Free Speech, Green Power: The Impact of Freedom of Expression on Renewable Energy

Abstract

Although there has been a growing interest in identifying the key drivers of renewable energy over the last few decades, theoretical connections and empirical evidence on the impact of freedom of expression still need to be made. Within the framework of this gap in the literature, this study tries to solve the mystery by focusing on the impact of freedom of expression on renewable energy in 20 high-income countries from 1990 to 2022. The effects of economic growth, carbon dioxide emissions, trade openness, and foreign direct investment were also examined. The evidence-based on second-generation econometric estimators such as AMG and CCEMG are consistent. Findings show that freedom of expression indicates increased renewable energy consumption. In addition, while economic growth and foreign direct investments increase renewable energy, CO₂ emissions reduce renewable energy. Trade has no significant impact. The positive link between freedom of expression and renewable energy is promising for the countries involved and presents a significant win–win opportunity. Therefore, countries need to establish democratic principles.

1. Introduction

In contemporary discourse, environmental degradation has emerged as a paramount concern, signaling an urgent call to action in the face of escalating planetary crises. Across the globe, ecosystems are under siege, with deforestation, habitat loss, pollution, and climate change wreaking havoc on biodiversity and ecosystem services [1]. From melting polar ice caps to devastating wildfires, the manifestations of environmental degradation are stark and incontrovertible. As scientific evidence continues to underscore the severity of these challenges, it has become increasingly clear that humanity stands at a critical juncture, compelled to reckon with the unsustainable trajectory of its interactions with the natural world.

The extent of environmental degradation has underscored the imperative of transitioning to a zero-carbon economy, marking it as an indispensable necessity for preserving our planet’s ecological integrity [2]. Fossil-based energy consumption is a predominant contributor to this degradation, with its extraction, processing, and combustion processes unleashing harmful emissions and exacerbating climate change impacts [3,4]. However, despite growing awareness of the urgent need for renewable energy adoption, many countries rely heavily on fossil fuels to meet their energy demands. According to the Energy Institute (2023), in 2022, 31% of global primary energy consumption consisted of fossil-based fuels such as oil, 26% coal, and 23% natural gas [5]. This reliance underscores the formidable challenge of shifting away from entrenched energy systems towards cleaner alternatives. Consequently, policies facilitating the transition to clean energy sources are paramount in mitigating environmental degradation and steering societies toward sustainable pathways. The dissemination of renewable energy technologies emerges as a pivotal strategy, offering a means to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, foster economic development, enhance energy security, and bolster resilience to climate change impacts [6,7,8].

Expansion of renewable energy can improve environmental quality by reducing the environmental costs of economic activities. In this context, the dissemination of renewable energy types such as solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, geothermal, and wave is one of the most critical strategic agendas at a global level [9]. Identifying the drivers of renewable energy adoption has emerged as a critical endeavor, given its strategic advantages in enhancing energy security, reducing environmental impact, and promoting sustainable development [10]. This pursuit has catalyzed a significant line of research within the academic literature, reflecting the growing recognition of renewable energy’s pivotal role in addressing global energy challenges. In recent years, the accelerated efforts to identify the determinants of renewable energy are the most concrete evidence of the strategic importance of renewable energy.

Pioneering studies exploring the determinants of renewable energy adoption have primarily centered on economic factors. These factors include the national income level, the cost competitiveness of renewable energy technologies compared to conventional fossil fuels, the availability of financial incentives and subsidies, investment flows into renewable energy projects, and the impact of energy market structures and regulations on renewable energy deployment [11,12,13,14]. Despite significant progress in understanding the economic drivers of renewable energy adoption, the limited widespread adoption of renewable energy and its uneven distribution among countries have raised profound concerns. This discrepancy has led researchers to shift their focus toward examining institutional and political factors influencing renewable energy deployment. Institutional factors such as supportive policy frameworks, regulatory barriers, institutional capacity, political stability, rule of law, and control of corruption have emerged as crucial determinants shaping the pace and scale of renewable energy uptake across different regions and countries [9,13,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. These studies indicate that institutional indicators can promote renewable energy through regulation and policy design.

Studies investigating the political economy of renewable energy not only scrutinize institutional quality but also delve into democratic processes as significant determinants [17]. While the number of studies specifically addressing this intersection remains limited, democracy emerges as a potentially influential factor in fostering the diffusion of renewable energy [1,3,8,17,22,23]. Democracies provide avenues for citizen participation, transparency, and accountability, which can facilitate the development and implementation of renewable energy policies. Furthermore, democratic governance structures may promote greater public awareness, engagement, and support for renewable energy initiatives through mechanisms such as public discourse, advocacy, and electoral pressure [8]. Additionally, democratic institutions often prioritize environmental concerns and promote policies conducive to sustainable development, creating an enabling environment for renewable energy deployment [1]. Therefore, while the role of democracy in driving renewable energy adoption is multifaceted and context-dependent, it underscores the importance of examining the political dimensions of energy transitions for achieving sustainable and inclusive outcomes.

Although studies focusing on the political economy of renewable energy emphasize institutional quality and democracy, there is a lack of research directly addressing the impact of freedom of expression. The specific absence of literature focusing on freedom of expression raises an exciting research question: Can freedom of expression be an actor in adopting and disseminating renewable energy? This study introduces a novel dimension by explicitly focusing on the impact of freedom of expression on renewable energy—a factor that has not been systematically explored in the literature. This gap provides the basis for this study’s unique contribution, as it is the first to directly examine the theoretical and empirical connection between freedom of expression and the diffusion of renewable energy. By addressing this unexplored intersection, this study sheds light on how freedom of expression can catalyze public engagement, advocacy, and the proliferation of renewable energy policies.

This study, therefore, represents a pioneering effort to fill this critical gap by examining the impact of freedom of expression on renewable energy in 20 high-income countries (HIC) with the highest levels of freedom of expression, using second-generation econometric approaches. This inclusion of freedom of expression in the analysis presents an original contribution to the literature on the political economy of renewable energy. It offers new insights into how democratic features, beyond traditional institutional quality, can influence clean energy transitions. In addition, economic growth, CO₂ emissions, trade openness, and foreign direct investment have been included in the model.

