Bleaching Agents: A Review of Their Utilization and Management

Abstract

Exposure to disinfectants, cleansers, and bleaching chemicals irritates the eyes, respiratory systems, and skin, triggering asthma and allergic rhinitis symptoms. Bleach, as the major constituent of cleansers, when used improperly or mixed with other indoor cleaning agents, produces harmful halogenated volatile organic compounds. This manuscript assesses the influence of excessive exposure to disinfectants, including bleaching agents, when used against infectious conditions related to SARS-COVID-19 and its management. The use and impact of different bleaching agents in cleansing and their associated problems have been analyzed and presented in this review. This analysis focuses on the conventional and post-pandemic approach towards bleaches. Usage of bleaching agents increased by a staggering 20.4% and 16.4% from January to March 2020 compared to the same period in 2018 and 2019. Mounting use of bleaching agents during the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in negative health effects like asthma, eye irritation, and skin allergies. An approximately 42% rise in poisoning cases, including a few deaths, has been associated with exposure to harmful chemicals involving bleaches during the recent pandemic. Bleaching agents are the primary sources of hazardous indoor pollutants; therefore, despite their importance in disinfection, their utility must be substantiated based on legal guidelines, disposal, and remedial measures. Thus, conducting future occupational exposure assessment studies for bleach hazard management is crucial.

1. Introduction

Bleaching agents have been integral constituents of cleansing systems for more than a century in laundry detergents, surface cleaners, dishwashing powder, cosmetics, wastewater treatments, disinfecting agents, and many more [1,2]. During the pandemic, bleaching agents were mainly used to disinfect in domestic, health, and corporate sectors. The increased usage of bleaching agents is associated with a 42% rise in demand for medical assistance. Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an increased demand to review them [3,4,5,6]. Figure 1 depicts bleaches in everyday life and the hazards they pose to humans.

As per their composition, bleaching agents fall into several categories, such as optical brighteners, chlorination agents, peroxides or peracids, fluorescent whitening agents, ozone, quinones, etc.

Table 1. Preparation reactions and applications of commonly used bleaching agents.

Bleaching Agent	Formula	Preparation Reaction	Common Applications
Sodium Hypochlorite	NaOCl	Cl2 + 2NaOH → NaOCl + NaCl + H2O	swimming pool disinfection, domestic and institutional laundry
Calcium Hypochlorite	Ca (OCl)2	Cl2 + 2Ca(OH)2 → Ca (OCl)2 + CaCl2 + 2H2O	water treatment, household disinfectants, cleaners, and mildewcides
Hypochlorous Acid	HOCl	Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl	disinfection of pools, spas, and hot tubs, deodorizers
Chloramines N-Chloro Compounds	R2NCl	R2NH + NaOCl → R2NCl + NaOH	enhances the bleaching of peroxide bleaches in laundry
Chlorine Dioxide	ClO2	2NaClO2 + Cl2 → 2NaCl + 2ClO2	bleaching wood pulp, flour, edible fats and oils along with textiles
Hydrogen Peroxide (via quinones)	H2O2	H2 + O2 → H2O2	bleaching agent for the textile industry, pulp, paper, home laundry
Sodium Perborates	Na2H4B2O8	Na2B4O7(Borax) + 2NaOH → 4NaBO2 + H2O 4NaBO2 + 2H2O2 → Na2H4B2O8	formulations of bleach and detergents, denture cleansers, tooth powders
Peracids	RCO3H	RCOOH + H2O2 → RCO3H + H2O	textile bleaching, detergent products
Sodium Sulphite	Na2SO3	SO2 + 2NaOH → Na2SO3 + H2O	pulp and paper bleaching
Sodium Dithionite	Na2S2O4	NaBH4 + 8SO2 + 8NaOH → 4Na2S2O4 + NaBO2 + 6H2O	textile industry for dyeing, printing, and stripping, industrial reducing agents, bleaching of mechanical pulp

presents some common bleaching agents that are used daily [7].

Bleaching agents are key components of laundry techniques. Current industrial laundry techniques reduce microorganisms and achieve cleanliness through physical, chemical, and thermal processes, producing hygienically clean healthcare textiles [8]. Dispersion techniques are used to enhance the distribution of bleaches or optical brighteners in detergent powders compared to direct pouring into the agglomeration (mixing) vessel, thus boosting their whitening ability. A brightener on the surface of a detergent powder shows a greater whitening impact than if incorporated inside the granules, enhancing the cleansing process [9].

