Integrating TRA and SET to Influence Food Waste Reduction in Buffet-Style Restaurants: A Gender-Specific Approach

Abstract

As one of the major greenhouse gas emission contributors, the food service industry, particularly buffet-style restaurants, is responsible for reducing food waste. This study explores the factors that shape consumer behavior toward food waste reduction in buffet-style restaurants based on the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Social Exchange theory (SET), as well as analyzing the gender differences in these determinants, offering practical insights for the restaurant industry. This study also uses structural equation modeling and group analysis to examine a total of 547 valid responses gathered through an online survey, including 286 male (52.3%) and 258 female (47.2%) respondents. The findings underscore the attitudes, subjective norms, and establishment policies that emerge as critical drivers of consumer behavior in buffet-style dining settings. Notably, significant gender differences are observed in attitudes and establishment policies. In light of these results, we recommend strategies that include enhancing consumer attitudes and implementing penalty policies within restaurant operations. Restaurants could display visual signs and images related to reducing food waste, provide detailed portion size information, and apply monetary fines for excess waste to reduce consumers’ food waste intentions. These strategies are particularly effective for male consumers, who are more influenced by these factors compared to female consumers. This research contributes valuable guidance for the industry’s efforts to address food waste concerns, emphasizing gender differences and promoting environmentally responsible behavior among consumers.

1. Introduction

In recent years, food waste has become a critical issue. Reducing food waste is not only one of the United Nations’ sustainable development goals, but it also benefits our environment. A report from the United Nations (2020) indicated that approximately 10% of the global greenhouse gas emissions are attributable to food waste and loss, contributing significantly to global warming [1]. According to Kaplan (2021), in the United States, only two-thirds of food was fully sold and consumed in 2019, with wasted food valued at about USD 408 billion [2]. The decomposition of this wasted food in landfills releases numerous greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane. Therefore, reducing food waste is an effective strategy to decrease greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the global warming issue.

Fixed-price buffet-style dining is a popular model of food service operation worldwide, where consumers pay a set price for unlimited quantities of food and beverages [3]. These characteristics of buffet-style restaurants make them particularly prone to generating food waste. Wood (2021) noted that buffet-style settings account for about 45% of all food waste in the hospitality industry [4]. Therefore, controlling food waste in the food service industry, especially in buffet-style operations, is both necessary and important. Although consumers’ awareness of reducing food waste has increased significantly in recent years, the comparative data over the past ten years do not show a substantial reduction in food waste; in fact, it has sometimes increased [5,6]. This gap highlights the importance of understanding the potential factors driving consumer behaviors in these settings. Therefore, our first research question is the following: which factors influence customers’ food waste reduction behaviors in fixed-price buffet-style restaurants?

Moreover, it is generally observed that males typically consume significantly more food than females in our society [7]. However, under different conditions and scenarios, the influence of gender on food waste shows varying results. Some studies have found differences in food waste behavior between genders [8,9,10], while others have claimed that gender is not a significant factor in food waste reduction studies [11]. Currently, no studies have specifically examined gender differences in reducing food waste within buffet-style restaurant settings, which represents another gap in the literature. Our study addresses this gap by investigating these differences in this particular context. Thus, our second research question is the following: is there a gender difference between men and women regarding food waste reduction in buffet-style operations? Additionally, because food service facilities are environments where consumers frequently interact with the restaurant, these establishments may influence consumers’ intentions and behaviors to some degree. Therefore, our final research question is as follows: how can restaurants’ actions influence their consumers’ behavioral intentions related to food waste reduction?

In our study, we primarily analyze the factors that influence consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste, which directly impact their behaviors, based on the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Social Exchange Theory (SET). Specifically, our research objectives are to examine the factors that influence consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste in buffet-style restaurants using an integrated framework consisting of the TRA and SET; to determine whether there is a gender difference in food waste reduction behaviors between male and female customers in buffet-style restaurant settings; and to provide practical suggestions and strategies for the reduction of food waste in buffet-style restaurant environments based on our findings. Overall, our study provides novel insights into the factors influencing food waste reduction in buffet-style restaurants, highlights the role of gender differences, and offers practical strategies to encourage consumers to practice sustainable behaviors in the restaurant industry, which also contribute to the broader goal of reducing its environmental impact and promoting sustainability.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Food Waste in the Buffet Scenario