This study is expected to offer several contributions to the literature. Firstly, as mentioned, this study argues that freedom of expression’s impact on renewable energy is significant in itself and reveals potential connections. Therefore, this study’s novelty is that it is the first to focus directly on the impact of freedom of expression at the theoretical and empirical levels. Secondly, by directing attention to a previously unexplored factor in elucidating the drivers of renewable energy, this study puts forth fresh policy recommendations. Suppose the findings reveal a positive relationship between freedom of expression and renewable energy. In that case, countries have the opportunity to simultaneously achieve two critical sustainable development goals: democratic development and clean energy/environmental objectives. In this regard, the findings provide policymakers with win–win insights and contribute to strategies for transitioning to clean energy. Thus, while providing a policy tool for current energy and environmental policies, it also clearly highlights the urgency of freedom of expression in addressing environmental issues. Thirdly, this study addresses empirical methodology. This study ensures robust and reliable estimates by employing a second-generation econometric procedure that accounts for cross-sectional dependence (CSD) and heterogeneity. Neglecting CSD may lead to biased results and mislead policymakers. Therefore, this study obtains robust and reliable predictions using CCEMG (Common Correlated Effects Mean Group) and AMG (Augmented Mean Group) methods that consider CSD and heterogeneity.

The remaining parts of this study consist of a literature review, potential connections, model/methodology, findings, discussion, and conclusion sections.

2. Freedom of Expression and Clean Energy: Potential Connections

Recent years have witnessed a surge in scholarly inquiries probing the foundational underpinnings of renewable energy within institutional frameworks. While prevailing discourse posits that institutional architectures wield considerable influence over the trajectory of renewable energy adoption through regulatory mechanisms, a consensus on the precise interaction channels remains elusive. However, the elusive connections between democratic values and the advancement of renewable energy remain largely unexplored, primarily due to the scarcity of research initiatives dedicated to this intersection.

Despite the widespread belief in the influence of freedoms on clean energy and environmental quality [24], there is a glaring absence of a consistent framework that delineates the potential links between freedom of expression and renewable energy. While some mechanisms regarding the overall potential impacts of democracy on renewable energy are identified in the existing literature [1,3,23], mechanisms specific to the impact of freedom of expression are lacking. When looking at the links defined between democracy and renewable energy, Uzar and Eyuboglu [1] suggest that democracies inform the public through press freedom and can increase renewable energy demand by enhancing environmental awareness. Wang [18] and Rahman and Sultana [19] further indicate that democracies tend to excel in institutional categories such as corruption control, accountability, and societal participation, suggesting they could enforce stricter environmental and energy policies. Efficiency within institutional frameworks can impede the diversion of energy policies and facilitate the establishment of frameworks conducive to the widespread adoption of renewable energy. In contrast to autocratic regimes, democratic regimes feature numerous political parties competing with different ideologies. This competitive environment is a significant option for voters with environmental demands. Parties leaning towards left-wing ideology are more inclined to regulate energy markets and promote the widespread use of clean energy [16]. On the other hand, democracies do not interfere with individuals’ freedom of choice and do not impose demographic restrictions. Within this framework, the increasing population and pressure for low-cost production can lead to adverse consequences in terms of the environment and clean energy [25].

There is a notable gap in academic research concerning the direct connection between freedom of expression and the advancement of renewable energy. Freedom of expression encompasses the fundamental right of individuals to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of censorship or repercussion. In energy policies, this freedom holds substantial potential to influence the adoption and proliferation of renewable energy sources. This study posits that freedom of expression can exert its impact on renewable energy through six distinct channels: (i) Information dissemination and awareness; (ii) policy advocacy and political activism; (iii) innovation and technological advancement; (iv) consumer choice and market demand; (v) cultural shifts and societal norms; and (vi) international cooperation and knowledge sharing. Understanding the interplay between freedom of expression and renewable energy within these channels is crucial for shaping effective energy policies and fostering sustainable development on a global scale.

Freedom of expression and renewable energy relationships can be established through information dissemination and awareness. Freedom of expression has the potential to catalyze the widespread dissemination of information on renewable energy technologies. This fundamental freedom empowers individuals, organizations, and media outlets to engage in open dialogue, thereby sharing knowledge about the benefits and significance of renewable energy in addressing global energy challenges and combating climate change [26,27]. Through unrestricted discourse, a wealth of information regarding renewable energy sources’ efficiency, affordability, and environmental benefits is likely proliferating, potentially penetrating diverse segments of society [8]. This may lead to heightened public awareness, potentially generating significant momentum for increased support and demand for renewable energy solutions. As this awareness potentially permeates communities, it may trigger a ripple effect, prompting policymakers, industry leaders, and the general public to prioritize adopting and integrating renewable energy technologies into mainstream energy systems.

Freedom of expression can support renewable energy within the framework of policy advocacy and political activism. Freedom of expression can be a linchpin for fostering policy advocacy and catalyzing political activism supporting renewable energy. This fundamental freedom empowers individuals and groups to engage in robust discourse, lobby governments, and participate in grassroots movements to advance renewable energy adoption. By exercising their right to express opinions and advocate for change, individuals can effectively influence policymakers to prioritize renewable energy initiatives and allocate resources accordingly [28,29]. Through public discourse and activism, freedom of expression can foster a conducive environment for formulating progressive policies, incentivizing governments to implement supportive regulations and initiatives that accelerate the transition towards renewable energy sources [30]. Furthermore, political activism fueled by freedom of expression can mobilize public support and galvanize collective action, amplifying the voice of renewable energy advocates and driving tangible progress toward a sustainable energy future [31].

The third channel is innovation and technological advancement. Freedom of expression can be pivotal in cultivating an environment conducive to innovation and technological advancement in renewable energy. This fundamental freedom enables individuals to freely exchange ideas, challenge conventional norms, and engage in collaborative endeavors, fostering a culture of creativity and entrepreneurship [32]. By encouraging open dialogue and the free flow of information, freedom of expression ignites the spark of innovation, propelling researchers, engineers, and entrepreneurs to explore novel approaches and solutions in renewable energy technology. This dynamic exchange of ideas and expertise can catalyze the development of cutting-edge renewable energy technologies, the enhancement of existing ones, and the creation of innovative business models that facilitate the widespread deployment and accessibility of renewable energy resources [33,34].

Freedom of expression can facilitate the development of renewable energy within the framework of consumer choice and market demand. Freedom of expression can empower consumers to shape market demand for renewable energy products and services. This fundamental freedom enables individuals to voice their preferences, concerns, and values, including their growing inclination towards clean and sustainable energy options. Individuals can influence market dynamics through public discourse, consumer activism, and advocacy efforts, driving increased demand for renewable energy solutions [35]. By voicing their support for renewable energy initiatives and expressing a preference for eco-friendly products and services, consumers send a clear signal to businesses and policymakers alike, signaling the need for investment in renewable energy infrastructure. In addition to these signals, consumers can exert significant pressure on the government regarding environmental quality and clean energy issues and may demand the proliferation of clean energy [8]. This dynamic interplay between freedom of expression and consumer choice can foster a virtuous cycle wherein market forces align with societal values and preferences, propelling the widespread adoption and integration of renewable energy technologies into mainstream markets.

