cm and more in length [22,44]. The plant has 5–8 leaves arranged in a fan shape. It typically displays more upright or erect leaves [19]. Comparing A. fistulosum L. with other species of Allium, it has a higher dry-matter content, a spicy taste and aroma, and greater winter hardiness. Moreover, A. fistulosum L. flowers earlier and shorter. Nevertheless, it is more attractive to pollinators than other species of Allium [45,46]. The plant produces spherical, umbrella-like inflorescences composed of small, star-shaped, white, or pale purple bisexual flowers that are insect-pollinated. To avoid unwanted outcrossing during seed production, it is important the isolation of individual cultivars, accessions, and breeding lines [15]. The root system of A. fistulosum L. is tuft type; the pseudostem is short and has a round or oblate shape, surrounded by the base of the leaf sheath, and densely rooted in the lower part. The young leaves are hidden within the leaf sheath. The color of the flower is white and yellow green [47,48,49]. A. fistulosum L. can multiply by forming evergreen clumps.

2.3. Allium angulosum L.

Allium angulosum L., known as mouse garlic, is native to a wide region of central Europe ranging from France to Italy and northern Asia, extending to Siberia and Kazakhstan. The bulbs are edible, characterized as small and slender, and can be used either raw, cooked, or salted for winter use. Plants can be cultivated as ornamental [50].

A. angulosum L. is a perennial herb that can grow up to 30 to 60 cm in height. The height up to 100 ± 10 cm was stated by Lithuanian researchers [22]. Its bulbs are narrow and elongated, about 5 mm in diameter. The flowering period occurs in July and August, with flowers forming umbels on long pedicles. The blooms are pale lilac, darkening to purple as they mature [37].

A. angulosum L. is simple to grow in various conditions, from coastal areas to drought-prone regions and clay soils. Nevertheless, the perfect conditions to grow are in moist but well-drained soil in sunlit areas [48]. A. angulosum propagated both by seeds and vegetatively.

A. angulosum L. is found in the Red Data Book species of Lithuania [51]. Based on the data in the Karpaviciene [52] herbarium catalog, it was estimated that there are five habitats of A. angulosum L. in Lithuania. Nevertheless, these habitats are very sparse, often occupying just a few square meters of the area. One of the habitat’s locations is the famous Rambynas Regional Park in Lithuania. It is reasonable to maintain the boundaries of the mentioned botanical reserve to preserve the population of A. angulosum L.

2.4. Allium nutans L.

Allium nutans L., known as blue chives, is native to South Siberia and East Kazakhstan. It is most naturally widespread in Western and Eastern Siberia, Northern Kazakhstan, and the mountains of Central Asia [34]. Naturally, A. nutans L. grows on the stony soils of the Altai Mountains and has been used for centuries in Altai folk medicine to treat various diseases [53]. The demand for A. nutans L. among farmers and vegetable gardening enthusiasts is increasing. This interest can be attributed to the plant’s qualitative and quantitative indicators of economically valuable traits. The leaves of A. nutans L. are edible, characterized by their juiciness, onion-garlic aroma, and the ability to maintain their taste and nutritional properties throughout the growing season [54]. As ornamentals, A. nutans L. can be planted in herbaceous beds and borders [30].

A. nutans L. is an herbaceous, perennial plant that produces 6–8 leaves, each 30–60 cm long. The leaves are notably wider and more usually spread out, with a strongly two-angled scape. The flowering scape, also 30–60 cm high, has a pendent umbel before blooming. Single or paired bulbs with a 10–20 mm diameter gradually multiply and form bushes [55]. The flowering period occurs in August, with flowers ranging in color from whitish to bluish lilac or purplish. A. nutans propagated by seeds or division in spring or autumn. Plants grow well in wet meadows and damp locations.

