Towards Net-Zero Emissions from Urban Transport: Ex Post Policy Evaluation in Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
Policy Proposal | References |
---|---|
Mandatory fleet emissions standards | Wood et al. [23] |
Sunset legislation for petrol and diesel engines | Wood et al. [23] |
Extra tax on petrol and subsidise EVs | Bjertnæs [24] |
Transition to electric vehicles | Ball, et al. [25]; Ben Ali, and Boukettaya [26]; Bye et al. [27]; Huovila et al. [28]; OECD [29,30]; Pani et al. [31]; Shouquat Hossain et al. [32]; Tian et al. [33]; Tsai et al. [34]; Tsoi et al. [35,36] |
Remove import duties and stamp duty on zero-emissions vehicles | Wood et al. [23] |
Alternative power sources for vehicles | Horváth and Szemesová [37]; Huovila, et al. [28]; Kinsella et al. [38]; Kowalska-Pyzalska et al. [39]; Makarova et al. [40]; Obregón et al. [41]; Roca-Puigròs et al. [42]; Say et al. [43]; Wood et al. [23] |
Electric and hydrogen charging infrastructure | Huovila et al. [28]; Valdmanis et al. [44]; Wood et al. [23] |
Car clubs and car sharing | Göddeke et al. [45]; Henderson et al. [46] |
Mode switch to public transport—lower fares; increase costs to motorists | Danielis et al. [2]; Gota et al. [47]; Atabaki et al. [48]; Bielińska-Dusza et al. [49]; Hasselwander et al. [50]; Kimpton et al. [51]; OECD [29,30] |
Urban vehicle access regulations | Attia et al. [52]; Ogunkunbi and Meszaros [53] |
Increase coverage of carbon-neutral public transport | Huovila et al. [28] |
Increase use of active transport | Buehler et al. [54]; Doğru et al. [55]; Huovila et al. [28]; Nieuwenhuijsen [56] |
Increase use of e-scooters | Ballo et al. [57]; Pace et al. [58]; Weschke et al. [59] |
Increase urban density and reduce urban sprawl | Nieuwenhuijsen [56]; OECD [29,30] |
Regulations all new buildings with off-street parking have electrical cabling to allow for vehicle charging infrastructure, | Wood et al. [23] |
3. Description of Policies towards Net-Zero Emissions
3.1. The International Literature
“to promote and to increase the share of trips made by active transport; introduce carbon-neutral public transport that has a greater spatial coverage; to renew city-managed car fleets to zero emission vehicles; to decrease the total vehicle kilometrage of travel; to improve accessibility without using a car; to encourage zero-emission vehicle production; to make available alternative sustainable fuels; and to construct vehicle charging infrastructure”.
3.2. Australian Literature
“…the formulation of a mandatory fleet emissions standard applied to the sale of all new light vehicles; the tightening of standards to zero emissions by 2035; the setting of an end date for sales of new petrol and diesel light vehicles; and a guarantee that Australians have the widest choice of competitively priced, low-emissions and zero-emissions vehicles available”.
3.3. Australian Federal Government Policies
3.4. Policies Introduced by the ACT Government
4. Effectiveness of ACT Government Land-Use, Transport, and Environmental Policies
4.1. The Success of the Leasehold System and Integrated Land Use and Transport Planning
4.2. Successful Home-Work Balance but the Behaviour to “Maximise” Travel Distances
4.3. Investment in Public Transport Does Not Translate in a Higher Mode Share
4.4. Cycling Networks and Its Limited Impact on Active Transport
4.5. The Role of E-Scooters for the Young
4.6. Electric Vehicle Ownership—A Potential Success Story for Net-Zero Emissions
4.7. The Future of Fully Autonomous Vehicles
5. Discussions
6. Conclusions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Policy | Year | Outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Party to Paris Agreement | 2016 | Nationally Determined Contribution 2015/2022 | Australian Government, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water [63] |
Net-Zero Economy Agency | 2023 | Established | Australian Government, Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet [64] |
National Electric Vehicle Strategy | 2023 | Electric vehicle uptake | Australian Government, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water [65] |
New Fuel Efficiency Standard Strategy | 1 January 2025 | Cap on emissions from new cars | Australian Government, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water [66] |
Real-World Testing of Vehicle Efficiency | 2023 | Consumer information on fuel consumption and emissions | Australian Government, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water [67] |
Capacity Investment Scheme | 2023 | More investment in renewable energy capacity | Australian Government, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water [68] |
Policy | Year | Outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Canberra leasehold land tenure system | 1921 | Gives planners power to direct location of economic and social activities | [69,70,71] |
