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Article

A Comprehensive Assessment of Storage Elements in Hybrid Energy Systems to Optimize Energy Reserves

by
Muhammad Sarmad Raza
1,
Muhammad Irfan Abid
1,
Muhammad Akmal
2,
Hafiz Mudassir Munir
3,
Zunaib Maqsood Haider
4,
Muhammad Omer Khan
1,*,
Basem Alamri
5 and
Mohammed Alqarni
6,*
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Riphah International University, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
2
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Riphah International University, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Sukkur IBA University, Sukkur 65200, Pakistan
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan
5
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Taif University, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
6
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Business and Technology (UBT), Jeddah 21361, Saudi Arabia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(20), 8730; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16208730 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 1 July 2024 / Revised: 25 September 2024 / Accepted: 26 September 2024 / Published: 10 October 2024
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Abstract

:
As the world’s demand for sustainable and reliable energy source intensifies, the need for efficient energy storage systems has become increasingly critical to ensuring a reliable energy supply, especially given the intermittent nature of renewable sources. There exist several energy storage methods, and this paper reviews and addresses their growing requirements. In this paper, the energy storage options are subdivided according to their primary discipline, including electrical, mechanical, thermal, and chemical. Different possible options for energy storage under each discipline have been assessed and analyzed, and based on these options, a handsome discussion has been made analyzing these technologies in the hybrid mode for efficient and reliable operation, their advantages, and their limitations. Moreover, combinations of each storage element, hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs), are systems that combine the characteristics of different storage elements for fulfilling the gap between energy supply and demand. HESSs for different storage systems such as pumped hydro storage (PHS), battery bank (BB), compressed air energy storage (CAES), flywheel energy storage system (FESS), supercapacitor, superconducting magnetic coil, and hydrogen storage are reviewed to view the possibilities for hybrid storage that may help to make more stable energy systems in the future. This review of combinations of different storage elements is made based on the previous literature. Moreover, it is assessed that sodium-sulfur batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and advanced batteries are the most helpful element in HESSs, as they can be hybridized with different storage elements to fulfill electricity needs. The results also show that HESSs outperformed other storage systems and, hence, hybridizing the characteristics of different storage elements can be employed for optimizing the performance of energy storage systems.

1. Introduction

The importance of energy storage systems cannot be neglected, as they play a vital role in smooth and improved energy curves because they provide uninterrupted energy [1]. They are used by the utilities [2], industries [3], buildings [4], and transportation sectors [5] to provide a backup of energy that avoids any kind of interruption in the energy supply to the load. The use of electrical energy has been increased in the previous decades with the fast-growing population of the world and is supposed to rise in upcoming years due to the increased penetration of different types of energy-consuming sectors, including the transportation [6], construction [7], and other industrial sectors. The energy from fossil fuels is readily available, and one can make use of it anytime, but renewable energy sources are more dependent on natural weather conditions and resources [8,9,10]. Energy sources like solar and wind depend more on nature, as they are available only when sun and wind are available, respectively [11]. Because of their intermittent nature, the energy must be stored when it is in surplus, as per requirements, so that it can be used when required. Energy storage offers many advantages which include better economic options in the form of hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) and other single storage elements that provide good efficiencies without any energy interruption [12]. Energy backup by storage elements helps in peak shaving [13,14,15,16], leveling of the load, and many other similar applications [17]. Work is being done on energy storage systems that has greatly improved their storage elements. Today, there are different energy storage systems based on different mechanisms i.e., mechanical [18], electrical [19], thermal [20], chemical [21], nuclear [22], etc. This paper aims to provide a thorough classification of various storage elements utilized in hybrid energy systems, including pumped hydro storage, batteries, and emerging materials. By categorizing these technologies, this paper asses and offers a clear framework for understanding the diverse options available for energy storage and presents a critical analysis of the performance, advantages, and limitations of existing storage technologies. This analysis helps to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each technology, and can guide researchers in selecting the most suitable options for specific applications.
Figure 1 shows the categories and subcategories of storage options.

2. Electrical Energy Storage Systems

Electrical energy storage systems (EESSs) play a crucial role in electrical energy systems’ stability and in delivering uninterrupted energy [23,24]. Electrical storage stores energy by the application of static and dynamic charges using the electrical properties of the storage elements. The electrical energy is stored in the form of charges based on electrostatics and electrodynamics. The electromagnetic behaviors of the systems are used to store energy in superconducting magnetic coils, while electrostatic properties are used for electrical energy storage in supercapacitors [16,25,26]. Thus, the most common forms of electrical storage in today’s market are supercapacitors and superconductive magnetic coils [27,28].

2.1. Supercapacitor

Supercapacitors are energy storage devices with a high power density as compared to batteries [29]. They are efficient storage devices that can be used in a better temperature range and have a high charge/discharge current capability [30]. Wang et al. discussed the role of supercapacitors in renewable energy systems along with their pros and cons. Supercapacitors can be divided into distinct classes based on charging phenomena as per a recent study [29,31]: thin-film supercapacitors [32], flexible supercapacitors [33], sandwich supercapacitors [34,35], and planar supercapacitors [36]. Flexible supercapacitors have many features and the most dominant of them are their high charging features [37]. Moreover, they have strong storage characteristics, and their fabrication along with their storage is reviewed by [32]. The thin-film electrodes used in supercapacitors are made of good quality material, so they provide an output with good quality [38]. Planner supercapacitors are known for their planner channels that allow the fast transfer of electrolytic ions in both directions. Supercapacitors can also be classified depending upon their construction as (a) electrochemical double-layer supercapacitors, (b) hybrid supercapacitors, or (c) pseudo supercapacitors, as shown in Figure 2 [26,39]. Electrical double-layer supercapacitors can be classified into various types based on their materials, such as carbon nanotubes, carbon aerogels, and activated carbon. In Figure 2, there is another category called hybrid capacitors, which can be further divided into battery-type hybrids, composite hybrids, and asymmetric hybrids. Another category mentioned is pseudocapacitors, which can be categorized into conducting polymers and metal oxides.