Freedom of expression can play a pivotal role in shaping cultural attitudes and societal norms pertaining to environmental sustainability and climate action [36]. This fundamental freedom enables individuals and communities to engage in diverse forms of expression, including through media, art, literature, and public discourse. By exercising their right to express opinions and perspectives on renewable energy and sustainability, individuals can contribute to a broader cultural shift towards valuing renewable energy and embracing more sustainable lifestyles [1,12]. Freedom of expression can foster a collective consciousness regarding the importance of renewable energy adoption and environmental stewardship through the dissemination of information, the portrayal of renewable energy in various forms of media and art, and the promotion of sustainable practices in literature and public discourse. This cultural transformation, driven by freedom of expression, can catalyze widespread societal acceptance of renewable energy and pave the way for the transition to a more sustainable and resilient future.

Freedom of expression can serve as a catalyst for fostering international cooperation and facilitating knowledge sharing on renewable energy best practices, experiences, and challenges [37,38]. This fundamental freedom can enable countries and stakeholders from around the world to engage in open dialogue, exchange ideas, and collaborate on renewable energy initiatives [30]. Through international cooperation, nations can leverage each other’s expertise and resources, learning from both successes and failures to accelerate the deployment of renewable energy technologies. By sharing knowledge and experiences, countries can collectively address shared environmental concerns, such as climate change and air pollution, while also promoting sustainable development on a global scale [39]. Freedom of expression thus can play a crucial role in breaking down barriers to collaboration, fostering trust and transparency among nations, and building partnerships that are essential for achieving a sustainable and resilient energy future for all.

This study contends that freedom of expression can steer the increased utilization of renewable energy through six distinct channels. As depicted in Figure 1, these channels provide a plausible and grounded framework wherein freedom of expression can influence the adoption and proliferation of renewable energy. By empowering individuals and communities to engage in open dialogue, advocacy, and activism, freedom of expression facilitates the dissemination of information, policy advocacy, innovation, consumer choice, cultural shifts, and international cooperation in renewable energy. Through these interconnected channels, freedom of expression has the potential to catalyze a transformative shift towards a more sustainable and resilient energy future.

3. Literature Review

Renewable energy emerges as a compelling subject of scholarly inquiry within academic discourse, primarily due to its manifold benefits spanning environmental quality, energy security, and independence. Early investigations often treated renewable energy as an independent variable, delving into its ramifications on pivotal economic and environmental metrics like economic growth trajectories and CO₂ emission levels [40,41,42,43,44]. These seminal studies illuminate the intricate interplay between renewable energy adoption and its consequential effects, offering valuable insights into the nexus between sustainable energy transitions, economic prosperity, and environmental stewardship.

The literature examining renewable energy’s various economic and environmental impacts forms a relatively recent research network. Alongside these inquiries, studies focusing on the determinants of renewable energy constitute a burgeoning area of investigation. These studies endeavor to delineate different determinants of renewable energy consumption by treating renewable energy as the dependent variable. Pioneering studies analyzing the determinants of renewable energy have sought to explain renewable energy consumption by concentrating on fundamental factors such as economic growth and CO₂ emissions [45,46]. As the significance of the widespread adoption of renewable energy becomes increasingly apparent, interest in the determinants of renewable energy has surged [10]. Within this framework, numerous factors influencing renewable energy have been examined, including energy prices [47], trade openness [48,49], financial development [50], foreign direct investment [51], income distribution [52], and population/urbanization [53].

The asymmetric distribution of renewable energy among countries and its relatively low share in primary energy consumption have accelerated the examination of the effects of institutional/political factors on renewable energy. A new line of research focusing on the political economy of renewable energy underscores the prominence of institutional quality. These studies have explored whether various institutional indicators influence clean energy. For instance, Uzar [15] demonstrated that corruption, legal quality, bureaucratic efficiency, transparency, and stability promote renewable energy development in both developed and developing countries. Cadoret and Padovano [16] suggested that corruption may negatively impact renewable energy in developed countries. Belaïd et al. [9] showed that political stability positively determines renewable energy in MENA countries. Islam et al. [13] illustrated the positive influence of various institutional indicators on renewable energy in Bangladesh. Wang et al. [18] focused on the determinants of renewable energy in OECD countries, identifying institutional quality and low political risk as critical determinants. Rahman and Sultana [19] demonstrated that institutional effectiveness is a significant catalyst for the proliferation of renewable energy in emerging market economies. Saadaoui and Chtourou [21] researched the determinants of renewable energy in Tunisia. Findings indicated a bidirectional causality between institutions and clean energy. Olaniyi and Odhiambo [54] analyzed the negative impact of sub-threshold institutional quality on renewable energy in Africa. As observed, studies focusing on institutional quality highlight the efficient functioning of institutions through regulations, incentives, and stringent environmental policies. Wang et al. [55] examined the relationship by focusing on political instability in 60 countries. The findings indicated that political instability negatively impacts renewable energy innovation.

In addition to institutional quality, there has been increasing scrutiny in recent years on whether democratic principles are a significant tool in explaining renewable energy. However, Lyulyov et al. [22] have noted that studies examining the impact of democratic indicators on renewable energy are still relatively few. For instance, although not focusing on renewable energy, Chou and Zhang [56] examined the relationship between democracy and energy efficiency in European countries. The findings underscored that democracy enhances energy efficiency. Kwilinski et al. [57] similarly indicated that improvements in the quality of democracy in the EU lead to significant improvements in energy poverty. Sequire and Santos [17] examined the impact of democratic indicators on renewable energy for numerous countries and found a positive relationship. Chen et al. [12] analyzed renewable energy usage by categorizing countries based on their level of democratization without directly examining the impact of democracy. Findings indicated that in countries with substantial democratic rights, the dissemination of renewable energy is easier. Uzar [8] investigated the impact of press freedom as a democracy indicator on renewable energy in OECD countries and concluded that a free press fosters renewable energy development. Saadaoui et al. [23] found that the democratization level in Tunisia is insufficient to accelerate the transition to renewable energy. Uzar and Eyuboglu [1] concluded that democracy is an effective catalyst for the proliferation of renewable energy in the United States. Fan [58] concluded that the local population’s resistance to energy injustice and active participation in negotiations were highly influential in Taiwan’s transition to renewable energy. Omri and Jabeur [59] found that political institutions, such as democracy, will accelerate the transition to clean energy in a panel of countries with high pollution levels. Additionally, Silva et al. [60], Feng et al. [61], Amoah et al. [62], and Tu et al. [63] focused on freedoms and stated that economic freedoms would promote the dissemination of renewable energy. As evident, nearly all studies have shown that democratic indicators contribute positively to the development of renewable energy.