Buffet-style dining originated in the early 18th century in Switzerland, aimed at welcoming guests from afar with local foods and traditional beverages [12]. It was first introduced in the United States in the mid-1940s in casinos to meet the 24 h needs of consumers, and it quickly became popular across the country. The characteristics of affordable pricing and unlimited food and beverages make buffet-style settings an attractive option for consumers when dining out. However, the success of buffet-style restaurants brings with it significant concerns about food waste. As noted by Papargyropoulou et al. (2019), buffet-style services are one of the major contributors to food waste in the restaurant industry, highlighting an essential area where effective interventions are needed [13]. Another study claimed that buffet-style settings contribute to approximately 45% of all food waste in the hospitality sector in Germany [4]. Thus, restaurants, particularly buffet-style establishments, should consider this urgent problem and take measures to reduce food wastage. The current study aims to explore how consumer behaviors can be influenced in the buffet setting to achieve this goal. Furthermore, as discussed by Chang (2022), consumers’ plate waste is particularly challenging to manage in buffet-style restaurants because they often overestimate the amount of food that they can consume, leading to increased food costs [14]. Motivating consumers to reduce their plate waste in buffet-style restaurants could benefit the restaurant industry by lowering operational costs and contributing to broader sustainability goals. Addressing food waste in this context not only aligns with strategic sustainable development objectives but also supports environmental conservation efforts. Future initiatives should focus on educating consumers about portion control and the environmental impact of food waste to foster more sustainable dining behaviors in buffet-style settings. To bridge these research gaps, our study focuses on the specific context of buffet-style dining operations, beginning with an understanding of consumers’ green practice intentions.

2.2. Theory of Reasoned Action

The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) is one of the most renowned and effective theories for the analysis of consumer behaviors, particularly in the hospitality sector [15,16]. Proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein in the late 20th century, the TRA identifies two primary factors that affect an individual’s behavioral intention: attitudes (ATT) and subjective norms (SN). According to Ajzen (1991), consumers’ intentions directly influence their final actions, making the factors that shape their behavioral intentions crucial in predicting their behaviors [17]. Although the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is an extended theory based on the TRA, we select the TRA because we believe that consumers have a high level of autonomy to control their dining choices in restaurants, especially in the buffet-style setting. They usually make eating decisions based on their personal preferences and dietary needs. Thus, the perceived behavioral control, as a major predictor in the TPB, is less relevant in this study.

ATT refers to “the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question” [17] (p. 188). SN describes the perceived social pressure to engage in or avoid a behavior [17]. In the TRA model, an individual’s ATT will be influenced by their behavioral beliefs, but SN will be influenced by their normative beliefs, and both of them contribute to this individual’s behavioral intention regarding a certain goal [18]. Previous studies have already confirmed the application of the TRA in the hospitality industry and consumers’ green practices, especially in the food service sector. For example, a study from Roseman et al. (2013) found that ATT is a major indicator of consumers’ intentions regarding ethnic food consumption [19]. Moreover, Jang and Cho (2022) claimed that ATT and SN positively influence consumers’ consumption intentions regarding unappealing food [20]. Although previous research has discussed the applications of the TRA in related fields, no study has applied it in the unique context of buffet-style dining, which has not been extensively explored in relation to the TRA. Thus, we believe that these constructs provide a comprehensive framework for the understanding and prediction of consumer behavior in various contexts, including food waste reduction in buffet-style restaurants.

Thus, we propose the following three hypotheses.

H₁:

ATT will positively influence consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste.

H₂:

SN will positively influence consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste.

2.3. Social Exchange Theory

George C. Homans introduced Social Exchange Theory (SET) in 1958 to explain consumer behavior in the decision-making process under certain behavioral engagements [21]. According to this theory, consumers conduct a cost–benefit analysis before deciding to engage in a particular behavior. If they anticipate a favorable outcome from performing a certain behavior, they are more willing to engage in it. Conversely, when they predict a negative outcome, they will try to avoid the behavior. In this context, consumers are likely to engage in sustainable behaviors, such as reducing food waste, if they perceive potential benefits and aim to avoid unwanted consequences. Previous studies have demonstrated the application of SET in encouraging consumers to embrace the sharing economy in the hospitality industry [22], practice sustainable behaviors [23], and benefit hospitality businesses [24]. Thus, the principle of receiving benefits and avoiding losses and punishments also applies among buffet-style restaurant consumers.