2.2. The Supercapacitor in Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

Supercapacitors are used as hybrid storage with a battery to increase its cyclability, complementary characteristics, and life. Hybrid systems provide the combined characteristics of both, and result in an increase in efficiency [40]. Figure 3 shows the combination of the two elements, battery and supercapacitor. Supercapacitor- and battery-based technology has seen an uptick in popularity within a decade due to its use in electrical vehicles (EVs). In EVs, supercapacitor-based hybrid systems not only increase the efficiency but also the life of the battery. The frequent charge and discharge cycles of the battery-only systems in electrical vehicles reduce their life; therefore, supercapacitors are used with batteries to increase their cyclability by using a hybrid system approach [41]. The supercapacitor in this hybrid system provides excess energy where the battery fails to provide it, or it provides it at low power-quality levels.

2.3. Superconducting Magnet Coil

Superconducting coils are used to make superconducting electromagnets. There is no electrical resistance in the coil at its superconducting state, and this allows it to pass large-value currents compared to an ordinary wire, making the magnetic field of the superconducting magnetic coil more intense [42]. Superconducting coils dissipate the least amount of heat due to their superconducting characteristics. The superconducting magnetic energy system is a technology that stores energy in the magnetic field generated by the flow of direct current [28]. The progress in superconducting magnetic coils and power electronic converters is discussed in [28], which includes an analysis of power network stability using SIMULINK 9.1. In this system, the superconducting coil is cooled to a very low temperature below a critical point. The system consists of three main components: a cryogenically cooled refrigerator, a power conditioning system, and the superconducting coil. Once the coil is charged with current, the magnetic energy remains stored in it indefinitely. To charge the coil, different types of converter topologies are employed to convert the alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). The conversion from DC to AC occurs when the superconducting magnetic coil is discharged [43]. It has been seen that from two to three percent of the energy is lost during conversions at both the input and output sides. Still, the system’s overall performance is fruitful, and this storage of electrical energy obtains good results in magnetic coils. The efficiency of the superconducting coil system is almost 95%, so they are highly recommended if one can afford them. Shi et al. [44] describes an integrated design network for a superconducting magnetic storage system. The design of the components is given in Figure 4.

2.4. The Superconducting Magnetic Coil in Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

Superconducting magnetic coils can be used as hybrid storage systems to improve their efficiency. The hybridization of superconducting magnetic energy with battery storage was studied by [45] for electric buses to extend the battery lifetime. Different factors were introduced through different driving patterns, and the results were obtained in the form of simulations that showed the improvement in the battery’s lifetime. The battery-only system was compared to the hybrid one and the results were in favor of the HESS. Similarly, a hybrid system based on the same storage elements, having a battery with a high energy and power density, was proposed in [46] using fuzzy logic and filtration to control the railway load fed by wind generation.

3. Mechanical Energy Storage System (MESS)

Mechanical energy storage systems (MESSs) provide an efficient and the latest approach to storing energy mechanically in different ways [47,48]. The application of the different types of forces at different mechanical storage systems provides energy that is either kinetic or potential. The kinetic energy is gained from the motion of the bodies [49] and, on the other hand, the potential energy is due to the position of the bodies. In mechanical storage systems, all the machinery is used to store energy either by motion or the position of the matter [50]. The energy storage in mechanical systems is available in different forms, depending on different principles that include the spring’s energy, known as elastic potential energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy [47,51,52]. Mechanical energy sources are easily adaptable and can be used in mechanical systems as well as electrical systems. Using mechanical energy sources, energy can be produced from different sources such as water, waves, air, heights, and tides. Mechanical energy can be stored and could be boosted using different methods that include flywheel [53], pumped storage [54], and compressed air storage [47,55]. The detailed assessment of these mechanical energy storage systems and methods has been done as follows.

3.1. Pumped Hydro

All the sources of renewable energy are nature dependent, and it is very difficult to estimate the actual output from them due to many factors. This uncertainty could sometimes result in a huge gap in the demand and supply of energy that could be recovered by energy storage elements. Different storage elements are used to fill the gap created by renewables’ uncertainty, and pumped hydro storage (PHS) is one of them. Hino et al. [56] explain the benefits of pumped hydro storage power generation along with some key differences. Pumped hydropower plants, they claim, are simple to start and stop due to their quick response time. Furthermore, they can adjust to frequency variations while maintaining voltage stability. Moreover, PHS is highly adaptable to load changes and load tracking [57]. The working principle of PHS is based on the potential energy to kinetic energy interchangeable conversion principle. The water is pumped from a lower reservoir to the upper reservoir using water pumps by using excessive energy at a low demand duration. This excessive energy is stored in the form of potential energy. When the electrical energy is high, this energy is used to meet the load demand by converting potential energy to kinetic energy by rotating the hydro turbine and generating electricity [58]. In [58], the author also reviewed PHS concerning its advantages, challenges, and efficiency, and the hybridization of PHS with different storage elements is also reviewed. The schematic diagram of a pumped hydro storage system is represented by [59] in Figure 5.