Proxy dicarbonate (PDC) is a promising alternative to percarbonates, being eco-friendly and economical. It is a good substitute to traditional, as well as hazardous, commonly used bleach. PDC has a variety of uses in fabric, paper, and wood processing industries. Production techniques for PDC through electrochemical microreactors optimize the bleaching conditions, including time, temperature, and required complexing agents [10].

This review is a unique study that discusses the motives for the increased use of bleaching agents from the pre- to the post-pandemic era, considering their impacts on living beings. This novel perspective on bleaching agents and their hazards, facilitates understanding of the impacts of their increased use on humans and the environment. It further accentuates the use of eco-friendly and human-friendly alternatives.

2. Bleaching Agents in the Laundry Industry

The pursuit of efficient energy management in the laundry industry has steadily reduced washing temperatures and harmed antimicrobial performance; temperature plays a vital role in the cleansing process [11]. Unless bleach is added, effective cleaning against all microorganisms is not guaranteed at temperatures under 60 °C. It has been proven that the use of bleaching agents in the form of active oxygen bleach (AOB) containing detergents inactivates most germs effectively, even at low temperatures [12]. Along with temperature, the pH of the bleaching system and contact duration are also vital for the cleansing process in laundry.

Table 2. Bleaching conditions suitable for different fabrics.

Sr. No	Type of Fabric	Bleaching Agent Used	Concentration	pH	Duration	Temperature (°C)
1	Cotton and Cotton Polyester	Hydrogen peroxide	0.3–0.6%	10.5–11.5	1–3 h	90–95 °C
		Sodium hypochlorite	0.1–0.5%	10–11.5	15–30 min	40–50 °C
		Sodium chlorite	0.1–3%	3.8–4.2	1–6 h	80–95 °C
2	Synthetic Fibres	Sodium chlorite	--	2.5–4.5	30–90 min	<80 °C
		Peracetic acid	0.10%	6–7	1 h	80–85 °C
3	Wool, Silk	Hydrogen peroxide	1–5%	5.5–8	20–60 min	70–80 °C
4	Wool	Sodium dithionite	0.2–0.5%	5.5–7	1–2 h	45–65 °C

displays the bleaching conditions suitable for different fabrics [7].

Besides brightness, microbial disinfection is an essential role of bleaches in the laundry industry. Figure 2 portrays the various roles of bleaches in laundering [13].

Activated oxygen bleach significantly boosts antimicrobial effectiveness, which seems to be lost with decreasing temperature. Apart from AOB or chlorine bleach, quaternary ammonium compound—mainly benzalkonium chloride (BAC) and dodecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (DDAC)—are the cationic surfactants used as antimicrobic actives for laundering processes [12]. Sodium perborate (NaPB) releases hydrogen peroxide, thus improving the washing. Tetraacetylethylenediamine (TAED), nonanoyl oxy-benzenesulfonate sodium (NOBS), lauryl oxy-benzenesulfonate sodium (LOBS), and decanoyl oxy-benzoic acid (DOBA) are also some of the essential bleaching ingredients used in many detergents [14,15].

Bleaches in the form of fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) are applied to enhance fabric whiteness and to increase the surface light emission. FWAs are aromatic substances that even accumulate on the fabric. They produce visible light after absorbing UV radiation, increasing the emission from the cloth surface, and giving the impression that it is whiter or brighter [16]. FWAs are used in laundry detergents and textiles, including paper and plastics, to make products whiter and brighter and counteract yellow stains. By converting absorbed UV light into visible fluorescent blue light, FWAs function as an additional brightening source. Detergents and paper manufacturing frequently contain FWAs of the stilbene type, including the distyryl biphenyl (DSBP) and the diamino stilbene types (DAS 1 and DAS 2). Although they are not readily biodegradable, they can be photochemically destroyed in surface waters because of their capacity to absorb some of the incoming sunlight [17].

Proteases are enzymatic detergents that form peracids in situ and are formulated as trypsin and chymotrypsin. These are active ingredients in laundry detergents and are a good alternatives to bleaching agents. Trypsin obtained from the spleen partition of Albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) has shown outstanding stability and coherence with commonly used liquid and solid detergents (surfactants and bleach agents). The effectiveness of a protease detergent is determined mainly by its ability to degrade proteinaceous stains, interact with other detergent ingredients like non-ionic and anionic surfactants, complexing agents, fragrances, and other enzymes, remain stable in the presence of bleaching agents, and maintain a long shelf life in detergent formulations [18,19]. Aspartic protease from Aspergillus niger hydrolyzes and decolorizes red-pigmented proteins. In washing applications, it is employed as a recombinant protein known as PepA MK8, thus providing a good substitute for chemical bleaches [20].

