Strategies for Enhancing Sharing Economy Practices Across Diverse Industries: A Systematic Review

Abstract

The sharing economy (SE) is a nascent phenomenon representing a socio-economic process to optimise underutilised resources through digital platforms. This process facilitates the shared consumption of resources to maximise resource utilisation while supporting the circularity of resources. However, the successful operation of SE practices is hindered by the lack of identification of effective strategies for enhancing the SE implications, which are essential to comprehending SE practices and developing more sophisticated applications. Therefore, this research aims to provide the first insights into the strategies that enhance SE practices across diverse industries and identify knowledge gaps and future research directions. A systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted by selecting articles published in the 2014–2023 period in Scopus and Web of Science databases. Selected articles were subjected to descriptive and NVivo 14-supported thematic analyses. The descriptive analysis showed that, despite considering articles published in the last 10 years, all relevant articles were published in the last 5 years. Developed and developing countries showed almost equal contributions, while China was recognised as the country with the highest number of publications. Accommodation and transportation sectors were reported as the sectors with the highest number of publications. A cross-analysis was conducted to recognise the varying utilisation of different strategies across diverse industries and sectors. Ten different categories were identified through the thematic analysis that enhance SE practices: economic; environmental; geographic; governance; health, safety, and security; marketing; people; product/services; research, training, education; and technology-related strategies. Each category was discussed along with its relevant strategies, resulting in identifying a total of 84 strategies. These strategies were then presented alongside the responsible parties tasked with their implementation. The study contributes to the SE literature by providing an SLR for contemporary strategies utilised to enhance SE practices, specifically focusing on elucidating the most appropriate categorisation of these strategies. Moreover, this comprehensive SLR provides the first insights into the effective strategies that enhance SE practices across diverse industries.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the concept of the sharing economy (SE) has appeared on the theoretical and practical implication levels that address the current political–social–economic challenges [1]. SE is a nascent and multi-dimensional phenomenon often supported by digital platforms that provide access to shared resources. The SE umbrella comprises new renting, leasing, bartering, and pooling services linked to various aspects of life [2,3]. The principle of SE lies in mediating contact between at least two parties, one of which has underutilised resources and the other a shortage of resources that need to be used at a given moment [4]. In addition to this, the involvement of one intermediary party who facilitates the sharing process through a digital platform was recognised by [5]. With the rapid development of this concept, the process is often facilitated by digital platforms, and the involved parties may differ. The conventional understanding of the SE emphasises the consumer-to-consumer (C2C) or peer-to-peer (P2P) interaction. Per [6,7], there are another two types of interactions, namely, business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-consumer (B2C). Ref. [8] added consumer-to-business (C2B) interaction, and Ref. [9] explored the government involvement and recognised the government-to-government (G2G), government-to-business (G2B), and government-to-consumer (G2C) interactions. Accordingly, diverse interactions can be seen in the SE and differentiating and categorising various business activities based on the interactions are difficult [10].

The following six key characteristics can be found by referring to the various SE practices in different industries: the temporary access to and ownership of resources [11], the existence of a digital platform that facilitates the sharing process [12], resource access is provided through an economic interaction [13], the digital platform strengthens the roles of other parties [11], two types of resource that share in SE practices: physical resources (vehicles and accommodation) and digitalised resources, namely, work and money [14,15], two types of ownership of resources: digital platform facilitates the sharing but does not own the resources, and resources are shared by the business that owns them [14,16].