3.2. Pumped Hydro in Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

Owing to the wide range of applications requiring energy storage, there is a growing need to focus on hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs). These systems combine different storage technologies in various combinations to deliver high-quality energy at affordable rates. However, the working strategy of HESSs can be complex, as it involves multiple storage devices and their sizing, and aims to reduce both fuel costs and consumer prices [60,61,62]. The timing of charging and discharging for each storage element depends on its characteristics and is highly significant. For instance, a battery bank is commonly used for short-term storage, whereas pumped hydro storage is typically employed for long-term storage. Pumped hydro storage has been used in combination with different storage elements, and the results are noticeable. The work done on pumped hydro storage in combination with different storage and source elements is discussed here. Ma et al. [63] studied photovoltaic and PHS in Hong Kong and concluded that the technology was eco-friendly and cost-effective. Ma et al. [64] took the optimized design of an isolated microgrid based on PHS as well as solar and wind sources, and the findings showed a maximum quantity of energy in remote places, demonstrating the usefulness of PHS in conjunction with RES. Kusakana et al. [65] designed a method for testing the optimal behavior of a hybrid system based on photovoltaic, wind-based energy with the storage of PHS and a diesel generator with the help of fmincon solver in MATLAB. It was found from this research that PHS provides economical storage along with less diesel consumption. Notton et al. [66] used simulations for PHS along with photovoltaic and wind-energy generation to smooth electrical signals at peak load. The nature of renewable energy resources and the availability of these resources were taken into consideration; for example, wind energy’s dependency on wind speed and solar energy’s dependency on the sun was observed and improved results were obtained with wind- and photovoltaic-based PHS systems. PHS was found to be the most efficient system, with an efficiency of about 80%. PHS can be used in combination with different energy storage elements, which may result in more efficient results.

3.3. Compressed Air Energy Storage

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) technology was initially developed in 1940 as a result of gas turbine research. The basic principle of CAES involves the concept of charging and discharging. During the charging process, surplus electric energy is used by a compressor to compress air to a high pressure. When it is time to discharge, the compressed air is released and runs a turbine at high speeds, generating electricity as needed [67]. Figure 6a,b illustrates the two types of processes involved: adiabatic and diabatic.
In the diabatic process (D-CAES), fuel combustion is used to heat the compressed air. This process is approximately 50% efficient in terms of cycle energy [68]. CAES has various application scenarios, and efforts are being made to enhance its capabilities to address these scenarios [67]. In [27], CAES operations into three types: diabatic compressed air energy storage (D-CAES), adiabatic compressed air energy storage (A-CAES), and isothermal air energy storage (I-CAES).
The A-CAES process is considered favorable because it utilizes the energy from the compression process to heat the air entering the turbine expander. This eliminates the need for an external fossil-fueled source to heat the air. The cycle is depicted in Figure 6b. Adiabatic compressed air energy storage is more efficient than diabatic compressed air energy storage, with an efficiency of over 60–70% [69]. On the contrary, the heat loss during the compression is reduced by isothermal compressed air energy storage (I-CAES) by cooling the air to avoid the temperature rise. The recycled heat is then used in the expansion process to maintain the temperature during expansion. The surface that transfers heat, the piston machines, the spray liquids, and the liquid piston are some essential factors that describe the effectiveness of the heat transfer process [69,70].
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Figure 6. (a) Diabatic compressed air energy storage is shown, including the charge and discharge process and the fuel combustion used to heat the compressed air; the process is 50% efficient with regards to its cycle energy. Reprinted/adapted with permission from Tong Z. et al.; published by Elsevier, 2021 [71]. (b) Adiabatic compressed air energy storage is shown, including the charge and discharge process. The adiabatic compressed air energy storage is more efficient than diabatic compressed air energy storage, with leading efficiency of more than 60–70%.
Figure 6. (a) Diabatic compressed air energy storage is shown, including the charge and discharge process and the fuel combustion used to heat the compressed air; the process is 50% efficient with regards to its cycle energy. Reprinted/adapted with permission from Tong Z. et al.; published by Elsevier, 2021 [71]. (b) Adiabatic compressed air energy storage is shown, including the charge and discharge process. The adiabatic compressed air energy storage is more efficient than diabatic compressed air energy storage, with leading efficiency of more than 60–70%.
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CAES has a great application in large wind-power systems such as series/parallel systems [72] and centralized/decentralized systems [73], and has various modes of energy discharge [74] that can improve the output quality of wind power along with better control options. The other most crucial application of CAES is in hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) in renewable energy storage systems, due to their versatile nature [75,76]. Table 1a,b show commercial projects of CAES all over the world.

3.4. Compressed Air in Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

Compressed air can be used in hybrid energy systems based on the availability of the air and the supportive environment. Some of the work on CAES in HESSs is discussed by Wang and Zhao [77] in their research focused on hybrid diabatic compressed air energy storage (D-CAES) systems and carbon dioxide power cycle liquid natural gas cold energy. As a result of their research, the net energy output and energy density of these systems were improved. In [78], P Zhao studied wind-based hybrid energy storage systems including adiabatic compressed air energy storage (A-CAES) and FESSs with off-design and parametric analysis using spectrum analysis phenomena. Afterward, they republished their research [79] with the addition of a deep dynamic behavior analysis leading to simulation results that indicated the system’s adaptability to fit the load to provide a system with an improved energy-management strategy. A review of CAES based on the past and latest developments as well as its strengths, weaknesses, advantages, and challenges are discussed in detail in [80].