Despite the growing scholarly interest in the political drivers of clean energy, the specific influence of democratic processes on the transition to renewable energy remains inadequately explored. Although there are studies regarding the effects of freedom, these studies focus on economic freedoms. This study aims to clarify this relationship by focusing on the critical role of freedom of expression, which is fundamental to democratic governance and civic engagement. Understanding how freedom of expression can facilitate or hinder the adoption of clean energy technologies is vital for both theoretical advancements and practical implications. Previous research has acknowledged the importance of democratic indicators in shaping renewable energy policies; however, the explicit link between freedom of expression and clean energy adoption has been largely overlooked. This study seeks to provide valuable insights into how fostering a culture of open dialogue and expression can accelerate the transition to renewable energy sources by addressing this gap. Furthermore, it will investigate potential feedback mechanisms between democratic development and clean energy initiatives, thereby contributing to a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between political freedoms and environmental sustainability.

4. Data Definitions and Method

This study focuses on HIC (United States (US), Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Canada, the United Kingdom (UK), France, the Netherlands, Australia, Japan, South Korea, Finland, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Portugal, New Zealand, Austria, and Belgium) and analyzes the period from 1990 to 2022. The selection of country group and period is based on several specific rationales. Firstly, the primary reason for selecting the period is an attempt to analyze as long a timeframe as possible. Accordingly, since the most recent data available is from 2022, the period is from 1990 to 2022. Additionally, according to Freedom House [64], there were significant restrictions on freedom of expression during the 2000s, which strongly emphasizes the need to advocate for freedom of expression. Given the erosion of freedom of expression during this period, examining its impact on the environment could be highly functional in recalling the importance of freedoms and democracy.

There are also significant reasons behind the selection of the HIC, where freedom of expression is relatively high. Across the globe, the relationship between freedom of expression and renewable energy is multifaceted and influenced by various factors. Generally, countries with strong protections for freedom of expression tend to have more open and transparent public discourse surrounding energy policy and environmental issues. In these nations, individuals and organizations can freely express their opinions, advocate for renewable energy initiatives, and hold governments and corporations accountable for their environmental impact. This can increase public awareness, engagement, and support for renewable energy transitions. Moreover, democratic principles such as transparency, accountability, and participation often go hand in hand with promoting renewable energy development. In countries with robust democratic institutions, citizens can voice their concerns, influence policy decisions, and mobilize for renewable energy projects. Conversely, in countries where freedom of expression is restricted or suppressed, there may be obstacles to public engagement, independent media scrutiny, and civil society activism, which can hinder progress toward renewable energy goals. Therefore, the intersection of freedom of expression and renewable energy underscores the importance of democratic governance and civic engagement in shaping sustainable energy futures. All these reasons make HIC a unique sample in examining the relationship between freedom of expression and renewable energy.

The data related to dependent and independent variables are analyzed annually and logarithmically. The model developed in this study is based on works such as [1,8,9,10,11,12]. While this study is specific to the political factor of freedom of expression, critical eco-nomic and environmental factors in the literature have been addressed. In this regard, economic growth, CO₂ emissions, trade openness, and foreign direct investment have been included in the model (referencing studies such as [8,9,10,11,12]), providing a comprehensive perspective on the political, economic, and environmental factors of the transition to renewable energy. The model examining the impact of freedom of expression and control variables on renewable energy is as follows:

$${\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}={\mathsf{\beta }}_0+{\mathsf{\beta }}_1{\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}+{\mathsf{\beta }}_2{\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{E}\mathrm{G}}_{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}+{{\mathsf{\beta }}_3{\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{O}2}_{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}+{{\mathsf{\beta }}_4\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{T}\mathrm{R}}_{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}{+{\mathsf{\beta }}_5\mathrm{l}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{F}\mathrm{D}\mathrm{I}}_{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}+\mathsf{\epsilon }}_{\mathrm{i}\mathrm{t}}$$

(1)

The variable definitions and data sources are as follows: RE represents per capita renewable energy consumption in kWh equivalent. Renewable energy sources consist of hydropower, wind, solar, geothermal, wave and tidal, and bioenergy. Renewable energy data are obtained from the [5]. FE represents the fundamental independent variable, freedom of expression. FE is an index reflecting freedom of expression and is obtained from V-Dem [65]. The index primarily reflects the extent to which individuals can express their opinions and the ability of the media to present different political perspectives. In the freedom of expression index, which ranges from 0 to 1, 1 indicates the highest level of freedom (The comprehensive explanation of the input data for RE and FE is provided in Appendix A).

When looking at the control variables, EG represents economic growth and is measured by GDP per capita (constant 2015 USD). EG can facilitate the adoption of renewable energy by increasing investments in clean technologies and infrastructure. A growing economy could provide the financial resources needed for innovation, potentially enhancing the development of renewable energy projects [45]. TR is included in the model to represent trade openness. TR is determined by the combined value of exports and imports of goods and services relative to the gross domestic product. TR can enhance the exchange of renewable energy technologies and expertise across borders, potentially improving countries’ capacities to adopt sustainable practices. Engaging in international trade could grant nations better access to innovative energy solutions, possibly accelerating their transition to renewable sources [48]. FDI represents foreign direct investment (net inflows). FDI encompasses equity investments made directly into the reporting economy, comprising equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, and additional capital. FDI could represent a valuable funding source and technological transfer for renewable energy projects. An increase in FDI in the renewable sector might lead to the establishment of new energy facilities and the implementation of advanced technologies, thereby supporting the growth of clean energy markets [51]. The data for EG, TR, and FDI are obtained from the World Development Indicators (WDI).

Finally, CO₂ stands for carbon dioxide emissions and is measured in million tons. CO₂ emissions catalyze renewable energy initiatives, influencing policies to reduce greenhouse gas outputs. Higher CO₂ emissions could prompt governments and societies to pursue renewable energy solutions to meet international climate commitments and improve air quality [52]. The data on CO₂ emissions are obtained from [5].

Table 1. Data definitions and sources.