2.5. Allium ursinum L.

Allium ursinum L., also known as wild garlic, ramson, or bear’s garlic, is typically found in damp woods and shady places. It is native to the British Isles, Continental Europe, and Western Asia [56]. Efforts are being made to domesticate A. ursinum L. to meet market demand and preserve its natural populations. Research has investigated the dynamics of growth, seed germination, and the effect of shading on yield and raw material quality under cultural conditions. A. ursinum L. is highly valued in Germany and Switzerland as an herb, with around 40 tons of fresh leaves sold annually in the vegetable market [57].

The bulb is narrow and elongated, about 1.5–6 cm long, arranged at the base by several layers of flesh. The plant grows up to 40 cm in height and primarily propagates by seeds, while vegetative multiplication plays a minor role. A. ursinum L. begins active growth in early spring, with the flowering period from April to May [58].

A. ursinum L. thrives best in light to medium, nutrient-rich, moist, well-drained soils in full or partial shade [59]. The species frequently grow on loamy soils with low phosphorus and high humus content., with soil pH ranging from 4.2 to 7.5. It occupies flat areas and slopes with a northern aspect [60,61] and often forms dense populations in forests [62]. The plant can also be found in relatively dry, calcareous soils during the summer, although it prefers high humidity. However, both flooding and drought are limiting factors for A. ursinum L. [58,60]. The plant is a strong interspecific competitor that can adversely affect the growth, development, and productivity of other herbaceous plants through soil exposure to phenolic phytotoxins in the forest. Investigation of seed germination and seedling growth showed that aqueous extracts and volatile compounds from A. ursinum L. bulbs inhibit the growth of other plants (such as lettuce, amaranth, and wheat) strongly compared to leaf extracts [63]. Plants reproduce primarily by seed but can be multiplied vegetatively.

A. ursinum L. occurs naturally in Lithuania; its habitats are concentrated in the central and western lowlands. It is rare in the southern and eastern parts of the country due to different forest types and soil conditions [64]. A. ursinum L. has been a protected species in Lithuania since 1962. In 2007, it was classified as a protected species with abundant recovery. In 2018, when Lithuania’s protected species were assessed according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria, A. ursinum L. was classified as a near-threatened species. Consequently, it is no longer strictly protected as of 2019, following a proposal by the Lithuanian Red Data Book Commission. However, it is not recommended to weed it [53].

3. Detailed Characteristics of Allium Species

Summarized data from the literature show that the vegetation duration of the discussed Allium species was similar, except for A. ursinum L. (

Table 1. Characteristics of Allium plant species.

Features/Species	A. schoenoprasum L.	A. fistulosum L.	A. angulosum L.	A. nutans L.	A. ursinum L.	References
Plant vegetation duration, days	210 ± 2	210 ± 2	195 ± 2	220 ± 2	110 ± 5	[22]
Chromosome number	2n = 16 and 32	2n = 16	2n = 16	2n = 16 and 32	2n = 14	[65,66,67,68,69]
Plants during growth
Flowering of plants

). Previous research has shown that the beginning of perennial plants’ regrowth and the duration of vegetation are highly dependent on meteorological conditions [22]. In early spring, the plants usually sprouted at the beginning of March. Most of the mentioned species had the same number of chromosomes (2n = 16), except A. schoenoprasum L. and A. nutans L. The inflorescences of Allium species differed in size, shape, and color.

Observations performed at the Institute of Horticulture, LAMMC revealed that leaf harvests of perennial Allium plants can be taken up to seven times (Figure 2). According to the obtained results under Lithuanian climatic conditions, the leaf size of plants in the Allium sp. varies depending on the plant species [22]. A. angulosum L. plants formed the largest plants and foliage diameter.

4. Nutritional Significance of Perennial Allium

Allium species, the most significant genus in the Alliaceae family, are among the oldest cultivated vegetables [70]. Despite variations in form and taste, these species share similar biochemical and phytochemical properties [71,72,73]. They are important for human health, containing beneficial substances such as polyphenols (especially flavonoids), sulfur compounds, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants [32,49,74]. These phenolic compounds exhibit antiproliferative and tumor-inhibiting effects and protect against ultraviolet radiation, pathogens, parasites, and predators [75,76].