3. Conventional or Pre-Pandemic Approach in Applications

Before the onset of the pandemic, the conventional use of bleaching systems was mainly in the textile and laundry industries. Large volumes of bleaches were regularly used in textile blanching, delignification of bast fibers, chemical modification of yarns and fabrics, institutional and household laundries, organic syntheses like epoxidation and hydroxylation, pulp delignification and bleaching, and bleaching wood fiber, veneers, and cardboard paper. Some surfactants, when mixed with bleaching agents such as NaOCl, not only produce a better cleaning product but also release volatile organic compounds (VOC) like carbon tetrachloride [21].

Combining bleaching agents with different chemicals to produce diverse and multidisciplinary products, like detergents, medications, cosmetics, and hair colors or bleaches, with unique physicochemical qualities, has long been a regular practice [22]. Commercially accessible oxidative colorants and bleaching products for human hair frequently use the ammonia-based alkaline bleaching method. Using such coloring cosmetics has developed into a highly prevalent global beauty practice. Cosmetic hair coloring or bleaching relies on the solid oxidation of melanin pigments to lighten the underlying hair color, typically by treating hair with H₂O₂ at pH 9–10 [23].

The use of ozone technology for pollution reduction in large-scale industrial wastewater treatment, recycling marine aquariums, electroplating wastes, producing electronic chips and textiles, and in oil refineries has been historically well recognized. Important industrial uses of ozone include odor reduction in pharmaceutical manufacturing and the pre-treatment of contaminated wastewater from agricultural applications like pesticides. Ozone also facilitates decolorization in wastewater from organic dye manufacturing industries, enhancing the biological decay of long-chain hydrocarbon, decolorization of wastewater, and cooling water conditioning in recycling systems. Long before the onset of COVID-19, groundwater contaminated with VOCs, explosives, and waste was cleaned commercially by using hazardous hydrogen peroxide combined with UV light and ozone [24]. Utilization of such bleaching agents for cleaning groundwater can impact the pH of the water, and of the soil. Hence, considering the hazards they pose, as reflected recently, their overall risk assessment is crucial.

The application of bleaches in several everyday but crucial businesses was well established before 2020. Patterns printed with single excitable dual luminescent security ink on currency notes, passports, and medicines are extensively examined after being treated with different bleaching agents to ensure their chemical stability and to protect them from duplication [25]. The dentin disintegration and antibacterial properties of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) are primarily responsible for its widespread use as a root canal irrigating solution [26]. Detergent, when combined with hypochlorite, gives the best cleansing results for large-scale interior cleaning operations of marble monuments. This was verified specifically for Travertine marble cleaning at Amtrak’s 30th Street Station in Philadelphia [27].

The comprehensive development of antifouling reverse osmosis (RO) membranes for use in water technologies may be facilitated by recent advancements in RO membrane technology, macroscale, and microscale modeling. The successful solution to combat biofouling concerns involves commercial laundry pre-soaking in detergent comprising broad-spectrum enzymes and bleaching chemicals, which show outstanding biofilm removal from the RO membranes [28]. In many nations, bleaching systems facilitate the treatment of Clostridium difficile (CDI), which is a significant healthcare problem since it can lead to diarrhea, pseudomembranous colitis, toxic megacolon, colon perforations, sepsis, and even loss of life. Adding washing improvers like sodium hypochlorite or peracetic acid bleach can eliminate Clostridium difficile spores from contaminated textiles [29].

Far before the onset of COVID-19, chlorination agents were used to disinfect swimming pool water at lower exposure levels [30] and many of VOCs were used as household cleansing agents, along with bleaches [31]. Though large volumes of bleach were regularly used, accidental hazards were limited only to the industrial domain and on a smaller scale. Minor casualties were reported when bleach agents were used carelessly in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), swimming pool sterilization, and surface cleaning. Mild bleaching systems involved in animal disinfection, disinfection of surgical instruments, and bioremediation showed no data about bleach accidents [10,32]. Even exposure to cleaning and disinfection agents has been linked to respiratory conditions like asthma in cleaning and healthcare personnel. Thus, although the hazards caused by chemical bleaches were well established, negligible data regarding their accidental risks on a mass scale have been observed in pre-pandemic times compared to post-pandemic times.