Variable	Definition	Source
RE	Per capita renewable energy consumption in kWh equivalent	Energy Institute
FE	The index primarily reflects the extent to which individuals can express their opinions and the ability of the media to present different political perspectives	V-Dem
EG	GDP per capita (constant 2015 USD)	World Development Indicators
CO2	Carbon dioxide emissions in million tons	Energy Institute
TR	Trade is the sum of exports and imports of goods and services (% of GDP)	World Development Indicators
FDI	Foreign direct investment (net inflows)	World Development Indicators

summarizes the data variable definitions and data sources related to variables.

The descriptive statistics in

Table 2. Descriptive statistics.

	Mean	Minimum	Maximum	Std. Dev.
RE	12,142.19	152.5755	93,578.22	17,215.85
FE	0.9559	0.769	0.988	0.030
EG	40,671.04	9367.093	90,057.04	14,916.37
CO2	548.67	25.2	5884.2	1137.192
TR	70.98	15.72	193.09	31.83
FDI	3.70 × 1010	−3.30 × 1011	7.34 × 1011	8.00 × 1010

represent the non-logarithmic original values of the variables. The minimum and maximum values for RE are 152.5 and 93,578.2, respectively. While renewable energy consumption seems to be good compared to other countries [5], it is still not at the desired level. The widespread adoption of clean energy and increasing the use of renewable energy are highly prioritized issues. Freedom of expression ranges from 0.769 to 0.988 in the countries under study. This range indicates that freedom of expression is significantly good in the countries under investigation. These statistics suggest that a sample of HIC could be a good example for examining the relationship between freedom of expression and renewable energy.

In Figure 2, the horizontal axis represents freedom of expression (FE), while the vertical axis shows renewable energy consumption per capita in kWh equivalent (RE). The scatter plot in Figure 2 shows a positive relationship between FE and RE. As FE increases, RE also tends to increase. This positive correlation is supported by the regression line, which slopes upwards from left to right, indicating that higher levels of FE coincide with higher levels of RE. This relationship suggests that countries with greater FE may be more inclined to adopt and invest in RE sources. Conversely, countries with restrictions on FE may face challenges in promoting RE initiatives. While the graph points to a promising link between FE and the use of RE and highlights the potential role of sociopolitical factors in shaping energy policies and practices, it is essential to support this conclusion with advanced econometric techniques.

The econometric methodology employed in this study adheres to the second-generation panel data approach, recognized for its ability to generate reliable and robust estimates. As an initial step, the examination of CSD is paramount. Failure to address this aspect can significantly compromise the accuracy and validity of the estimates produced. If left unexamined, CSD may lead to biased coefficient estimates and erroneous inference, undermining the integrity of the empirical findings. To ensure the robustness of the analysis, this study employs rigorous diagnostic tests to scrutinize CSD. Specifically, the Breusch and Pagan [66] LM test, the Pesaran [67] CDLM test, and the Pesaran et al. [68] LMadj test are utilized. Researchers favor these tests for their versatility, simplicity, and effectiveness in identifying and addressing CSD, thereby improving the validity and robustness of their empirical findings in econometric research. Firstly, the LM test efficiently detects heteroscedasticity, ensuring the accuracy of regression estimates while also exhibiting robustness to certain forms of model misspecification [66]. Secondly, the CDLM tests are particularly advantageous for their ability to detect CSD in the presence of spatial or network dependencies, offering insights into complex interrelationships among observations [67]. Thirdly, the LMadj test provides a comprehensive diagnostic tool by incorporating lagged dependent variables, thereby enhancing the sensitivity and reliability of the analysis [68].

In econometric analysis, the presence of CSD necessitates a comprehensive examination of slope homogeneity, a crucial aspect often overlooked in empirical studies. Ensuring homogeneity of slopes across different cross-sectional units is imperative, as it directly impacts the validity and reliability of predictions. Failure to account for slope heterogeneity can lead to biased coefficient estimates and inaccurate forecasts, ultimately compromising the robustness of empirical findings. Therefore, investigating slope homogeneity becomes pivotal in enhancing the overall quality of econometric analyses. In the study, the homogeneity tests advanced by [69] are a fundamental diagnostic tool to assess the consistency of slopes across cross-sectional units. This test offers several advantages that make it particularly suitable for examining slope homogeneity in the presence of CSD. The test demonstrates resilience against common challenges in panel data analysis, including CSD and heteroskedasticity. It identifies overall and subgroup heterogeneity proficiently, offering a detailed understanding of slope coefficient consistency. Moreover, it enables adaptable modeling of slope coefficient variation, accommodating diverse panel data structures and modeling approaches. In summary, the test presents a dependable and adaptable method for evaluating slope coefficient consistency in panel data studies, consequently improving the reliability and precision of regression outcomes.

In the methodological framework of this study, unit root testing should be applied after conducting CSD and homogeneity tests. In the presence of CSD, employing unit root tests compatible with such dependencies becomes essential to ensure the accuracy and reliability of empirical analyses. Failure to utilize unit root tests that account for CSD can lead to biased results and undermine the validity of findings. Hence, in this study, the Pesaran [70] CADF (Cross-Sectionally Augmented Dickey–Fuller) unit root test, designed to accommodate second-generation CSD, was adopted. What sets the CADF test apart is its ability to address the issue of cross-sectional dependence, which is prevalent in panel data settings where observations across different units may be correlated. Traditional unit root tests assume independence among observations, which can lead to biased results when applied to panel data with CSD. The CADF test, however, adjusts for this dependency by augmenting the standard Dickey–Fuller test with cross-sectional averages of lagged differenced variables. By incorporating information from neighboring cross-sectional units, the CADF test effectively captures panel data’s shared dynamics and dependencies, resulting in unit root tests that exhibit enhanced precision and robustness. This makes it particularly well-suited for analyzing panel datasets where observations may exhibit interdependence or spatial correlation [8].

In the final part of the empirical analysis, this study will test the long-term impact of FE, EG, CO₂, TR, and FDI on RE. To address the complexities of panel data analysis, particularly the presence of CSD and heterogeneity, two advanced estimation techniques were employed: the AMG estimator proposed by Eberhardt and Bond [71] and Eberhardt and Teal [72] and the CCEMG estimator introduced by Pesaran [73]. AMG and CCEMG estimators are commonly utilized in panel data analysis, particularly in contexts with CSD and heterogeneity. Both estimators offer several advantages over traditional panel data estimation techniques [74]. Firstly, they provide more efficient and consistent parameter estimates by incorporating information from individual units and the entire panel. Secondly, they are robust to various forms of misspecification, such as heteroscedasticity and autocorrelation, making them suitable for diverse empirical contexts. Additionally, these estimators offer flexibility in modeling complex panel data structures and accommodating different sources of cross-sectional dependence, thereby enhancing the reliability and validity of empirical analyses in panel data research.