Culinary, Allium species are versatile. Their leaves are used as flavoring herbs and garnishes and can be consumed raw, pickled, salted, or preserved in brine with oil. They enhance the flavor of salads, soups, potatoes, cabbage, stewed vegetables, meat dishes, and sauces [54,77]. In agriculture, aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts of Allium plants are effective. They stimulate plant growth and offer protection due to their bactericidal and fungicidal properties, primarily attributed to compounds like allicin and alliin [78,79,80]. Scientific studies have confirmed that plants of the Allium genus have boosted defense mechanisms against fungal and bacterial attacks [81,82]. Additionally, these extracts possess strong antioxidant properties [83,84,85], which help plants manage stress by increasing antioxidative components and enhancing stress tolerance [86]. According to Rinaldi et al. [87], these extracts positively affect the growth of plants and fruits and provide repellent and preventive effects against insect vectors.

Allium species contain many bioactive substances, primarily organosulfur derivatives, flavonoids, and vitamins (C and E), which exhibit strong antioxidant activity [54]. This antioxidant activity is attributed to various sulfur-containing compounds and their precursors, polyphenols, dietary fiber, and microelements [88,89,90]. Polyphenols are categorized based on origin, biological function, and chemical structure. In plants, most polyphenols exist as glycosides, with different sugar units and acylated sugars attached to various positions on the polyphenol skeletons [91]. Flavonoids are the predominant phenolics in the Allium genus [92]. Nencini et al. [93] reported that polyphenol content in the leaves of different Allium species varies and is generally directly correlated with antioxidant activity. Numerous studies have also found a strong positive relationship between total phenolic/flavonoid content and antioxidant activity [94,95,96]. These findings suggest that phenolic compounds are significant natural antioxidants in plants.

Today, medicinal plants are attractive as natural sources of antioxidants [97]. The physiological role of antioxidants is to prevent cellular damage caused by chemical reactions involving free radicals [98,99]. According to Stajner et al. [100], the highest antioxidant activity is found in the leaves of perennial Allium plants, compared to the antioxidative properties of the bulbs, leaves, and stalks. Studies show that the leaves of Allium plants are a valuable source of dietary fiber, though the fiber content varies among Allium species [54,101]. These perennial plants’ leaves are also rich in vitamin A, C, vitamin K, and phenolic compounds, all of which are essential for normal cell functioning and possess antioxidant activity [102]. However, the reported levels of vitamin C differ across various studies [54,100,103]. Research by Piatkowska et al. [56] indicates that the phenolic content in Allium leaves depends on the species variety, a finding presented by Mahmutovic et al. [103]. Similarly, Oszmiański et al. [104] found that kaempferol derivatives are predominant in the yellow leaves of A. ursinum, followed by green leaves, and these results differ from those of Błażewicz-Woźniak and Michowska [105], who reported variations in flavonoids and O-dihydroxyphenyls based on the ecotype.

The levels of mineral compounds such as potassium, calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron, and zinc in perennial Allium leaves also vary depending on the cultivar. Additionally, the amounts of dry matter, proteins, total carbohydrates (including dietary fiber), ash, vitamin C, antioxidant activity, and crude fat also vary depending on the Allium species [54]. Studies indicate that Allium plants grown under diverse conditions exhibit highly variable soil nutrient responses, particularly affecting skin color and yield [76].

5. Adaptability in Perennial Allium Species

The use and distribution of wild and cultivated Allium species are significant. The diversity of species plays an important role in their adaptation to changing environments. Wild food plants have recently made a substantial addition to the human diet. Nowadays, for the vast majority of urbanized and modern European populations, wild edible plants seem to be a secondary source of human nutrition. The situation is different in Eastern Europe. Some countries, such as Estonia and its neighbors, have large ethnographic collections of these species [106]. The botanical diversity and distribution of some Allium species in some Eastern European Baltic countries and their neighboring countries are presented in

Table 2. Diversity and distribution of Allium plant species.