4. Post-Pandemic Role as Disinfectants

In 2020, even though COVID-19 infections declined as a result of changing practices of cleaning and disinfection in homes as well as workplaces, occupational injuries due to bleaching agents increased significantly [33]. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the American Association of Poison Control Centers investigated whether there was a link between COVID-19 cleaning recommendations and chemical exposures reported to the National Poison Data System. The study compared the number of exposures recorded between January and March 2020 to the same periods in 2018 and 2019. It specified that poison centers received 45,550 exposure calls associated with cleansers and disinfectants. The data represented a 20.4% increase in poison center calls in 2020 compared to those in 2019 and a 16.4% increase in 2019 compared to 2018 [34]. SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome)-CoV-2 and other viruses can often infect porous and non-porous surfaces. The antibacterial efficacy of bleach can be considerably increased even at lower temperatures by using activators [35].

During the pandemic, a few high-risk, unrecommended behaviors were seen, including purposely inhaling or consuming these substances, washing food goods with bleach, and using household cleaning or disinfection agents on naked skin [36]. Though bleach has consequently been recommended as a way to lower the risk of sensitivity to indoor allergens, since it may inactivate common indoor allergens, daily bleach use for disinfection, especially during the pandemic, was found to be significantly associated with the occurrence of asthma symptoms [37]

In addition to analgesic [38] germicidal products, sprays, ointments, and creams are in great demand as sanitizers after the pandemic. By lysing the microbial cell and denaturing microbial proteins, sodium hypochlorite bleach now plays a crucial part in maintaining hand cleanliness. Additionally, these sanitizers have been utilized in surgical, dental, and medicinal procedures. Sodium hypochlorite can be dangerous if swallowed or exposed to the skin or eyes. It is a strong oxidant and produces chlorine gas when associated with acid. It also produces chloramine when paired with essential amine solutions used for cleansing and has adverse effects. Hazardous trihalomethanes are produced when drinking water is chlorinated with sodium hypochlorite, which oxidizes organic contaminants. It is dangerous at high doses and can damage tissues in the peritoneum and mouth [26].

Table 3. Pre- and post- pandemic comparative for utilization and management of bleaches.

Sr. No	Pre-Pandemic Utilization and Management	Pandemic/Post-Pandemic Utilization and Management
1.	Chief utility—bleaching systems in various industrial sectors along with medical facility	Leading utility—disinfecting COVID-19 virus in medical, domestic, and commercial sectors, including traditional applications
2.	Few cases of bleach mishaps were reported	Increase in the number of calls or cases reported to poison call centers
3.	Management of bleaches did not receive much focus	Need for management of bleaches and their toxic effects has intensified after COVID-19
4.	Precautionary insights with safe functioning information by government and legal sectors were intermittent	Regularization of precautionary insights by government and legal sectors with necessary amendments is essential

presents a comparative for the utilization and management of bleaches during the pre- and post- pandemic period.

5. Post-Utility Effects

The enhancement of the washing effect is assessed by calculating the difference in lightness (ΔL*) of the dirty and cleaned fabric. Hence, adding bleach to detergents for enhanced cleansing is common. Bleaching agents appear to be most problematic when combined with other cleaning agents that release dangerous VOC fumes. Chloramines (NH₂Cl and NHCl₂) are formed when bleach is used with ammonia-based cleansers, whereas Cl₂ gas is released when combined with an acid-based cleaner [21,39]. Occupational household cleaning duties revealed the presence of ammonia and chlorine in the air. The photolytic degradation of hypochlorous acid HOCl and Cl_2, used in disinfectants and sanitizers, results in the formation of Cl and OH radicals and particles in gaseous and particulate phases, seriously affecting people’s health. Indoor fluorescent lights and diffuse window daylight provide enough photon energy to start this process. Cleaning products containing sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) persist in the corrosion of products, flaws, and cracks. NaOCl can react further with organic matter in sewer water to produce halogenated organic compounds, which persist in the environment and are detrimental to aquatic life, affecting their life cycle. The halogenated organic compounds are adsorbed on activated carbon used in the filters of cleaning products that are released into surrounding water bodies [26].

A large volume of water consumption and consequent wastewater production is evident in the textile industry, which uses chemical preparations or cleaning treatments associated with bleaching [40,41]. Detergents comprise a variety of ionic and non-ionic surfactants, ion-confiscating agents, bleaching agents, and enzymes that help eradicate soil and organic debris from clothes. As these agents are designed to promote soil dispersion from textiles and affect the soil structure, detergents released from the grey water that is used in agriculture can degrade the soil [42].