In analyzing the long-term impacts of various factors on renewable energy, the choice of econometric estimators plays a crucial role in ensuring reliable and valid results. The AMG estimator is advantageous for accommodating unobserved common factors and CSD, which are prevalent in panel data settings [8,75]. By estimating a group while allowing for heterogeneity across cross-sections, AMG provides a more nuanced understanding of individual unit behaviors while capturing overarching trends [76]. This is especially relevant when policy and economic conditions vary significantly across countries. On the other hand, the CCEMG estimator excels in situations where standard shocks affect multiple cross-sectional units. This estimator allows for a more comprehensive analysis by modeling these common effects directly, which can lead to more accurate estimates of the impact of explanatory variables on the dependent variable [77,78]. Such an approach is particularly pertinent in studying renewable energy, where global trends and policies often influence national dynamics. Furthermore, CCEMG enhances the robustness of the results by addressing potential biases from omitted variable effects that may arise in traditional panel data models [46,79]. By employing both AMG and CCEMG, this study aims to provide a thorough and robust analysis of the relationship between freedom of expression and renewable energy adoption, considering the complexities and interdependencies in panel data.

5. Empirical Outcomes

The outputs from the methodological processes introduced in this section will be reported. As mentioned, the first step of the methodological stage involves the analysis of CSD and homogeneity.

Table 3. Outcomes of CSD and homogeneity.

CSD	Statistic	Prob.
Breusch–Pagan LM	2536.870	0.000
Pesaran scaled LM	120.391	0.000
Pesaran CD	8.055	0.000
Homogeneity	Statistic	Prob.
$\check{∆}$	23.57	0.000
$\check{∆}$adj	26.90	0.000

presents the outputs of the CSD and homogeneity tests. In the tests conducted for CSD, the null hypotheses indicate the absence of CSD. The null hypothesis is rejected at the 1% significance level in all three tests, thus supporting the alternative hypothesis indicating the presence of CSD. Consequently, the findings of the CSD tests demonstrate the existence of CSD in the panel consisting of HIC. This finding emphasizes the potential impact of shocks occurring in one of these countries on others, underlining the urgency of understanding and managing these effects. Findings related to CSD can significantly influence the reliability and accuracy of subsequent empirical tests. This highlights the need for suitable model modifications and diagnostic techniques to address their impacts and confirm the accuracy of the results.

With the occurrence of CSD, it is crucial to evaluate homogeneity. Conducting a panel homogeneity test is essential for verifying the uniformity of coefficients across different units or entities within the panel, which is fundamental for accurate panel data analysis. The work of [69] introduces two test statistics: delta tilde and adjusted delta tilde. Both tests reveal statistically significant results, with p-values of 0.000, providing compelling evidence against the null hypothesis of coefficient uniformity. These outcomes indicate that the slope coefficients vary across panel units, signifying heterogeneity in the relationships studied. In practice, the effect of independent factors on the dependent factor differs across various panel units. Thus, recognizing and adjusting for this variability is crucial for reliable parameter estimation and unbiased conclusions in panel data analysis. Furthermore, managing coefficient variability may necessitate using advanced econometric methods or integrating specific effects for each unit into the model to capture detailed connections more accurately.

An essential component of the second-generation econometric procedure is unit root testing. The findings obtained from Table 3 have indicated the presence of CSD in HIC. Therefore, unit root examination should incorporate this information and utilize a unit root test resistant to CSD. In this context, the CADF test is a method that considers CSD and is frequently used by researchers. Outputs regarding the unit root levels of variables are reported in

Table 4. CADF results.

	t-Bar		Prob.
	Level	1st Difference	Level	1st Difference
lnRE	−1.753	−3.011	0.533	0.000
lnFE	−1.544	−2.775	0.859	0.000
lnEG	−1.969	−2.849	0.172	0.000
lnCO2	−1.468	−3.293	0.924	0.000
lnTR	−1.959	−2.763	0.185	0.000
lnFDI	−0.913	−6.037	0.181	0.000

. In the CADF test, the null hypothesis indicates that the series has a unit root, while the alternative hypothesis suggests otherwise. As seen, the probability values for all variables are above 10% at the original levels. Hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected, and it can be said that the variables have a unit root. However, all variables reject the null hypothesis at the 1% significance level in the first difference. Therefore, it can be observed that the variables are stationary in their first differences and do not contain a unit root. A unit root in all variables at levels renders implementing first-generation panel econometric procedures problematic, such as random and fixed effects, which may lead to spurious regression problems [8].

In the final stage, estimating the long-term coefficient of the independent variables on RE is crucial.

Table 5. AMG and CCEMG.

Variables	AMG (Coef.)	CCEMG (Coef.)
lnFE	0.682 ***	0.481 **
lnEG	1.179 *	1.789 **
lnCO2	−1.398 *	−1.127 *
lnTR	0.093	−0.038
lnFDI	0.022 **	0.023 **

*, **, and *** indicate the 1%, 5%, and 10% significance levels, respectively.

reports the findings obtained from AMG and CCEMG estimators. It is observed that the fundamental independent variable, FE, statistically and positively affects RE in both estimators. Specifically, a 1% increase in FE leads to a RE increase of approximately 0.482–0.682%. This result underscores the critical role of FE as a catalyst in the dissemination and promotion of consumption of RE. Put differently, FE can motivate RE by disseminating information, raising awareness, supporting political activism for clean energy, facilitating technological advancement, altering traditional norms, and promoting global cooperation. While there is limited direct focus on FE, this finding aligns with previous studies [1,8,12,17] that conclude democracy positively influences RE. These studies also suggest that the freedoms provided by democracy create a conducive environment for the proliferation of renewable energy, thus supporting the main finding of this study. However, the findings are inconsistent with [23], which indicates that the level of democracy in Tunisia is insufficient to motivate RE. In this regard, the HIC are leading nations where democracy and freedom of expression are significantly high. Therefore, compared to [23], it can be said that the democratic culture in these countries accelerates the dynamics that increase the use of RE.

When examining the effects of control variables, both AMG and CCEMG indicate that EG positively and significantly influences RE. Thus, a 1% increase in EG results in a 1.179–1.789% increase in RE. The findings from both estimators are highly consistent. The positive relationship between EG and RE aligns well with studies in the literature [9,11,14,19,21]. These studies suggest that increasing economic activities lead to higher energy demand, and RE can meet some of this demand. Therefore, it is highly plausible and reasonable that increasing economic activities and energy demand stimulate RE in the analyzed countries.