Species	Countries of Species Distribution *	Used Part(s)	Food Use
A. cepa L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL, BG	Bulbs	Spices
A. sativum L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL, BG	Bulbs	Spices
A. schoenoprasum L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL, BG	Leaves, bulbs	Snacks, spices, soup
A. nutants L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL, BG	Leaves, stems	Spices, salat, soup
A. angulosum L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL, BG	Leaves, stems	Spices, salat, soup
A. fistulosum L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL, BG	Leaves, stems	Spices, salat, soup
A. ursinum L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL, BG	Leaves, bulbs	Salad, snacks, soup
A. scorodoprasum L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL, BG	Leaves, bulbs	Spices, salat, soup
A. ericetorum Thore	UA	Flowers (as ornamental), leaves	Salat, soups
A. saxatile M. Bieb.	BY, RU	Flowers (as ornamental), leaves, bulbs	Salat, soups
A. vineale L.	LT, LV, EE, UA, BY, PL	Bulbs	Spices
A. lusitanicum Lam.	LT, EE, LV, UA, PL	Bulbs, leaves	Flavoring in several dishes
A. flavum L.	RU, UA	Flowers, leaves	Salat, soups
A. paniculatum L.	RU, UA, BG	Flowers (as ornamental), leaves, bulbs	Spice and pharmacy
A. carinatum L.	EE, LT, BY, LV, UA, RU, PL	Flowers (as ornamental), leaves, bulbs	Additions in medicine https:/practicalplants.org/wiki/medicinal_uses, accessed on 5 September 2024.
A. sphaerocephalon L.	RU, UA, BG, PL	Flowers (as ornamental), leaves, stems, bulbs	Spices, additions in medicine
A. oleraceum L.	LT, BY, UA, LV, EE, PL, BG	Leaves, shoots, bulbs	spices

* EE—Estonia; LT—Lithuania; BY—Belarus; LV—Latvia; UA—Ukraine; RU—Russia; PL—Poland; BG—Bulgaria.

[107,108]. Plants’ leaves, bulbs, stems, and flowers are used to make spices, soups, salads, and snacks [106,107].

Plants’ leaves, bulbs, stems, and flowers are used to make spices, soups, salads, and snacks [106,107]. Allium species (A. vineale, A. ursinum, A. paniculatum, and A. sphaerocephalon) are used as vegetables, spices, and natural therapeutics in other European countries [109,110,111]. Some differences between species used for food in the past and modern uses may have arisen due to underestimation of potential uses and lack of knowledge about some Allium species. Luczaj et al. [112] state that there was one Allium sp. (czosnek dziki) for food use in Belarus. Similar data were obtained in Ukraine, indicating that only a few Alliums sp. are used as food from the wild [113].

Some Allium species in the northern Baltic and their neighboring countries are invasive [114]. A. paradoxum has not been recorded as an alien plant species in the other Baltic States until now, and it is known only as an ornamental plant in catalogs of some plant nurseries and collections in botanical gardens [115]. Karpavičienė [52] presented Allium lusitanicum species, which is very rare in Lithuania. Only one location of A. lusitanicum is known. The analysis of use records revealed a homogeneous distribution of use despite the geographical distance and different spoken dialects. It would be possible to single out the very Eastern Polesia region as having the greatest biocultural diversity using wild food plants [113].

Consumers from Europe and other regions have become increasingly interested in locally and organically produced crops. These crops represent a wide biocultural heritage. However, this biocultural heritage is threatened due to rapid and powerful commercialization and changing lifestyles. This has an especially sharp impact on minor crop cultivation, including Allium. Allium is a plant genus that is represented in many countries’ historical and cultural heritage—in almost every national cuisine, you will find them. Perennial Allium species, which can be cultivated as a niche product by organic farmers, include A. ursinum, A. ampeloprasum, and others. Wild plant collection and consumption is another important subject in sustainable agricultural practice [3]. Management strategies for wild food resources are needed for the sustainable management and conservation of plant resources, as well as the preservation of traditional knowledge of local communities.