3.5. Flywheel Energy Storage System

Flywheel energy storage systems (FESSs) use rotations to store kinetic energy for short time intervals [81]. The FESS is the most suitable technology for various applications based upon its quick response rate and economic aspects [82]. Regenerative braking power in trains, cars, and other vehicles is an important application of FESSs [83]. The FESS has many applications in electric power systems, railways, wind energy systems, and vehicles [84]. There are different shapes of flywheels [85], including thick-ring, solid-disk, disk of Laval, and thin-ring flywheels, as summarized in Figure 7. Switch reluctance machines, synchronous machines, and induction machines are the machines that are most commonly used with flywheel energy storage systems (FESSs) [86]. The integration of flywheels in renewable energy micro-grid environment is discussed by [87]. Their research proposes different roles of FESSs in micro-grids and renewable energy environments along with the applications of FESSs, especially in energy storage. Different components, applications, and future feasibilities based on FESSs are studied in detail in [88].

3.6. Flywheel Energy Storage in Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

Flywheel energy storage systems are used with batteries to improve energy management systems to fit the load efficiently. Prodromidis et al. [89] studied the use of flywheels and battery hybrid energy storage systems at the Island of Naxos. The Homer Pro software version 3.11.1 was used to make financial calculations of the proposed system. Simulink results were demonstrated for the combined characteristics of storage elements of the hybrid system. Both elements were studied, and it was concluded that the system with hybrid properties was more economical. To reduce the load fluctuations and improve the power quality, Jun et al. [90] suggested the combination of a battery and FESS from a HESS. Based on the simulation results, it was deduced that a battery and FESS could be used to mitigate the fluctuations in load in all-electric ships at high as well as low sea states.

4. Thermal Energy Storage System (TESS)

Thermal energy storage systems (TESSs) provide a great pathway to store energy in the form of heat, and represent one of the frequently-used methods to save solar energy. Moreover, fossil fuels are burnt to get thermal energy that is further used to run massive turbines and generators to provide electricity whenever required [91,92,93]. Thermal energy storage is used in combination with different energy storage types to provide an efficient output at the time of need [91,94].

4.1. Thermoelectric Energy Storage

Thermoelectric energy storage is a specified term that describes the energy stored due to the interconnection between thermal and electrical systems. A significant example of a thermoelectric system is concentrated solar power (CSP) technology, which converts heat from the sun to electricity that can be used for beneficial purposes [95].

4.2. Concentrated Solar Power Technology

The concentrated solar power (CSP) system uses mirrors and lenses to concentrate sun rays onto a specific receiver. The highly heated receiver contains water or some other working fluid with heat-gain properties such as mole salts which is further used to generate steam and to run the turbines, which in turn can be used to generate electricity. Around the world, the CSP plants currently in operation produce a combined total of 6246 MW of energy. Additionally, CSP plants in the development phase are projected to contribute 1492 MW, while those under construction have the capacity to generate another 1424 MW of power [95]. A continent-wise CSP forecast is shown in the Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10 as below [96].
Concentrated solar power is currently available in different types, including parabolic troughs, solar power towers, concentrating linear Fresnel reflectors, and dish stirling systems [97]. Now, the latest tracking systems have been launched, and these are attached with lenses and mirrors to focus the solar heat at the receiver in an optimal way; many researchers are working on this new model [98,99].
The trackers ensure that the maximum amount of solar radiation has been taken and converted to valuable heat energy that further converts water to steam in receiver tanks that run turbines.

4.2.1. Parabolic Trough

The parabolic trough contains reflectors that concentrate the light at the receiver and are adjusted along the reflector focal line, where the receiver is shaped like a tube that contains working fluids. The light from the sun is focused on the tube through reflectors that contain the tracking system [100]. The parabolic trough system [101] is shown in Figure 11.

4.2.2. Solar Power Tower

In solar power tower systems, the tower has a receiver situated at the top of the tower containing a heat transfer fluid that receives heat from a heliostat, which is the array of dual reflectors connected with the latest tracking systems. A solar power tower system [102] is shown in Figure 12. In this system, the fluid under operation is heated up to 500–1000 °C to run the turbine under high pressure, or it can be stored as energy that can be used later. Solar power towers are known for their remarkable efficiency, having the best energy storage, and their adaptability. Figure 13 shows a 10 MW PS-10 solar power tower in Seville, Spain [103].

4.2.3. Dish Stirling

The below system has a single parabolic reflector that focuses the radiation from the sun onto the receiver, which is placed at the reflector’s focal length. Here, the best power point trackers (PPTs) are used, and the working fluid is heated at almost 250–700 °C. The stirling engine then uses the heated material to generate the power. The efficiency of this system is about 31–32%. Figure 14 shows dish stirling systems near Riyadh in Saudi Arabia [103].

5. Chemical Energy Storage System (CESS)

In a chemical reaction, energy is stored within the chemical bonds of atoms and molecules. This process forms the foundation of chemical energy storage systems (CESSs). When a chemical reaction occurs, chemical energy is released, causing the substance to change its properties and transform into a different substance. The chemical fuels that are most commonly used are LPG, natural gas, diesel, coal, etc. This type of system dominates in energy transportation and electrical generation, and also in energy storage [104]. These chemicals can be converted into thermal, mechanical, and electrical energy. CESSs can store a considerable amount of energy for a long time. Hydrogen can also be stored because it is produced easily, for example, from water (H2O). It can be stored in material-based and physical-based ways [105,106]. Natural gas is stored in pressure tanks or underground. Biofuels that are derived from animals or plants can be stored in liquid fuel and gas form. One of the disadvantages of chemical energy storage at the industrial scale is the inability to dispatch from one place to another. For effective dispatch ability, [107] presents a novel approach to energy storage system management using machine learning and implementing fault-diagnosis mechanisms and control systems to ensure accurate and reliable energy dispatching. In thermochemical energy storage, two chemicals combine and form the third chemical, with different properties from the parent chemicals [108]. For example, when H2 and N2 react, they form NH3. Battery storage as a type of chemical energy storage is discussed below.