Furthermore, individuals are more likely to obey group authorities and rules when they perceive them as legitimate [25]. A “house policy” (HP) is defined as “written and posted statements addressing house activities in an adult foster home” [26]. This concept, initially aimed at improving residents’ living conditions based on established discipline or guidance from the landlord, can be extended to the hospitality sector. An example of a house policy in the hospitality sector is the requirement for consumers to adhere to a dress code to enter upscale restaurants or special events.

Buffet-style restaurants are more suitable for application to house policies compared to other food service operations due to their characteristics. In the context of buffet restaurant settings, establishments also implement their own house rules, such as fixed prices based on age, the time of day, and the day of the week. When choosing to dine at a buffet restaurant, consumers must accept these rules to gain entry. The characteristics of buffet-style restaurants, which attract more consumers and generate more revenue for operators, also lead to increased food waste and costs [14,27]. Due to the self-service nature of buffets, controlling food waste from the consumer side is challenging. Scholars such as Itthiophakorn (2021) have suggested that restaurants can establish penalties or guidelines to reduce consumers’ plate waste, such as imposing extra charges for excessive waste [28]. Thus, this concept can aid in our understanding of how HP can influence consumers’ practices in the buffet setting to reduce food waste based on SET.

Referring to SET, we hypothesize that consumers will try to avoid the unpleasant consequences associated with specific house policies at buffet restaurants. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis.

H₃:

HP will positively influence consumers’ intentions.

2.4. Gender Differences

Consumers’ eating behaviors vary by gender. Previous studies have shown that males and females have different attitudes toward eating, with females being more weight-conscious than males when eating a meal [29,30]. Gender has also been identified as an essential factor in examining consumers’ sustainable behaviors. Lee (2009) claimed that female consumers have stronger attitudes, more serious environmental concerns, and are more easily influenced by peers compared to males in terms of certain green purchasing behaviors [31]. However, male consumers tend to have higher self-identity in conducting environmental protection behaviors [31]. This indicates that consumers’ behaviors may differ by gender in certain contexts, such as the area of applying green practices.

In relation to food waste behavior, gender is also an essential factor. Many studies have indicated that males typically create more food waste than females [32,33,34]. However, some studies have reached the opposite conclusion [9]. We believe that the behavior of reducing plate waste will also differ by gender. This assertion is grounded in existing research that highlights gender-specific differences in attitudes and behaviors toward food consumption and sustainability, as mentioned above. Understanding these gender differences is crucial in developing targeted interventions and strategies to effectively promote food waste reduction among diverse consumer groups. Therefore, we hypothesize that there is a gender difference in our study. Specifically, we propose the following.

H_4a:

There is a gender difference between ATT and intention.

H_4b:

There is a gender difference between SN and intention.

H_4c:

There is a gender difference between HP and intention.

3. Methodology

3.1. Method Design

In this study, we conducted an online survey to collect data via Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk). All construct statements were measured using seven-point Likert scales, developed based on the studies by Amato et al. (2021) and Kim et al. (2022), which are highly relevant to our topic (Appendix A shows the constructs and measurement items) [35,36]. Following the main construct statements, we included a set of comprehensive demographic questions. The results are presented in

Table 1. Descriptive information.