The findings from both estimators regarding CO₂ are highly consistent. Both AMG and CCEMG reveal a negative and significant relationship. A 1% increase in CO₂ results in a 1.127–1.398% decrease in RE. While these findings contradict studies such as [30,80], which suggest that increasing CO₂ levels would raise environmental concerns and consequently increase the demand for RE, they align well with research like [1,9,34,81], which have found a negative relationship between CO₂ and RE in the literature. Particularly emphasized in [1], this negative relationship can be observed in high-income countries where RE is nearly fully utilized and expanding capacity is a long-term projection. Increased economic activities may lead to higher CO₂ levels, and traditional sources can meet more energy demand.

When looking at the impact of FDI on RE, the outputs obtained from the estimators are consistent. Both estimators indicate a positive and significant relationship. A 1% increase in FDI results in a 0.022–0.023% increase in RE. The positive finding between FDI and RE is consistent with previous studies [82,83,84], which suggests that FDI can promote RE by disseminating renewable energy technologies. However, [85,86] have provided evidence that FDI may reduce RE, primarily explained by the race to the bottom hypothesis. Countries may relax environmental and energy regulations to attract foreign investors. Effective institutional functioning in high-income countries such as HIC may prevent regulatory relaxation to attract foreign investment. This can counteract countries’ participation in the race to the bottom. Conversely, countries aware of the importance of renewable energy can attract capital in this field through efficient incentives.

Lastly, TR’s impact on RE in the examined countries is statistically insignificant. In addition to the insignificant relationship, the different coefficient signs reported by the estimators also do not allow interpretation of the relationship. In short, the findings suggest that TR does not affect RE.

6. Discussion

Freedom House [64] underscores that attacks on freedom of expression have accelerated globally in recent years, contributing to democratic erosion. The relevant report explains the primary cause of democratic backsliding within the framework of restricting freedom of expression and highlights the diminishing media freedom. Constraints on freedom of expression and media freedoms hinder the dissemination of information, reduce awareness, limit political activism, and complicate the resolution of social issues. Despite the rapid intensification of democratic erosion worldwide, the countries under examination rank among the foremost regarding freedom of expression and democratic norms. For instance, constitutional guarantees of freedom of expression, media freedom, an independent judiciary, and a political culture based on free elections distinguish these countries. Therefore, it is pretty plausible that robust freedom of expression sets the stage for advancing renewable energy in these nations. As mentioned, there are studies [1,8,12,17] that have a positive effect of democracy on RE, although they do not directly focus on freedom of expression. By comparing with these studies, the effect of FE on RE can be explained through several channels.

Primarily, as emphasized by [1,17], open dialogue and discussion are critical in addressing environmental issues. In countries where dialogue channels are open among all sectors of society and where there is a culture of advanced discussion, social problems can be more easily addressed and resolved. In this context, freedom of expression enables individuals, organizations, and communities to discuss and debate the benefits of renewable energy sources openly. This open dialogue encourages a better understanding of renewable energy technologies, their environmental advantages, and their potential impact on society. It can be easily argued that freedom of expression in the examined countries facilitates societal dialogue and debate, creating awareness of environmental issues. A society aware of the environmental degradation caused by reliance on fossil fuels can exert significant pressure for the widespread adoption of renewable energy. This pressure on policymakers can expedite the creation and implementation of policies that promote the proliferation of renewable energy. In addition, in countries with robust freedom of expression, media organizations can freely report on developments, innovations, and success stories in renewable energy. These media publications increase public awareness and encourage informed discussions about renewable energy options. Moreover, [8] has found evidence that press freedom in advanced OECD countries contributes to developing renewable energy. The positive relationship between freedom of the press and RE provides a solid explanation of the relationship between freedom of expression and RE in the studied countries where press freedom is highly developed.

The presence of political activism is a potential channel for the positive impact of freedom of expression on RE. Freedom of expression creates a political landscape where individuals and organizations can advocate for renewable energy policies and initiatives. In this context, various elements of society, including environmental activists, can freely express their views, organize rallies, and engage in lobbying activities with policymakers to prioritize the development and investment in RE. Some studies in the literature support this proposition. For instance, Giles and Dantico [87] note that political activism and participation are key factors increasing pressure for reforms on policymakers. Within this framework, Bayulgen [88] suggests that a reform process directed by political activism could implement renewable energy reforms.

There are notable studies in the literature that find a positive impact of technological innovation and advancement on renewable energy [20,33,89,90]. In this context, the positive outcomes of freedom of expression supporting innovation and technological advancement can have significant implications for RE. For example, Lehmann and Seitz [91] have demonstrated the positive effects of freedom on innovation and technology in many countries. Freedom of expression can catalyze innovation and technological advancement in the renewable energy sector by fostering an environment where ideas can freely exchange among individuals, researchers, and entrepreneurs. This open exchange can accelerate research and development efforts, leading to the discovery of new materials and processes for harnessing renewable energy more efficiently. Moreover, freedom of expression can encourage entrepreneurship and a vibrant start-up culture, driving continuous innovation and competition in the renewable energy industry. Public discourse on sustainable solutions and policy debates further incentivize investment in renewable energy technologies, shaping policies that support innovation and adoption.

The ability of freedom of expression to shape cultural attitudes and societal norms may be a factor in the normalization of RE. As highlighted by [36], freedom of thought, opinion, and expression can be significant factors in adopting environmentally sustainable lifestyles. Freedom of expression can foster a collective awareness of the importance of RE adoption and environmental management through various media and art forms depicting renewable energy and promoting sustainable practices. Lastly, as noted in [8,92], civil liberties such as freedom of expression can increase the reputation of countries, and increased reputation can make countries part of international organizations. Within this framework, it can be said that freedom of expression may encourage an environment for countries to engage in diplomatic discussions and negotiations to address global challenges, including climate change and energy transition. Countries can collaborate by advocating for renewable energy initiatives and commitments internationally, setting ambitious targets, sharing resources, and supporting each other in transitioning to renewable energy sources.