However, research scholars have been examining the various characteristics according to novel business approaches, and, accordingly, previous systematic literature reviews (SLRs) have focused on various aspects of SE applications. Potential shareable resources and factors influencing SE practices were recognized by [10]. Furthermore, Ref. [10] categorised potential shareable resources into 14 different types, namely, human resources, animals, robots, goods, space/storage, mobility/logistics, capital, food/ingredients, drugs, materials/equipment/tools/machines/devices, data and information, energy, Wi-Fi, and fashion elements. SE practices spread across various industries and cover a larger sphere of social life [17]. Ref. [18] observed trust in sharing accommodation. Moreover, Ref. [19] observed ride-sharing practices and identified several legal challenges. However, previous SLRs have been limited to focusing on a single industry or study and, despite having various reviews on SE, a critical SLR that discusses the effective strategies which enhance SE practices is absent [20,21]. To address these gaps, this study aims to conduct an SLR to integrate interdisciplinary research and examine the strategies that enhance SE practices. To simplify, this comprehensive review provides the first insights into the key strategies that key stakeholders can apply in order to implement SE practices successfully across diverse industries.

Two reasons underpin the reason to conduct an SLR. The first is that, even though there are previous SLRs on SE, no SLR has been conducted previously to investigate the strategies that enhance SE practices. The second reason is the SE research domain is separate across different industries and disciplines. Therefore, this SLR facilitates the understanding of strategies in SE that can help address existing and potential challenges in SE practices. SLRs offer a wide range of applications and advantages compared to traditional reviews, such as rigour and transparency, comprehensiveness, and evidence-based decision-making. Therefore, the second reason is to conduct a comprehensive systematic review instead of a traditional review by establishing selection criteria and following [22]’s five-step approach and PRISMA method. This study’s review questions (RQs) are:

(1)

What is the state-of-the-art literature highlighting the research trends on SE strategies?

(2)

What contemporary strategies are utilised to enhance SE practices, specifically focusing on elucidating the most appropriate categorisation of these strategies for targeted interventions in the future?

(3)

What are the future research opportunities according to theoretical and methodological aspects based on the in-depth analysis of strategies of SE practices?

2. Research Methods

Systematic reviews enable the exploration of literature relevant to a specific research question(s) using explicit systematic and legitimate methods while avoiding the possible limitations of a traditional literature review [23]. Therefore, this research conducted a systematic review to recognise the existing strategies enhancing the sharing economy practices across industries. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed to provide the necessary transparency to the research. The PRISMA checklist is included in the Supplementary Materials Section. In addition, Ref. [22]’s five-step approach, as shown in Figure 1, guided the systematic review process. This approach has been widely utilised in previous systematic reviews [10,24].

2.1. Question Formulation

Clearly defining review questions helps sharpen the study’s focus, guides the selection of relevant studies, and influences the data extraction process [22]. After a thorough background analysis and identification of the research gap, the following research questions (RQs) were developed: (1) What is the state-of-art literature highlighting the research trends on SE strategies? (2) What contemporary strategies are utilised to enhance SE practices, specifically focusing on elucidating the most appropriate categorisation of these strategies? (3) What are the future research opportunities according to theoretical and methodological aspects based on an in-depth analysis of SE strategies?

2.2. Locating Studies

According to [25], using multiple search engines reduces bias and enhances the breadth of publications retrieved. For this reason, Scopus and Web of Science were chosen, as they are recognized as two of the largest academic databases with access to a wide range of indexed articles [26,27]. This method has also been applied in previous SLRs on SE research [10,28]. A list of keywords was created based on the review questions to identify studies related to the SE. Boolean operators, namely, “OR” and “AND”, were used to combine the keywords, allowing for a more advanced search for the review [29], and the asterisk (*) symbol was used to broaden the search results with alternative endings. Selected keywords were: ((“sharing economy” OR “shared economy” OR “P2P economy” OR “peer-to-peer economy”) AND (“strateg*” OR “plan*” OR “action*” OR “technique*”)).

2.3. Study Selection and Evaluation

It is essential to report the rationale behind each decision related to the article filtration process [29], depicted in

Table 1. Inclusion criteria for the article filtration process.