Characteristic	Frequency	Percentage
Gender
M	286	52.3
F	258	47.2
Age
18–24	41	7.5
25–34	269	49.2
35–44	144	26.3
45–54	53	9.7
55–64	31	5.7
Over 65	9	1.7
Education
High School Diploma or Below	1	0.2
High School Graduate	48	8.8
Associate Degree	27	4.9
Bachelor	366	66.9
Master	101	18.5
Doctorate	4	0.7
Household Income (Annually)
Less than USD 25,000	59	10.8
USD 25,000 to USD 34,999	65	11.9
USD 35,000 to USD 49,999	101	18.5
USD 50,000 to USD 74,999	168	30.7
USD 75,000 to USD 99,999	110	20.1
USD 100,000 to USD 149,999	36	6.6
USD 150,000 or more	8	1.5
Marital Status
Single	164	30
Married	364	66.5
Divorced	13	2.4
Household Size (Number of Members)
1	61	11.2
2	91	16.6
3	180	32.9
4	162	29.6
More than 4	53	9.7
Presence of Children (Less Than 13 Years)
0	184	33.6
1	214	39.1
2	121	22.1
3	27	4.9
More than 3	1	0.2
Frequency of Visiting a Buffet-Style Restaurant (Average)
Never	26	4.8
Once a month	286	52.3
Two to four times a month	159	29.1
Five to eight times a month	52	9.5
More than eight times a month	24	4.4

. Our targeted participants were adults (over 18 years old) with prior dining experience in buffet-style restaurants. Participants who did not meet this requirement were excluded from our study.

After reading the consent form, the participants accessed our survey by clicking the “agree” button. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, the entire data collection process was anonymized, and no sensitive identity information was collected. Participants were free to exit the survey at any time. Initially, we collected a total of 50 survey responses for a pilot study. Based on the feedback and results from our pilot study, some wording and phrases were adjusted, and certain questions were removed. We ultimately collected 547 usable responses out of 659, after eliminating incomplete surveys and those that did not pass the screening questions, resulting in a completion rate of 83%. All data were analyzed using the SPSS (version 26) and AMOS (version 26) software.

3.2. Research Model and Analysis Techniques

This research model was designed based on a comprehensive literature review and our formulated hypotheses. Specifically, our model integrated the TPB and SET, providing a robust framework for an understanding of the factors influencing customers’ food waste reduction behaviors in buffet-style restaurants. The detailed structure of our model is given in Figure 1 below.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) and group analysis were used in this study. SEM, as a data analysis tool, provides several advantages, such as the ability to comprehensively examine complex relationships between multiple variables, which makes complex models easier to discuss [37]. The overall model fit and clear path diagrams shown in SEM figures also make it easier for scholars to conduct further analysis [38]. Given these benefits, SEM was the ideal choice for the testing of our theoretical framework and to analyze how different factors influence consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste in buffet-style restaurants. Additionally, group analysis was employed to explore the differences across demographic groups—gender, in this case—to provide a deeper understanding of how these factors influence the different segments of the population.

4. Results

4.1. Estimation Model Testing

We first conducted a reliability test to ensure that all of the measurement statements in this study were dependable. Based on the literature and the results from our pilot study, we eliminated several statements that significantly decreased the reliability value. Ultimately, we retained between two and five measurement items for each construct, with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging from 0.723 to 0.945. This process ensured that our measurement items were both reliable and valid, providing a solid foundation for the subsequent analysis.

Following the initial reliability test, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) test. The results indicated that our data maintained a good fit with the estimated model. The chi-square value (${\mathsf{{\rm X}}}^2$) of the measurement model was 132.884 (df = 82, p = 0.000). The CMIN/DF value was 1.621, which met the recommended threshold of below five, as suggested by Wheaton and colleagues (1977) [39]. Additionally, all other practical indices indicated a good model fit (RMSEA = 0.034, CFI = 0.988, NFI = 0.969, IFI = 0.988, TLI = 0.984). These results confirmed that our measurement model was both reliable and valid, providing a strong foundation for further analysis.

Table 2. Reliability and validity of measurement constructs.