5.1. Battery Storage System

Due to the increasing demand for energy, various techniques for storing energy have been developed. Developed countries are particularly focused on storage techniques, with battery storage being the most widely used method. Different types of batteries, such as sodium-sulfur batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and advanced batteries, are employed for energy storage. One study [109] examines different battery storage options and discusses the selection of lead batteries. Ongoing research is also being conducted on other battery types, including advanced lead-acid batteries, flow batteries, super lead-acid batteries, and metal-air batteries. Battery-based systems are designed for short cycles and are commonly used in grid stations to store a significant amount of energy [110]. The system for the storage of energy in batteries includes a power condition system (PCS), battery management system (BMS), energy management system (EMS), and battery pack, as shown in Figure 15. The BMS monitors the capacity of the battery. The PCS performs the function of the AC and DC conversion of energy. The EMS ensures the transfer of the right amount of energy at the right place [111]. All batteries should be kept under observation and should be checked time after time because they are manufactured differently and are intended to carry out different functions. Therefore, any malfunction can cause a breakdown.
The BMS is responsible for protecting the battery pack because a short circuit can sometimes happen, and the discharge of energy can vary, which can cause a short circuit. The performance of every battery is important, so each should be monitored carefully [112,113,114]. By using AC and DC converters, electricity can be transferred outside the grid station.
Different batteries have different charging levels. For example, Li-ion batteries are quite sensitive against overcharging and, therefore, they should not be charged at high voltage levels; otherwise, they could cause an explosion leading to damage. Therefore, with the advancements in batteries, battery management systems (BMSs) are becoming increasingly popular for use in balancing power supplies [115,116,117]. Lead-acid batteries have found applications due to their low cost. They have both low energy and low power densities. They have shorter life spans and are not so eco-friendly, so they are not chosen in many applications [118]. Moreover, Li-ion batteries have their application in electric vehicles due to their ability to work at low voltage levels. Their positive electrode is made up of lithium and the negative one is made of graphite [119]. Vanadium-based flow batteries are another type of chemical storage battery that requires less time for charging and which works efficiently [120]. Similarly, sodium-sulfur batteries can operate at 300–350 °C and so they have application at high temperatures [121].

5.2. Battery in Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

The battery is the most commonly used storage system, and has main applications at domestic as well as at industrial levels. Batteries can be easily and effectively hybridized with different storage elements to achieve the most economical results. A system based on hydro and battery storage coupled with renewable energy sources was studied by Hiendro et al. [122]. Based on their findings, they concluded that the battery was an important element of hybrid storage systems, leading to better efficiencies. They also found that wind generation with these storage systems could lead to an economical option. Ma et al. [123] researched hybrid storage technologies comprised of a battery and pumped hydro storage systems based on photovoltaic power generation sources. This study provides some great ideas based on research in the field of HESSs, but the power balance is not considered of great importance in this study. The use of batteries in hybrid systems can fill short-term energy gaps while the larger gaps can be filled by using some long-term storage elements like PHS. Therefore, the hybrid system would be able to meet both long- as well as short-term energy requirements.

5.3. Hydrogen Storage System

Hydrogen is widely recognized as an efficient energy storage source due to its portability, but it is challenging to store because of its extremely small molecular size. It can be stored in both gaseous and liquid states. The storage of hydrogen is costly as compared to other storage elements like pumped hydro storage. Hydrogen requires a large volume and evaporates easily in its liquid form, so special precautions must be taken to maintain it in a liquid state. It can be cooled down to a temperature of 200 K. The states of hydrogen may vary based on the temperature and pressure. At a low temperature, hydrogen is in the form of a solid, while at a high temperature, it becomes gas. To increase the density of hydrogen, it is required to cool it down below the critical temperature, as shown in [124]. Hydrogen can be stored underground, and there are different types of hydrogen [125]. Underground hydrogen storage is based on different parameters, including the tightness, thickness, depth, geo-mechanical properties, etc. The underground storage of hydrogen is increasing in popularity with time [126]. Various studies have been conducted to analyze the selection of sites for the underground storage of hydrogen. Storage in aquifers may be used as an alternative to hydrogen storage underground, especially in those areas where deposits of hydrocarbons are not available [127]. The mechanisms of underground hydrogen storage are reviewed in [127], where the latest ways to store energy have been reviewed in detail. Moreover, a brief comparison of hydrogen storage materials is shown in Figure 16.
Hydrogen can also be stored in salt caverns. The mechanical properties of salt and its ability to resist chemical reaction make it suitable for the storage of gases like hydrogen [128]. Gas can be stored for an extended period and stays stable. The use of salt in storing gas might be less expensive than the other methods. Hydrogen storage can be appropriately managed by this method because gas can be inserted and extracted several times [129]. Compressed hydrogen gas can be stored in tanks. The vessels in which hydrogen is stored are lightweight and are cost-effective as well [130]. These vessels are made up of aluminum. Aluminum is not strong and, therefore, has safety issues. An explosion could occur when these vessels are subjected to fire [131,132,133]. On the other hand, capillary storage can be used as an alternative option, as this method has a high storage capacity and is more secure and safe. Hydrogen can be stored in the form of liquid, and this can increase the volume that can be stored. Liquid hydrogen evaporates quickly, so the filled tanks cannot be kept for more than 3–5 days. If the tanks are not vented, it can be kept for 2 weeks or even more [134,135].