Inclusion Criteria	Rationale
Published in peer-reviewed journals.	Publications in peer-reviewed journals are considered high quality, valid, and original.
Published in the English language.	English is a global language, the most dominant language in SE research, and the most familiar language to the authors of this research.
Published from 2014 to 2023.	To conduct SLRs, the search period can be selected based on a ‘specific period’ [29], and SE research is prominent around this period.
Publications based on empirical data.	Studies solely based on a literature review were excluded to avoid duplications of the data analysed.
Publications mainly based on the strategies of SE practices.	By considering the research gap identified and the research focus of this study.

.

Only articles that meet these criteria were included in the analysis. The initial literature search using Scopus and Web of Science resulted in a total of 3122 articles published between 2014 and 2023. The SLRs can be conducted based on a ‘specific period’ or ‘up to the late full years of a time’ [29]. To conduct this review, the last ten years were selected to gain the most recent publications relevant to the research topic. As a result, the search resulted in 3073 articles for the period. Furthermore, the search process was refined by focusing solely on peer-reviewed journal articles that utilized empirical research methodologies. Review articles were excluded to maintain the objectivity of our analysis, resulting in a dataset of 2225 articles. After selecting 2145 articles written in English, a thorough comparison was conducted between the two databases in order to detect any duplicates. After removing duplicates (692), the titles and abstracts of 1453 articles were examined to assess their relevance to the study. This examination focused on whether the papers addressed SE strategies. Based on this review, 138 articles were selected for the next screening. After a thorough review of full-text articles, 39 were selected. Additionally, one article was identified through cross-referencing, resulting in a total of 40 articles for this study. Figure 2 shows the step-by-step article filtration process, which is presented according to the PRISMA 2020 flow diagram.

2.4. Analysis and Synthesis

This study involved both descriptive and thematic analysis techniques to analyse and synthesise the collected data. The initial analysis of this study involved a descriptive analysis to explore the literature to determine key trends. Subsequently, a cross-analysis was conducted to examine the data in greater depth. Next, a thematic analysis was conducted as the second phase of the analysis to explore the strategies that enhance sharing economy practices. Thematic analysis is a technique for identifying, analysing, and interpreting patterns of meaning (themes) within qualitative data [31]. Thematic analysis is a well-known data analysis technique used in several systematic reviews focusing on social science and management [32,33]. This research used an abductive coding approach to support a more precise categorisation of themes. Accordingly, thematic analysis was conducted using NVivo 14 software.

2.5. Reporting the Results

Two categories were involved in reporting the results of the study, such as findings of descriptive analysis and thematic analysis. After reading the 40 selected articles, bibliography data were extracted into Microsoft Excel. These gathered data established the foundation for the first part of the findings: descriptive analysis. The descriptive analysis results reported trends and patterns of SE studies based on standard descriptive statistics. Furthermore, extracted data were coded and categorized into themes, which formed the second part of the study’s findings: thematic analysis. The thematic analysis results reported key categories of strategies that enhance SE practices. Moreover, this research significantly minimised possible bias by involving six researchers. Furthermore, recommendations for potential future research were also proposed in this study. Previous research, namely, Ref. [34], also followed a similar method to report the results.

3. Results and Discussion of Descriptive Analysis

The descriptive analysis presented the findings related to publication year, geographical location, data collection and analysis methods, industry focus, and categorization of SE strategies based on different stakeholders and implementation aspects.

3.1. Distribution of Articles Based on the Year

Despite reviewing articles published in the last 10 years, none of the articles in the first 5 years (2014–2018) aligned with the current research’s focus. However, starting in 2019, relevant articles emerged, followed by a dramatic incline in publications in 2020 with six articles. Accordingly, there has been a consistent upward trend since 2019, reaching its peak in 2023 with 17 articles. The analysis revealed that a clear upward trend in SE research aligned with our study’s focus. The fact that all 40 related articles were published within the last five years highlights the growing attention it has garnered. Previous studies such as [7,35] also showed that the number of publications was more prominent in the later years of the considered timeframe, compared to the initial years. Figure 3 illustrates the distribution of articles in the last 10 years.