Long-term strategic land-use/transport plan (Y-Plan) | 1970 | Equitable balance of home/work and other activities; shorten travel distances | [10,72] |
Functional road hierarchy to support suburban design | 1975 | Allows range of transport modes to access nearby services | [74] |
Evaluation of intertown public transport | 1976 | Implementation of bus system to encourage greater use of public transport | [77] |
Light rail master plan | 2013 | Encourage more use of public transport | [78] |
Increasing residential densities | 2004 | Increased use of public transport & less car dependency | [80] |
Movement and Place | 2022 | Promote active transport in town centres and suburbs | [75,76] |
Active Travel Plan | 2023 | Promote walking and cycling | [75] |
Construction of bike paths | 2022 | Promote cycling | [75] |
ACT Climate Change Strategy | 2019 | Target for net-zero emissions with elimination of petrol and diesel engines | [83] |
Encourage EV purchases | 2023 | Increase EV new car purchases | [82,84] |
ACT Vehicle Registration | 2024 | Emission based system to encourage zero polluting vehicles | [85] |
Streamline applications for licence to install EV charging stations | 2022 | Deliver more than 70 publicly accessible electric vehicle charging stations in 2022-23—a number to double by 2025. | [86] |
EV consumer information | 2023 | Online tool compares the total cost of ownership of different EV models and petrol or diesel vehicles. | [88] |
Permits for operators of e-scooters | 2021 | Regulations for operators and consumers | [89,90] |
Conversion of bus fleet and depots to electricity | 2021 | Eliminate diesel bus emissions | [91] |
District | Y-Plan (at 0.5 pop.) Jobs in Thousands (%) | 2001 Census Jobs in Thousand (%) | 2017 Jobs in Thousands (%) |
---|---|---|---|
North Canberra | 70.0 (37.7%) | 54.2 (30.1%) | 70.1 (33.3%) |
South Canberra | 39.2 (21.1%) | 36.1 (20.0%) | 53.2 (25.2%) |
Belconnen | 22.5 (12.1%) | 25.4 (14.1%) | 30.2 (14.3%) |
Woden | 8.5 (4.6%) | 25.5 (14.2%) | 24.5 (11.6%) |
Tuggeranong | 10.9 (5.9%) | 17.0 (9.4%) | 19.9 (9.4%) |
Gungahlin | 5.0 (2.7%) | 5.9 (3.3%) | 4.5 (2.1%) |
Weston Creek and Other | 25.1 (13.5%) | 7.1 (3.9%) | 4.8 (2.3%) |
Queanbeyan (NSW) | 9.4 (5.0%) | 9.2 (5.1%) | 3.5 * (1.7%) |
Total Metropolitan Jobs | 185 500 | 180 150 | 210 700 |
Policy | Year | Outcome | Evidence |
---|---|---|---|
Canberra leasehold land tenure system | 1921 ongoing | Successful spatial location of economic and social activities | Table 4 |
Long-term strategic land-use/transport plan (Y-Plan) | 1970 ongoing | Equitable balance of home/work and other activities; and shorten travel distances—unsuccessful | Table 4 and Figure 2 |
Evaluation of intertown public transport | 1976 2024 | 13 km has not encouraged switch to public transport | Figure 3 |
Light rail master plan | 2013 | Has not encouraged more use of public transport | Figure 3 |
Increasing residential densities | 2004 16% PT | Has not increased use of public transport and less car dependency | 16% PT for JTW |
Active Travel Plan; Movement and Place—walking cycling | 2022 14% | Marginal increase in active transport in town centres and suburbs | 7.7% |
Construction of bike paths | 2022 | Promote cycling | 3% |
ACT Climate Change Strategy | 2019 2035 | 80–90% Target for net-zero emission vehicles | 2.75 in 2024 |
Encourage EV purchases | 2023 | Increasingly successful | 1 in 4 new vehicle registrations |
ACT Vehicle Registration | 2024 | Emission based system to encourage zero polluting vehicles | 1 in 4 new vehicle registrations |
Streamline applications for licence to install EV charging stations | 2022 | Deliver more than 70 publicly accessible electric vehicle charging stations in 2022–2023 180 by 2025 | 165 charging bays (1/1/24) |
EV consumer information | 2023 | Online tool compares the total cost of owning EV models and petrol/diesel vehicles. | Completed |
Permits for operators of e-scooters | 2021 | Regulations for operators and consumers | Completed |
Conversion of bus fleet and depots to electricity | 2021 | Eliminate diesel bus emissions | Feasibility study |
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Black, J.; Nakanishi, H. Towards Net-Zero Emissions from Urban Transport: Ex Post Policy Evaluation in Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory. Sustainability 2024, 16, 8656. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198656
Black J, Nakanishi H. Towards Net-Zero Emissions from Urban Transport: Ex Post Policy Evaluation in Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory. Sustainability. 2024; 16(19):8656. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198656
Chicago/Turabian StyleBlack, John, and Hitomi Nakanishi. 2024. "Towards Net-Zero Emissions from Urban Transport: Ex Post Policy Evaluation in Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory" Sustainability 16, no. 19: 8656. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198656