5.4. Hydrogen Storage in Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

Hydrogen storage can be used in many storage systems to enhance the overall efficiency of the system. In [136], a hybrid energy storage system based on hydrogen storage and battery storage with the help of a simulated annealing technique for a standalone system was studied to achieve the lowest life-cycle cost. Different cases were compared, including solar with hydrogen, wind with battery, solar with wind and hydrogen, solar with battery, and solar with wind and battery. The research results indicated that use of the hybrid system with hydrogen and battery as storage worked the most economically. A strategy based on hybrid energy storage systems (HESSs) based on hydrogen storage and battery storage was proposed by [137] to reduce the energy loss by using the optimized and hybrid storage elements. The goal of the research was to reduce the fluctuations in the system. Simulations were performed, and the results were compared with a case in which the battery was used alone instead of the hybrid storage. It was observed that the fluctuations were reduced, and combined characteristics of the battery and hydrogen storage were obtained.

6. Discussion

A summarized analysis of the advantages and limitations of energy storage elements is discussed in Table 2. Supercapacitors are useful and supportive for power needs as they extend the time that batteries can run, increase the battery lifespan, and make batteries smaller. They work well in both low and high temperatures and help manage changes in power demand when used together with a battery. They can store energy and balance power sources in energy storage systems. Therefore, using supercapacitors in hybrid energy storage systems can make energy storage more cost-effective. As mechanical energy storage systems (MESSs) are commonly extensive in size and area-specific, they are mainly used in areas where they fit. They always need a study according to every aspect, including the geographical and weather conditions; for example, PHS needs a large amount of water to work. Therefore, this type of system works better in areas with water flow and large reservoirs. PHS can be made feasible in mountains which have rainy weather conditions. Being at the top of the priority list, the temperature is also considered a basic factor. It should be moderate to abstain from freezing and dissipation at low and high temperatures, individually. Furthermore, it is recommended to use such a framework in places portrayed by enormous contrasts in heights because this permits the expansion of the viability of PHS. To expand the benefit of this framework, a variable speed siphon should be introduced [138]. One can use wind/solar power along with PHS for more stable outputs [139,140]. On the other hand, flywheel energy storage systems (FESSs) are the most economical energy storage system (ESS) [82]. In FESSs, transmission losses have been tackled by using magnetic bearings [141], which is an easy way to optimize energy transmission and the problem of transmission loss. To stabilize the output power of FESSs, the use of compensators is necessary. Compensators such as DSTATCOM can be considered in this regard [142]. Moreover, the role of hydrostatic transmission could be strong enough to decrease the deviations, as discussed in [143], which is a novel study of FESSs in isolated systems.
In addition, CAES configurations have been discussed in detail, and modern studies have revealed that ACAES [153] and I-CAES [154] should be used instead of conventional CAES, which always need an extra heat source, which reduces the efficiency of the plant and increases the emission of CO2. Variable configurations of adiabatic air energy storage [155] can be used to decrease the fluctuations in power based on the multistage turbine and the multistage compressor. There is also a trend towards HESSs based on floating wind and solar systems coupled with CAES [156,157]. Indeed, the progression of MESSs varies basically with their different types according to the overall necessities, which depend upon the properties and advantages of each type. Figure 17 presents the differences between the MESS types.
Thermal energy storage (TESS) is nowadays the best specifically to harvest energy from the sun. CSP is the most adopted form of thermoelectric storage. Nowadays, hybrid thermal energy storage systems are of great concern because they are more efficient than simple solar TESSs. The annual solar to electrical conversion and storage efficiency of the hybrid TESS is 5% more than that of a simple solar TESS, and the world is interested in better financial results [158].
Chemical energy storage is one of the commonly used energy systems for storage elements in the shape of batteries. Chemical energy storage systems (CESSs) represent one of the commonly used energy systems for storage elements in the shape of batteries. This system can be effectively used if the storage cost should be kept equal to the electricity-generation cost [159]. This system should be considered reliable, constant, and safe. To avoid any mishap, the batteries used for storage must be of high quality, and the charge limit of these batteries must be checked; otherwise, they can cause an explosion [147]. The latest suitable AC to DC converter connectors are a genuine concern of the battery world, especially in regard to battery storage in electric vehicles [160]. Batteries like lead-carbon will replace the existing lead-acid batteries, as in the case of electrical vehicles [161]. Li-ion batteries have a high storage capacity regarding energy, but they are not very secure, so they need advancement; research is now directed towards the preparation of a thin-film gel polymer electrolyte for 3D Li-ion batteries [148]. Flow batteries also have greater storage and can work well in grid stations. Sulfur batteries have a large life span and work efficiently, but they are not reliable due to safety issues [162]. Aluminum-ion batteries are useful in solar and wind energy grids because of their efficiency, reliability, low cost, and high security, and now that work is being done towards their fast charging they have become highly efficient [149].
Hydrogen can be stored using different methods. The advantages and disadvantages of each storage system are discussed herein. First of all, safety should be considered a priority [163]. The method that is safest should be adopted. Capillary storage is more secure than the other types [164]. Storage in salt is more cost-effective and gas can be stored for a larger period in salt as well [165]. Underground hydrogen (UGH) storage is considered effective because a large amount of gas can be stored, and for a longer period [126]. The cost of storing hydrogen underground is very low. Aquifer storage can leak gas, but the risk is not high [127]. When hydrogen is stored in gas deposits, even its residuals are not wasted and are converted into methane, but storing hydrogen in a liquefied manner can waste a lot of gas because it is evaporated easily and the tank can become empty if it is not used for 2 weeks [166]. There are various studies still in progress to show how hydrogen stored underground will behave. There need to be steps taken regarding the wastage and safety of this method.
Different storage elements, in accordance with their properties, have been reviewed in this work, along with the hybrid energy storage literature, and presented in Table 3. It is seen from this literature review that HESSs combine the characteristics of different storage elements so that a system with a versatile nature can be obtained. Different storage elements can be combined to form a storage system that may provide an improved quality of power along with the lowest storage cycle cost and improved efficiency.