Perennial Allium plants are also generally hardy and adaptable to diverse environmental conditions, making them easily cultivated by gardeners and commercial growers and in open fields or protected environments [3,19]. Their adaptability ensures year-round availability, bridging seasonal gaps in fresh produce [116]. The adaptability of the Allium plant is influenced by external and internal factors, including its genetic origin. Scientific data shows that the cultivars of Allium species have significant differences in stem diameter, number of cloves, plant height, number of leaves, bulb diameter, flowering date, and final stem length, even when grown under identical conditions [117,118,119]. These genetic differences often manifest in the plants’ phenotypic appearance [120]. For example, the life cycle stages of A. ursinum L. vary depending on local conditions. In A. ursinum L. populations, leaf size in plants over three years old is typically much larger than in younger individuals. This variation highlights the unique growth, development, and distribution patterns of A. ursinum L. in different localities [56]. High yields of Allium species depend on planting stock of sufficient size and quality. Plants should be monitored for pests like thrips (Thrips tabaci), armyworms (Spodoptera exigua), and bollworms (Heliothis armigera), as well as diseases such as downy mildew (Peronospora destructor) and white rot (Sclerotium cepivorum) [121]. Allium species are susceptible to fungal pathogens such as Fusarium spp., Colletotrichum spp., Alternaria spp., Peronospora spp., Botrytis spp., and Phoma spp., among others [80].

Perennial Allium plants tend to maintain or improve yields when replanted in similar conditions to those in which they are naturally grown [104]. While genotyped cultivars have the potential for high growth and production, their performance may initially be lower during the adaptation stage [122]. The growth and yield of Allium plants vary with environmental conditions, influencing their ability to absorb water and nutrients [123]. The productivity of Allium species is closely linked to nutrients and water use efficiency. Their shallow root system requires well-drained, nutrient-rich soils. Excessive dryness can damage feeder roots and induce small, irregular bulbs [45]. Allium species respond differently to soil fertility conditions, which are highly elastic soil nutrient responses that affect skin color and yield [76]. High sulfur fertility levels, for example, increase sulfur compound levels and enhance flavor intensity [10]. Environmental conditions also impact the biochemical composition of Allium plants [55]. Studies show that the composition of bioactive compounds in Allium plants varies across different geographical regions [103,124]. Plants synthesize and accumulate more phenolic compounds under stress conditions [125,126].

A cultivar is considered adaptive if it demonstrates high and stable production in each area, has high economic value, and is accepted by the community. The environmental parameters that influence a plant’s adaptation include temperature, exposure time, wind, and humidity, which interact with physiological mechanisms to enable coexistence with the environment [127].

6. Conclusions

Allium species are grown worldwide, and the benefits of their usage have been appreciated for centuries. They remain one of the main plants used for preventive actions against many diseases. Moreover, they can boost the immune system, regulate blood pressure, lower cholesterol, and stimulate digestion. Allium plants attract consumer attention with their miscellaneous shapes and forms of leaves and blossoms. All parts of Allium plants (flowers, leaves, stems, and bulbs) are edible. They are characterized and valued for their rich biochemical composition. Many of their bioactive substances, such as flavonoids and vitamins, especially vitamin C, have strong antioxidant activity. Allium plants are best known for their distinctive scent and taste due to the presence of sulfur compounds, mainly allicin.

Perennial Allium plants can adapt sufficiently well to their environment, but suitable growing conditions lead to higher yields and quality potential. It may take several years until they establish and begin to grow well. Well-drained, fertile soils and consistent moisture are preferred for the optimal growth of Allium plants.

Different characteristics of A. schoenoprasum, A. fistulosum, A. angulosum, A. nutants, and A. ursinum are presented in the review. A. schoenoprasum and A. fistulosum are the most widely cultivated species in Lithuania, while A. ursinum plants grow naturally in moist forests and shady places.