Secondary organic aerosol (SOA) can be generated indoors due to the ability of bleach to oxidize to VOCs. In addition, various potentially harmful chlorinated and nitrogenated VOCs, such as isocyanates, cyanogen chloride, and chlorocarbons, are formed indoors by the bleach cleaning chemical [43]. Bleaches can interact with the steel containers and equipment, causing corrosion and further degradation [8]. Silk fabrics that have been bleached with chlorine show moderate to slight discoloration in terms of color permanence [44]. Bleaches are also affecting metal recovery from wastewater effluents. It is necessary to remove silver (Ag) nanoparticles, which are used as antibacterial agents on fabrics, from laundry wash water for environmental reasons. Their recovery also promotes environmental sustainability. Ecotoxicological concerns are associated with the leaching of Ag during laundry and its subsequent release into the environment. Surfactants, builders, and bleaching agents in detergents interact with Ag through precipitation and complexation, which may prevent it from being recoverable [45].

6. Health Hazards and Other Impacts

In an in vitro study, it was found that NaOCl dramatically increased the incidence of chromosomal aberrations in a dose-dependent manner. NaOCl concentration was also connected to chromosome anomalies in stem cells, decaying cells, and cell organelles [26]. Due to long-term yet low-to-moderate exposure to respiratory irritants like bleach, housekeeping employees have a relatively higher probability of developing asthma. Allergic or asthmatic reactions to many cleansers cannot explain airway symptoms from chemicals and aromas. These patients may have airway sensory hyperreactivity, which is known to imply higher sensitivity like that of the inhaled capsaicin chili [46].

The typical routes for exposure to bleaching components is via inhalation, causing cough and transient dyspnea, and also through direct eye contact, which results in corneal injury in severe cases. Bleach ingestion can cause swelling, whitening of the skin, mild gastrointestinal irritation, itching, inflammation of the oropharynx, vomiting, nausea, and diarrhea. It may also result in a risk of respiratory obstruction. In severe cases, ingestion may cause low blood pressure, spasmodic motions, cardiorespiratory arrest, vomiting blood, i.e., hematemesis, ulceration and perforation of the gastrointestinal mucus membrane, hypernatremia, hyperchloremic acidosis, scorching of the mucus layer, oropharyngeal burns, and even coma. In eye contact, irritation and pain are commonly observed, and corneal ulceration and perforation are severe. For cases of skin contact with hypochlorite solutions, minimal irritation is a common diagnosis [26,47,48]. Some of the familiar sources of bleaching systems causing potential health issues due to odor include bathroom tile cleaners, bleach and deodorizers, hair spray, nail paints, adhesives, bedsheet cleaners, drycleaners, dishwasher detergents, particle board, new carpeting, tarnish removers, fresh paint, construction materials, and detergent aisle products in grocery stores, beauty salons, and swimming pools [49]. Several epidemiological studies have found a link between swimmers, lifeguards, and pool employees being at increased risk of respiratory or allergy disease, and exposure to chlorination agents used to disinfect swimming pool water at lower exposure levels. VOCs are not only responsible for preliminary respiratory allergies and associated problems, but are also found to be carcinogenic [30,31].

Women are more likely to be linked to symptoms of asthma and perhaps other allergens due to household cleaning exposure to bleach. Due to their frequent use at work and home, irritant cleaning solutions may negatively influence public health significantly [50]. The explorative nature of children around 5 years of age, along with curiosity, mobility, and a craving to put things in their mouth, is responsible for most poisoning exposures, which are primarily caused by bleaching agents used in domestic cleaning [51]. Trichloramine, known for its distinctive fragrance in swimming pools, has been found to harm the lung epithelium and encourage the onset of atopic asthma in children who use indoor chlorinated pools [39]. Healthcare workers, especially those associated with laundering facilities, are more likely to be exposed to bleaching solutions since disinfection is an essential requirement. Initially, while preparing, workers reported intense itchiness and burning in their eyes, noses, mouths, throats, and faces; however, stomach disorders are observed towards completion [52,53].

False positive results can be obtained for peroxide bleaching agents of laundry detergents in peroxide-based explosive tests [54]. Boron is enriched in wastewater due to boron chemicals, particularly sodium perborate tetrahydrate (NaPB), which is a detergent bleaching agent. Boron-containing bleaching agents are likely to degrade under aerobic conditions and lead to an increase in waste boron compounds with incompletely biodegraded intermediates [55]. Thus, in a complicated manner, bleaches are also responsible for water contamination.