7. Conclusions

This paper includes the assessment of different storage elements and their combinations. We have analyzed the work of different experts on each storage system, and the best options and their function in each source have been discussed. Supercapacitors, superconducting magnetic coils in electrical storage systems (ESS), mechanical energy storage systems (MESS) such as pumped hydro storage (PHS), compressed air energy storage (CAES), and flywheel energy storage (FESS) are investigated. Thermal energy storage includes thermoelectric storage, concentrated solar power storage, dish stirling storage, and solar power tower systems. Battery and hydrogen storage is based on chemical energy storage systems (CESSs). As is evident from this review paper, all of the storage technologies have different characteristics, and they can feed specific types of loads. To achieve a versatile storage system with the lowest cost and excellent efficiency, different storage elements can be merged to form a HESS that would have the combined characteristics of multiple storage elements in a single system. This paper suggests using a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) that provides an efficient combination of all the storage elements.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.S.R., M.I.A., M.O.K. and M.A. (Mohammed Alqarni); methodology, M.A. (Muhammad Akmal), H.M.M., Z.M.H. and B.A.; software, M.I.A., M.A. (Muhammad Akmal), M.O.K. and M.A. (Mohammed Alqarni); validation, M.S.R., H.M.M., Z.M.H. and B.A.; formal analysis, M.S.R., M.A. (Muhammad Akmal), M.O.K. and M.A. (Mohammed Alqarni); investigation, M.S.R., M.I.A., H.M.M., Z.M.H. and B.A.; resources, M.I.A., H.M.M., B.A. and M.A. (Mohammed Alqarni); data curation, M.S.R., M.A. (Muhammad Akmal), Z.M.H., M.O.K. and M.A. (Mohammed Alqarni); writing—original draft preparation, M.S.R., M.I.A., Z.M.H. and B.A.; writing—review and editing, M.A. (Muhammad Akmal), H.M.M., M.O.K. and M.A. (Mohammed Alqarni); visualization, M.I.A., Z.M.H. and B.A.; supervision, M.I.A., M.O.K. and M.A. (Mohammed Alqarni) All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Taif University, Saudi Arabia, Project No. (TU-DSPP-2024-128).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to Taif University, Saudi Arabia, for supporting this work through project number (TU-DSPP-2024-128) and are very grateful to the Office of Research, Innovation and Commercialization (ORIC), The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan (No. 3900/ORIC/IUB/2021) for their support in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Energy storage systems hierarchy.
Figure 1. Energy storage systems hierarchy.
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Figure 2. Classification of supercapacitors as (a) electrochemical double-layer supercapacitors, (b) hybrid supercapacitors, and (c) pseudo supercapacitors, based on electrode materials. Reprinted/adapted with permission from Afif A. et al.; published by Elsevier, 2019 [26].
Figure 2. Classification of supercapacitors as (a) electrochemical double-layer supercapacitors, (b) hybrid supercapacitors, and (c) pseudo supercapacitors, based on electrode materials. Reprinted/adapted with permission from Afif A. et al.; published by Elsevier, 2019 [26].
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Figure 3. Hybrid battery supercapacitor storage system.
Figure 3. Hybrid battery supercapacitor storage system.
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Figure 4. The design and relationship of superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) components.
Figure 4. The design and relationship of superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) components.
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Figure 5. Schematic diagram of pumped hydro storage system.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of pumped hydro storage system.
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Figure 7. Shapes of flywheel including thick-ring, solid-disk, disk of Laval, and thin-ring flywheel.
Figure 7. Shapes of flywheel including thick-ring, solid-disk, disk of Laval, and thin-ring flywheel.
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Figure 8. CSP expected capacities forecast (GW) by 2030 showing the trend of countries towards CSP.
Figure 8. CSP expected capacities forecast (GW) by 2030 showing the trend of countries towards CSP.
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Figure 9. CSP statistics for 2040 showing the fast-growing trend of countries towards CSP.
Figure 9. CSP statistics for 2040 showing the fast-growing trend of countries towards CSP.
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Figure 10. CSP statistics showing the trend of countries towards CSP.
Figure 10. CSP statistics showing the trend of countries towards CSP.
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Figure 11. Parabolic trough system with a model showing its components.
Figure 11. Parabolic trough system with a model showing its components.
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Figure 12. Solar power tower system with heliostats focusing the solar intensity at the tower.
Figure 12. Solar power tower system with heliostats focusing the solar intensity at the tower.
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Figure 13. 10 MW PS-10 solar power tower in Seville, Spain.
Figure 13. 10 MW PS-10 solar power tower in Seville, Spain.
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Figure 14. Construction of two 50 kW dish stirling systems near Riyadh in Saudi Arabia.
Figure 14. Construction of two 50 kW dish stirling systems near Riyadh in Saudi Arabia.
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Figure 15. The system for storage of energy includes a power condition system (PCS), battery management system (BMS), energy management system (EMS), and battery packs.
Figure 15. The system for storage of energy includes a power condition system (PCS), battery management system (BMS), energy management system (EMS), and battery packs.