	Mean (SD)	Factor Loading	Extracted Factor	Total Variance (%)	KMO and Bartlett’s Test
ATT (Cronbach’s α = 0.945)	3.92 (1.95)			85.825	0.864 (p = 0.000)
ATT1	3.67 (2.09)	0.888	0.788
ATT2	3.96 (2.16)	0.947	0.897
ATT3	3.96 (2.07)	0.939	0.881
ATT4	4.10 (2.12)	0.931	0.867
SN (Cronbach’s α = 0.801)	5.46 (0.94)			55.748	0.804 (p = 0.000)
SN1	5.48 (1.29)	0.711	0.606
SN2	5.39 (1.28)	0.68	0.599
SN3	5.53 (1.23)	0.663	0.548
SN4	5.45 (1.28)	0.638	0.493
SN5	5.47 (1.23)	0.654	0.542
HP (Cronbach’s α = 0.723)	5.33 (1.10)			66.344	0.679 (p = 0.000)
HP1	5.24 (1.45)	0.685	0.666
HP2	5.36 (1.33)	0.656	0.610
HP3	5.37 (1.35)	0.707	0.655
Intention (Cronbach’s α = 0.728)	5.74 (0.91)			64.770	0.681 (p = 0.000)
Intention1	5.77 (1.13)	0.693	0.655
Intention2	5.66 (1.14)	0.672	0.618
Intention3	5.78 (1.13)	0.697	0.670

Note: Answers were collected on a seven-point scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. n = 547, ${\chi }^2=132.884 \left(df=82, p=0.000\right),$ RMSEA = 0.034, CFI = 0.988, NFI = 0.969, IFI = 0.988, TLI = 0.984. ATT: Attitude; SN: Subjective Norm; HP: House Policy.

and

Table 3. Validity analysis.

	CR	AVE	Attitude	Subjective Norm	House Policy	Intention
Attitude	0.946	0.813	0.902
Subjective Norm	0.806	0.455	0.060	0.674
House Policy	0.723	0.466	0.289 ***	0.640 ***	0.683
Intention	0.728	0.472	−0.306 ***	0.713 ***	0.566 ***	0.687

Note: *** p < 0.001.

include all of the values for the factor loadings, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and squared root AVE. Since there was no significant improvement in the factor loadings after removing any statements, we retained the items with standardized factor loadings of less than 0.7, as recommended by previous studies [40,41]. Although some constructs had AVE values slightly below 0.5, they were still acceptable because their CR values exceeded 0.7, as stated by Fornell and Larcker (1981) [42]. Additionally, some scholars have mentioned that AVE values are acceptable when they are above 0.4 [43].

Moreover, we conducted the heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) test to examine the discriminant validity in this study, as recommended by Henseler and colleagues (2015) [44].

Table 4. Discriminant validity.

	ATT	SN	HP	Intention
ATT
SN	0.068
HP	0.295	0.650
Intention	0.304	0.724	0.571

shows the values from the HTMT test, all of which were below 0.85, meeting the threshold suggested by Gold and colleagues (2001) and Teo et al. (2008) [45,46]. Overall, these findings suggested that our measurement model was both reliable and valid, providing a robust foundation for further analysis.

4.2. Structural Equation Modeling

In this study, we tested our hypotheses using SEM. The indicator results suggested that our model had a good fit: χ² = 331.574 (df = 84, p = 0.000), RMSEA = 0.073, CFI = 0.940, IFI = 0.940, TLI = 0.925. Figure 2 illustrates the structural results of the proposed model, and all details are presented in

Table 5. Results of the structural model.

	Hypothesized Path	β	SE	t-Value	p	Supported
H1	ATT → Intentions	0.445	0.018	9.387	0	Yes
H2	SN → Intentions	0.585	0.064	8.861	0	Yes
H3	HP → Intention	0.411	0.047	6.388	0	Yes

.

Our findings indicate that consumers’ ATT significantly influence their food waste reduction intentions in a positive way ($\beta =0.445 p<0.001)$, which supports ${\mathrm{H}}_1$. Moreover, the factors related to SN ($\beta =0.585 p<0.001)$ and HP ($\beta =0.411 p<0.001)$ were all proven to have a significant and positive relationship with food waste reduction intentions in buffet-style restaurants. Therefore, ${\mathrm{H}}_1$, ${\mathrm{H}}_2$, and ${\mathrm{H}}_3$ are supported.

These results provide valuable insights into the elements that affect consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste, highlighting the importance of ATT, SN, and HP in encouraging sustainable behaviors in buffet-style dining settings.

4.3. Gender Comparison

Lastly, a multi-group analysis was conducted between males and females using the built-in program in SPSS AMOS. A significant difference was found between the baseline model and fully constrained model, with the values (Δχ² = 58.540, Δdf = 29, p = 0.001). We then further compared the path differences in the model between our independent variables and the dependent variable. One significant path difference was found between HP and intention (see

Table 6. Model comparison.