Figure 4 shows the distribution of articles based on geographical location, determined by the country of data collection. Highlighting the almost equal contribution, most articles were from developing countries (45%), closely followed by publications from developed countries with 42%. Regarding the individual countries, SE strategies have been primarily researched in China, with nine publications. Next, India and the United States of America (USA) had the second-highest number of publications (six publications). Japan and Spain had the third-highest number of publications. Due to the growing interest in sustainable resource consumption, SE has been explored worldwide while showing the cross-cultural contribution [36] and acknowledging the dominant contribution from China [10]. Ref. [37] clarified that the Chinese host–guest relationship is unique compared to other countries, and this observation may trigger researchers to explore Chinese SE practices.

3.2. Distribution of Articles Based on Publication Source

Table 2. Distribution of articles based on the publication source.

Journal	No. of Papers	Quartile Based on SJR	Quartile Based on Clarivate
Sustainability	6	Q1	Q2
British Food Journal	2	Q1	Q2
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management	2	Q1	Q1
Journal of Business Research	2	Q1	Q1
Tourism	2	Q3	Q3
ABAC Journal	1	Q1	N/A
Consumer Behavior in Tourism and Hospitality	1	Q1	N/A
Decision Support Systems	1	Q1	Q1
Forest Policy and Economics	1	Q1	Q1
Economies	1	Q2	Q2
Geo Journal	1	Q2	Q1
Frontiers in Psychology	1	Q2	Q1
International Journal of Conflict Management	1	Q1	Q2
Journal of Asia Business Studies	1	Q1	Q2
International Journal of Production Economics	1	Q1	Q1
Journal of China Tourism Research	1	Q1	Q3
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research	1	Q1	Q1
Journal of Global Fashion Marketing	1	Q1	Q2
Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity	1	Q1	N/A
Journal of Management Studies	1	Q1	Q1
Multimedia Tools and Applications	1	Q1	Q2
Production and Operations Management	1	Q1	Q1
Social Sciences	1	Q2	N/A
Research in Transportation Business and Management	1	Q1	Q2
Sustainable Cities and Society	1	Q1	Q1
Systems	1	Q2	Q1
Sustainable Production and Consumption	1	Q1	Q1
Technological Forecasting and Social Change	1	Q1	Q1
Young Consumers	1	Q1	Q3
Tourism Management Perspectives	1	Q1	Q1
Tourism Review	1	Q1	Q1
Summary	Total papers—40	Q1—81% Q2—13% Q3—3%	Q1—52% Q2—26% Q3—10% N/A—13%

presents the distribution of articles based on the publication source. The selected 40 articles were published in 31 journals while highlighting the diverse contributions to the research area. Most articles were published in the Sustainability journal (six articles), followed by the British Food Journal, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Journal of Business Research, and Tourism journals with two articles each. Most of these journals were pointed out in similar studies, namely, [7,24,36]. Furthermore, the journals’ quartiles were identified based on the SCImango Journal and Country Rank (SJR), and Clarivate. Quartile ranking is calculated for each journal in each subject category, while indicating the relevant standing of an academic journal within its field [38]. These quartile rankings are important to academics and researchers in order to obtain information about the quality assessments of journals. Researchers often rely on these rankings to publish in prestigious journals to gain wider visibility for their work while fulfilling and aligning with institutional requirements. Each research category of the journal is categorised into four quartiles, namely Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4. Moreover, 81% and 52% of journals belong to the Q1 ranking according to SJR and Clarivate databases, respectively. Recent SLRs related to the SE, namely, Refs. [24,39], have also reviewed the publication sources and their quartile rankings to provide a more detailed analysis of the existing literature.