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Figure 16. Comparison of hydrogen storage materials’ capacity and release temperature relative to system targets for efficient hydrogen storage.
Figure 16. Comparison of hydrogen storage materials’ capacity and release temperature relative to system targets for efficient hydrogen storage.
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Figure 17. MESS systems including different technologies based on using new trends.
Figure 17. MESS systems including different technologies based on using new trends.
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Table 1. (a) Commercial A-CAES (adiabatic compressed air energy storage) projects around the world, showing those with the largest capacity. (b) Commercial D-CAES (diabatic compressed air energy storage) projects around the world, showing those with the largest capacity.
Table 1. (a) Commercial A-CAES (adiabatic compressed air energy storage) projects around the world, showing those with the largest capacity. (b) Commercial D-CAES (diabatic compressed air energy storage) projects around the world, showing those with the largest capacity.
(a)
Project with LocationCapacity [MW]StorageStatus
Feicheng in ChinaHas a capacity of 50 MWIn the form salt caverns.It is currently in the planning stage.
Zhangjiakou in ChinaHas a capacity of 100 MWIn the form salt Air Tank.It is currently under construction.
Jintan in ChinaHas a capacity of 50 MWIn the form salt caverns.It is currently under construction.
(b)
Project with LocationCapacity [MW]StorageStatus
Hunter in GermanyHas a capacity of 290 MWIn the form salt caverns.It is currently in operation.
Larne in Northern IrelandIts capacity is of 330 MWIn the form salt caverns.It is currently in operation
Nebraska in the USAHas a capacity of 100–300 MWIt uses Porous FormationsIt is currently in the planning stage
PG&E in the USAHas a capacity of 300 MWIt uses Porous FormationsIt is currently in the planning stage
McIntosh in the USAHas a capacity of 110 MWIn the form salt caverns.It is currently in operation
Table 2. Advantages and limitations of each storage element.
Table 2. Advantages and limitations of each storage element.
Storage SystemAdvantagesLimitationsReferences
PHS80–90% efficient storage, long-life storage,
Least maintenance and generation cost.		High installation cost, feasible in the regions with bulk water supplies only.[56,59,63,65,66,105,122,123,144,145]
CAESGood choice for energy storage in air-rich areas, green energy, and less cost for maintenance.High capital cost, not as much efficient as PHS.[67,68,69,70,72,73,74,75,105,146]
FESSLess maintenance cost, long life, good energy power density, high efficiency, and green energy.It’s applicable in high wind speed areas, not reliable, and has high initial costs.[81,82,83,84,85,86,87,105]
Battery storageGood for short-term energy storage, can be used in portable devices, can be used in huge power systems, and adds more value to system stability.Not so efficient, reduced cyclability, electrodes decompose with time, and used for short-term storage only.[2,105,109,110,111,112,115,118,119,120,121,122,147,148,149]
SMESHighly efficient and rapid bidirectional power transfer can occur by using SMES in energy storage systems.Short-term storage, and cannot store large energy values.[28,43,44]
Super capacitor storageImproved cyclability as compared to a battery, high power density, and low maintenance cost.Short-term storage, voltage losses with charge, and cannot store large energy values.[26,30,38,39,40,41]
Hydrogen storageReadily available, clean energy can be transported, and highly efficient.Takes a long time when refueled, high cost, and is difficult to store.[124,125,126,127,128,129,131,150,151,152]
Solar thermal storageSunlight can be used to the energy that can be used to generate electrical power.High cost for installation, and complex systems.[32,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103]
Table 3. Characteristics of energy storage systems and some of their important references.
Table 3. Characteristics of energy storage systems and some of their important references.
CharacteristicsPumped Hydro StorageCompressed Air StorageFlywheel Based StorageBattery StorageSuperconducting Magnetic Energy StorageSupercapacitor Energy Storage Hydrogen Energy Storage
Storage Category MechanicalMechanicalChemicalElectricalElectricalChemical
Power/Energy Storage Range0.5–3000 GWhUp to 110 MWUp to 20 MWUp to 300 MW1–3 MW50 kW100 GWh
Cycles life Range>10,000>10,000>10,000 <2000>10,000>100,000>10,000
Time of Charging/DischargingHoursHoursMinutesMinuteMinutesSecondsHours
Efficiency (%)80–9065–7585–9570–95>949518–46
Largest systemBath county (3003 megawatt (MW))McIntosh Plant (110 MW)Beacon Power (20 MW)Upton solar farm (300 MW)32 Tesla5 Wh/kgFukushi-ma Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) 1200 m3)
References[56,59,63,65,66,105,122,123,144,145][67,68,69,70,72,73,74,75,105,146][81,82,83,84,85,86,87,105][2,105,109,110,111,112,115,118,119,120,121,122,138,147,148,149,160,161,162][28,43,44][26,30,38,39,40,41][124,125,126,127,128,131,150,151]
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Raza, M.S.; Abid, M.I.; Akmal, M.; Munir, H.M.; Haider, Z.M.; Khan, M.O.; Alamri, B.; Alqarni, M. A Comprehensive Assessment of Storage Elements in Hybrid Energy Systems to Optimize Energy Reserves. Sustainability 2024, 16, 8730. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16208730

AMA Style

Raza MS, Abid MI, Akmal M, Munir HM, Haider ZM, Khan MO, Alamri B, Alqarni M. A Comprehensive Assessment of Storage Elements in Hybrid Energy Systems to Optimize Energy Reserves. Sustainability. 2024; 16(20):8730. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16208730

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Raza, Muhammad Sarmad, Muhammad Irfan Abid, Muhammad Akmal, Hafiz Mudassir Munir, Zunaib Maqsood Haider, Muhammad Omer Khan, Basem Alamri, and Mohammed Alqarni. 2024. "A Comprehensive Assessment of Storage Elements in Hybrid Energy Systems to Optimize Energy Reserves" Sustainability 16, no. 20: 8730. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16208730

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