Path	Δχ2	Δdf	p	Different Between Male and Female Groups?
ATT → Intention	0.202	1	0.653	NO
SN → Intention	0.252	1	0.616	NO
HP → Intention	6.395	1	0.011	YES

). Specifically, the influencer of HP on intention was greater among males $(\beta =0.584, p<0.001)$ compared to females $\left(\beta =0.293, p=0.02\right)$. These findings suggest that HP has a stronger impact on food waste reduction intentions among males than females. It highlights the importance of considering gender differences when designing house policies in buffet-style restaurants aimed at reducing consumers’ food waste.

5. Discussion and Implications

From the results above, our study addresses a significant research gap by examining the factors affecting consumers’ food waste reduction intentions in buffet-style restaurants using an integrated framework consisting of the TRA and SET. The results support the application of the TRA and SET in analyzing consumers’ behavioral intentions to reduce food waste in the buffet-style dining setting. Moreover, our study found a gender difference in the influence of the factors on behavioral intentions. Specifically, our findings indicate that male consumers are more strongly influenced by HP when it comes to reducing food waste in buffet-style restaurants. This highlights the importance of applying different strategies to different demographic groups to enhance the effectiveness of food waste reduction intentions. These findings have both theoretical and practical implications.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

Firstly, our study contributes significantly to bridging a critical research gap in the existing literature. It offers valuable insights into consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste within the restaurant industry, particularly in the context of buffet-style establishments. Our investigation into this specific sector enhances existing theoretical models and offers a deeper understanding of the factors that influence consumers’ sustainable eating behaviors. Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of applying the TRA and SET, along with the implementation of house policies, in encouraging consumers to generate less food waste in buffet-style restaurants. This study not only validates the applicability of the TRA and SET in this context but also highlights the importance of structured house policies in promoting sustainable practices among diners.

Secondly, our integrative framework has demonstrated effectiveness in comprehending consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste in buffet-style settings, as shown by our satisfactory model fit. Our results indicate that the stronger the ATT and SN of consumers, the stronger their intention to reduce plate waste. These findings are aligned with previous research [36,47]. Additionally, this study highlights that ATT and SN are two major factors that actively influence consumers’ green practice intentions. Moreover, our study provides a solid foundation for the application of the TRA in the restaurant sector and the understanding of consumers’ sustainable behavioral intentions.

Thirdly, our study contributes to the application of SET within the hospitality sector, particularly in the restaurant industry. Specifically, our research provides solid evidence that consumers engage in a cost–benefit analysis before making their final decisions in real-life situations. This analysis supports the notion that consumers weigh the perceived benefits against the potential costs when deciding whether to engage in behaviors such as reducing food waste. By demonstrating the practical relevance of SET in understanding consumer behavior in buffet-style restaurants, our study highlights the importance of considering both tangible and intangible factors that influence decision-making. This includes not only the immediate costs and benefits but also the broader social and environmental implications of their actions.

Lastly, our study confirms that gender is a significant factor affecting consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste in buffet-style settings. Specifically, our results reveal that house policies are more effective in influencing plate waste intentions among males compared to females, which is one of the unique findings of our research. This gender difference underscores the need for tailored theoretical approaches when analyzing consumer behavior. The distinct ways in which house policies influence males and females highlight the importance of incorporating gender as a critical variable in theoretical models of food waste reduction. This insight is valuable for the refinement of existing behavioral theories and the development of new frameworks that better account for the diverse motivations and responses of different consumer segments. By incorporating gender considerations into theoretical models, researchers can more accurately predict and explain consumer behaviors in the context of sustainability.

5.2. Practical Implications

Based on its theoretical implications, our study also offers several practical insights, particularly for the buffet-style restaurant industry.