3.3. Distribution of Articles Based on Data Collection and Analysis Methods

The data collection method(s) used in the 40 articles were analysed, as illustrated in Figure 5. Most articles (32) employed a single data collection method, whereas eight articles used multiple methods. Among the single data collection methods, the questionnaire survey was the most commonly used, appearing in 16 articles, followed by website analysis, which was used in 16 articles. Both interviews and questionnaire surveys, and interviews and document reviews, were prominent as multi-methods of data collection. Given that the main focus of this systematic review is on SE strategies, most selected articles have used questionnaire survey methods to identify and evaluate SE strategies. Additionally, questionnaire surveys are frequently employed in SE research to evaluate factors and strategies. They offer the advantage of gathering data directly from a large number of participants, are cost-effective, and ensure standardization and consistency in the data [40,41,42]. However, this research has identified other possible data collection methods, which may offer valuable insights in future research pursuits.

Table 3. Distribution of articles based on the data analysis method.

Data Analysis Method	No. of Papers
Single method of analysis	23
Structural equation modeling	5
Content analysis	3
Regression analysis	2
Confirmatory factor analysis	2
Cross-case analysis	1
Time-varying difference-in-differences (DiD) model	1
Business model analysis	1
Fuzzy analytical hierarchical process	1
Correlation analysis	1
Business model analysis	1
SWOT analysis	1
Text mining techniques	1
System dynamics (SD) approach	1
The grounded theory	1
Website content analysis	1
Multi-methods of analysis	17
Experience prototyping and annotated portfolio analysis	1
Content analysis and frequency analysis	1
Descriptive analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, PROCESS v4.0 macro Model 1 and Model 4	1
Propensity score matching technique, sensitivity analyses	1
Ordinary least squares and geographically weighted regression	1
Discrete choice experiment and a multinomial logit choice model, sensitivity analyses	1
Structural equation modeling, moderation analysis	1
Decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL), interpretative structural modeling (ISM), and Matrix impacts cross-reference multiplication applied to a classification (MICMAC)	1
Game theory models and equilibrium analysis	1
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), structural equation modeling	1
Exploratory factor analysis, structural equating modelling,	1
Systematic literature review, web analysis	1
Supervised latent dirichlet analysis, latent dirichlet allocation analysis, topic distribution analysis	1
equilibrium analysis, game theory, information processing and decision-making models	1
Text mining and econometric methods	1
Best worst method (BWM), Decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL)	1
Life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, sensitivity analysis	1

presents the data analysis techniques used in the selected articles. The majority of articles chosen used a single method of analysis, with 23 papers using only one technique. The remaining 17 papers employed multiple methods of analysis. Among the papers that used a single method of data analysis, the structural equation modelling (SEM) technique was the most commonly used technique, appearing in five papers. Other than that, three papers employed content analysis techniques, while regression analysis and confirmatory factor analysis appeared in two papers.

3.4. Distribution of Articles Based on Industries

The 40 papers were categorised according to the industry or sector where they were implemented. Thus, the largest share of articles, representing 38%, concentrated on the accommodation sector. Next, the transportation sector was highlighted as the industry/sector with the second-highest number of articles. This is consistent with [7,36] who assert that SE studies mainly focus on accommodation and transportation sectors. Specifically, articles in these sectors primarily examined SE practices on platforms, namely, Airbnb, Uber, Didi, and Lyft platforms. This finding is further strengthened by [43], who mention that Airbnb and Lyft have profoundly affected well-established accommodation and transportation sectors. Moreover, Ref. [44] brought up the slogan “There is an Uber for everything now” by highlighting the widespread use of vehicle feet and people’s extensive attention. Figure 6 presents the distribution of articles based on the industry/sector.