7. Existing Scenario and Future Management

To avoid infection by SARS-COVID-19, a lot of information from electronic and social media inappropriately provoked people to purchase disinfecting products, including bleaching agents. For breaking the harmful chain of pathogen transmission, like the recent COVID-19 virus, usage of bleach seemed inevitable. Bleaches can be significant primary and secondary sources of hazardous indoor air pollutants; thus, they were found to be highly related to causing respiratory diseases, especially asthma. After the onset of COVID-19, a noticeable rise in calls to poison centers was observed worldwide, with callers seeking guidance and medical attention for toxicity occurrences associated with disinfectants and household cleaners. This is especially true given the relevance of bleaching agents for both the pre- and post-pandemic periods. As bleaches are increasingly used in pandemic scenarios, their hazardous effects will persist unless safe, harmless, and environmentally friendly alternatives are made available. Several warnings about the rising trend of disinfectant-related poisonings, especially from bleaching agents, were issued by poison centres (PCs) around the world [56].

Bleaching agents not only work for better cleansing but are also energy savers in laundry industry. Bleaching of cotton textiles is generally carried out at lower temperatures. The rapid pad-steam process provides a sustainable alternative to the low-temperature exhaust process used for cotton fabric bleaching, providing equivalent whiteness while saving substantial amounts of water and chemicals. It reduces steaming time, enhances production efficiency, and employs the N-[4-(triethyl ammonio methyl) benzoyl] caprolactam chloride TBCC-activated peroxide system, resulting in energy savings and increased efficiency [57]. Bleaching agents, as one of the important ingredients in detergent formulation, also pose environmental concerns, as they affect the surrounding water quality [58]. Thus, usage of bleaches in laundry seems inevitable, but also demands more safety considering their health hazards. Instruction guides on chemical bleaching agents that provide comprehensive precautionary insights associated with safeguarding, functioning information, and regulatory notice must now be made obligatory by government and legal sectors. Such evidence-based guidelines on best practices for cleaning, disinfecting, and sterilizing patient care medical equipment, as well as for cleaning and disinfecting the healthcare environment, are presented in the 2008 Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities [59].

Spraying disinfecting solutions comprising of reactive bleaching compounds such as chlorine dioxide, sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and peroxyacetic acid, along with quaternary ammoniums, has resulted in the progressive accumulation of those agents in the environment, as well as an increase in the number of disinfection byproducts. These chemicals can quickly enter the surrounding systems by percolation of the soil or by evaporating in the air, causing ecotoxicity. Hence, the need for natural disinfectants with antimicrobial action, low health risks, and low aquatic toxicity has increased [60]. It is a significant public health concern to better understand exposures from cleaning products that are frequently utilized. Occupational sectors like laundry, the chemical industry, the clinical sector, and healthcare are integral usage domains of bleaching agents. Hence, it is crucial to conduct future occupational exposure assessment studies for bleaching hazard management in various fields [61]

8. Conclusions

The role of bleaching agents has shifted significantly from a basic cleanser to a critical disinfectant in the pre- and post-pandemic periods. An enhancement in disinfection quality was observed with increased hazardous chemical contents. Proper execution of bleaching systems in any industrial sector is the best way to avoid future occupational hazards. Correct detection or analysis of bleaching systems will guide proper remedial procedures for their accidental hazards, thus helping medical practitioners to treat affected patients. Proper guidelines by credible sources such as government bodies need to be established for the appropriate use, disposal, and remedial measures related to the use of bleaching agents. This will aid in avoiding future hazards. Thus, optimally balanced guidelines for use of harmful bleaching chemicals and taking proper precautionary measures must be emphasized. Relying on fictitious or incomplete information from social media should be avoided. To encourage safe disinfection, it is highly recommended that the user manuals of chemical bleaching agents address all the safety information regarding precautionary operational detail, statutory warnings, probable hazards, and protection equipment or methods. Similarly, the related environmental concerns or issues faced by the community with improper handling should be mentioned. Thus, bleach management that uses a systematic regulatory method is needed. Figure 3 depicts a probable management roadmap for bleaching agents used in daily life. It suggests that bleach usage be regulated on three levels, where the government regulatory bodies are at the top, followed by production, analyzing bodies, and hazard management systems with interdisciplinary coordination. The consumers or users are at the lowest level. Within all these levels are the medical facilities, which form the focal point or center of the bleach utility system. With the demanding increase in disinfectants like bleaches, exploring eco-friendly and human-friendly chemicals is a pressing need.