First, buffet-style restaurants can play a crucial role in helping consumers to reframe their attitudes toward food waste. As noted by Chang (2022), the unique characteristics of buffet-style dining often prevent consumers from associating food waste with financial loss, which is a significant contributor to food wastage in these settings [14]. To address this issue, buffet-style operators can work to enhance consumers’ attitudes by raising awareness about the importance of reducing food waste, helping them to link food waste with monetary loss, and encouraging them to select only what they can consume. For example, restaurants can display visible signs and images that highlight the connection between wasted food and resource loss. A message such as “Every plate of wasted food also wastes precious resources like water, energy, and labor—take only what you can eat to help us conserve them!” can effectively remind patrons of the broader impact of their dining choices. By making these connections clear, restaurants can foster more sustainable dining behaviors and reduce food waste.

Second, restaurants can enhance their efforts to reduce food waste by displaying cards with persuasive messages on tables, thereby reinforcing SN to strengthen patrons’ intentions. As highlighted by Grazzini et al. (2018), persuasive messages have been proven effective in encouraging sustainable behaviors [48]. By strategically placing these messages, restaurants can create a sense of community and shared responsibility among diners. For instance, a statement such as “Join our community in reducing food waste—let’s all take only what we can eat and set a positive example for others!” can effectively encourage guests to align their behaviors with the collective goal of minimizing waste. This approach leverages social influence to promote mindful eating habits, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable dining experience in buffet-style restaurants.

Third, we also recommend that restaurants provide clear information about plate portion sizes and average consumption estimates for males, females, and children to enhance their complete consumption. This can help consumers to avoid overestimating the amount of food that they can eat and reduce waste. For instance, restaurants could display a visual aid along with a statement such as “One plate of food weighs approximately 400 g. On average, gentlemen usually consume 4 plates, ladies usually consume 3 plates, and children usually consume 2 plates”. By providing this information, restaurants can empower diners to make more informed and mindful choices, ultimately reducing food waste and promoting sustainable eating behaviors. This approach not only aligns with the TRA’s principles but also addresses practical aspects of consumer decision-making in buffet-style environments.

Lastly, our findings indicate that HP is a significant factor influencing consumers’ intentions to reduce food waste. Based on our results, restaurants can implement strategies to address this issue effectively. One such strategy is the implementation of a monetary penalty, which has been proven effective by Kuo and Shih (2016) [49]. Their study showed a 50% reduction in food waste in buffet-style restaurants after introducing a fine for excessive leftovers. This approach aligns with the cost–benefit analysis framework from SET, guiding consumers toward more sustainable behaviors. Restaurants can display signs with messages such as “We hope you can join us in reducing food waste. Every 200 g of uneaten leftovers will incur a USD 1 penalty”. Additionally, offering small rewards to patrons who finish all of the food that they take can further reinforce positive behavior. Our findings also reveal that males are more influenced by house rules than females. Therefore, targeted strategies for this group can be particularly effective. For example, a more directive advertisement could state, “Be a leader in sustainability and set a good example—take only what you can eat. A USD 2 penalty will be charged for excessive leftovers. Every plate matters”. This approach not only reinforces the house policy but also appeals to values of responsibility and leadership, particularly resonating with male patrons. By combining monetary penalties with positive reinforcement and targeted messaging, restaurants can significantly reduce food waste and promote sustainable dining practices.

6. Limitations and Future Studies

Although our study addresses a significant research gap and contributes to the current literature, it is not without limitations. First, we utilized a single data collection platform, MTurk, which may lack diversity, as noted by Litman (2023) [50]. Future studies are recommended to employ more diverse data collection methods to address this limitation. Second, our participants were all from the United States, which may limit the generalizability of our findings to Western cultures. People in different cultural contexts may have varying attitudes and views on food waste and sustainable behaviors, as highlighted by Pelau et al. (2020) [51]. Therefore, we strongly encourage researchers to consider cultural differences in future studies. Third, in our current study, we only examined gender differences in relation to factors influencing food waste reduction intentions. Incorporating other demographic factors as moderators could yield more nuanced and interesting findings. Lastly, we focused exclusively on buffet-style restaurants as our study setting. Future research should also explore other types of restaurant settings to enhance the literature on food waste reduction and sustainable behaviors in the hospitality industry. Addressing these limitations will allow future studies to build on our findings and offer a more thorough understanding of the factors influencing food waste reduction intentions across various populations and settings. This will not only advance academic knowledge but also inform practical strategies for the promotion of sustainability in various cultural and operational contexts.