While the positive relationship between freedom of expression and renewable energy is the study’s main finding, economic factors also significantly impact renewable energy in HIC. In this regard, the study’s findings, as indicated by several studies in the literature, such as [9,11,14,19,21], have shown that EG increases RE consumption. The common emphasis of these studies is that a growing economy will require more energy, thereby increasing renewable energy consumption. Considering the high economic volumes of HIC, it is evident that there is a high energy demand. Additionally, economic growth is often accompanied by technological advancement and innovation. This can help make renewable energy technologies more efficient and cost-competitive. Given the high level of competition in this field in relevant countries, economic growth increases RE consumption. Lastly, economic growth can enhance governments’ commitment to investing in renewable energy and forming sustainable energy policies.

The surprising result of this study is the negative impact of CO₂ on RE. Although initially unexpected, as indicated in the previous section, some studies have found a negative relationship between the two variables [1,9,34,81]. In this context, [1,93] report that the relationship between CO₂ and RE may vary depending on the level of development of countries. Renewable energy technologies may be limited in low-income countries, leading to underutilization of renewable energy sources. Increased CO₂ may increase inadequate renewable energy use in these countries. However, developed and high-income countries have a continuity in renewable energy use. Therefore, increased CO₂ may not directly motivate RE in these countries, where renewable energy is optimally utilized under current conditions. The findings of these two studies for developed countries closely align with this study’s CO₂ and RE findings.

In HIC, it has been found that FDI positively influences RE, supported by the findings of [82,83,84]. In countries with solid institutional structures, institutions can serve as a factor that prevents a race to the bottom. In other words, strong institutions can avoid the relaxation of environmental standards for FDI while attracting investments related to renewable energy technologies through incentives. Additionally, as indicated in these studies in the literature, there could be several possible connections where FDI would positively impact RE. Firstly, FDI can provide essential financial support for developing and expanding renewable energy projects, facilitating the construction of wind farms, solar installations, and other renewable energy infrastructure. Additionally, FDI can bring advanced technology and expertise, leading to innovation and efficiency improvements in renewable energy production. Moreover, FDI aligns with host country policies promoting renewable energy adoption, fostering a conducive environment for investment and development. Lastly, renewable energy projects financed by FDI can create job opportunities and stimulate economic growth while also diversifying energy sources and enhancing energy security by reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

In these countries, the direct impact of TR on RE remains uncertain. Despite expectations of facilitating technology diffusion and investments in cleaner energy sources [48,89], empirical evidence yields mixed results. Complex interactions between trade policies, domestic regulations, and varying sustainability commitments contribute to this ambiguity, highlighting the need for further research to elucidate the relationship between TR and RE adoption.

7. Conclusions

As the world grapples with the urgent need for sustainable solutions to combat environmental degradation, the spotlight on RE grows ever brighter. However, amidst the extensive array of studies delving into the economic determinants of RE adoption, the role of political factors, particularly freedom of expression, has remained conspicuously in the shadows. This study seeks to illuminate this overlooked aspect by delving into the impact of FE on RE uptake across HIC from 1990 to 2022. While this study specializes in freedom of expression, it does not neglect the intricate interplay of critical economic and environmental factors. EG, CO₂, TR, and FDI are all scrutinized within the study’s analytical framework. Employing sophisticated second-generation econometric methodologies, the findings gleaned from both AMG and CCEMG estimators paint a nuanced picture. Notably, FE emerges as a significant catalyst, fostering an environment conducive to renewable energy adoption. Moreover, this study reveals that EG and FDI exert positive influences, whereas CO₂ casts a shadow of negativity. Surprisingly, TR does not manifest a statistically significant impact within the context studied. These findings not only shed light on the hitherto unexplored nexus between political freedoms and environmental progress but also underscore the pivotal role of freedoms in shaping the trajectory of RE adoption on a global scale.

Based on this study’s findings, policy recommendations of an economic, environmental, and political nature can be made regarding the dissemination of RE. To ensure that environmental activists can freely express themselves and everyone can voice their environmental concerns without obstacles, policymakers should prioritize safeguarding civil liberties and human rights. This involves enacting legislation that guarantees the freedom of speech, assembly, and association for environmental advocates, shielding them from persecution, harassment, or intimidation. Furthermore, policymakers should establish robust mechanisms for monitoring and addressing threats to environmental defenders, providing legal aid where necessary. Policymakers can catalyze grassroots movements and amplify public engagement in environmental decision-making by cultivating an environment where individuals are empowered to express their environmental concerns without fear of reprisal. Moreover, policymakers should champion inclusivity in environmental governance, striving to involve all segments of society in environmental decisions. This necessitates creating public participation and dialogue platforms, facilitating meaningful engagement with diverse communities, including marginalized and vulnerable groups.

Given the positive impact of EG on RE, policymakers are advised to implement policies that capitalize on this synergy to accelerate the transition toward sustainable energy systems. This could entail prioritizing investments in RE infrastructure and technology development, fostering public–private partnerships to mobilize capital for RE projects, and streamlining regulatory processes to remove barriers to entry into the RE market. Additionally, policymakers should consider implementing financial incentives, such as taxes or subsidies, to encourage private-sector investment in RE initiatives. By leveraging EG as a driver for renewable energy adoption, policymakers can simultaneously promote economic development, create job opportunities, and mitigate environmental impacts associated with conventional energy sources.

Policymakers should exploit the positive impact of FDI on RE. In this context, policymakers are encouraged to design strategies to attract and facilitate FDI within the RE sector. This requires creating an environment conducive to investment through regulatory reforms, streamlined bureaucratic processes, and special incentives for RE projects. Moreover, policymakers should prioritize the development of RE infrastructure and actively promote partnerships between domestic organizations and foreign investors to promote innovation and transfer of RE technologies. Lastly, the surprising finding that increases in CO₂ reduce renewable energy consumption underlines the complexity of the energy transition landscape. In this context, policymakers should prioritize comprehensive strategies that address both emission reduction and RE promotion together. This requires the implementation of strict regulations to reduce CO₂, including carbon pricing mechanisms and emissions trading schemes, as well as targeted incentives to encourage the adoption of RE.

While this study contributes significantly to the literature focusing on the political determinants of RE, it is essential to acknowledge its limitations. This study examines the determinants of RE by focusing on a specific period in high-income countries using panel data methodology. Future research can enrich the literature by overcoming these limitations.

In addition, future research can further enrich this field by exploring the impact of freedom through the lens of continental or religious contexts as moderators on renewable energy adoption. Furthermore, investigating other environmental impacts and considering different moderators could provide valuable insights into the complex interplay of factors influencing RE. Future studies can also focus on the impact of phenomena such as cultural attitudes, social media, youth activism, and mobilization on renewable energy. Addressing these limitations and expanding the focus of future studies will enhance our understanding of the political factors influencing the adoption of renewable energy and contribute to developing relevant literature.