3.5. Cross-Analysis of Articles Based on Strategies and Industries

As described in the next stage, the thematic analysis analysed strategies and grouped them according to the suitable categories. Based on that, this cross-analysis elaborates on the distribution of various strategy categories across different industries/sectors where the strategies have been implemented, as shown in the Sankey diagram (Figure 7). The Sankey flow diagram technique has been used as an effective tool to visualise the flow of data between two nodes [45]. The Sankey diagrams consist of arrows, with the width representing the flow magnitude. They are commonly used as visualisation tools in systematic reviews [46,47,48]. Accordingly, the left side of the diagram shows the categories of strategies with number of articles, and the right side displays the occurrences of strategies in each industry/sector. Accommodation and transportation sectors were recognised as the industries with the highest number of SE strategies, with 47 and 26 occurrences, respectively.

4. Results and Discussion of Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis can be conducted using qualitative analysis software or a manual approach. In this study, NVivo 14, a qualitative analysis software, was used to analyse and identify the themes of qualitative data. According to [49], thematic analysis can be conducted in three stages, namely, (1) coding of text, (2) developing descriptive themes, and (3) generating analytical themes.

4.1. Approach to Coding Articles

Coding is a straightforward process of identifying meaningful segments within data and assigning them a code [50]. This code can be a word or a short phrase symbolically representing a summarised portion of language-based or visual data [51]. Two coding approaches can be used when conducting a thematic analysis: inductive coding and deductive coding [52]. Inductive coding enables a theory to be built by a detailed reading of raw data to derive concepts or themes according to the research question(s) [52]. In inductive coding, although the findings are influenced by the research question(s), the findings are not impacted by previous theories or models [53]. On the other hand, deductive coding seeks to test existing theories by referring to the predefined set of categories or frameworks based on existing theories, concepts, or prior research [54,55]. In deductive coding, the researcher creates a pre-defined list of codes based on the existing literature before starting to code. Moreover, some researchers combine these two methods, known as abductive coding, to code the data. Per [55], abductive coding supports maximising analytical precision and facilitates precise thematic categorisation. Consequently, this research adopted the abductive coding method.

4.2. Cycles of Coding

The research involved [49]’s two cycles of coding method to carry out the coding process [49]. The first cycle of coding involved a constant comparative method where the researcher reviewed each article and became familiar with the data while doing open coding [31]. Next, in the second coding cycle, pattern coding was utilised again with a constant comparative approach to reduce the data segments to their primary meaning, while labelling with an appropriate code. Moreover, this step grouped data segments based on common themes to generate more refined and more apparent final themes [56].

Table 4. Coding process.

The First Cycle of Coding	The Second Cycle of Coding
Cost-splitting, investments, affordable prices, fair pricing strategies, rates, special offers, discounts, referral credits, financial assistance, refunds, cancellation fees, monetary rewards, security deposits, and payment methods.	Economy-related strategies
Responsibility for recycling shared bicycles, environmentally friendly materials, carbon dioxide, scrapping and recycling stages, environmental impacts, environmental burdens, changes in material and weight reduces.	Environment-related strategies
Popular and developed areas, amenities, strategic position, extended business locations, and service coverage.	Geography-related strategies
Contracts, cancellation and return policies, industry-specific legal framework, international, national, and local best practices and guidelines, household rules, periodically review policies, actions against non-compliance, or dishonest hosts, operation and maintenance standards, legislative measures, Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), complaint handling, and compensation procedure.	Governance-related strategies
Personal supplies, disinfection, deep cleaning, own safety, professional cleaning services, health and safety guidelines, disposable supplies, antibacterial materials, CCTV camera, COVID, and health and safety measures.	Health-, safety-, and security-related strategies
Cross-promotions, reviews, advertising, rating system, invite celebrities/influences, social media, and marketing mix.	Marketing-related strategies
Willingness, co-operation, rapport, partnership, collaboration, provide quick responses.	People-related strategies
Contact methods, range of products, exclusive brands, unique and rare items, the option to buy the product at the end of a certain period, easy access/check-in, simple and convenient sharing process, 24/7 roadside assistance.	Product/service-related strategies
Information, procedures, accurate, and up-to-date information, education and training sessions, guidance and assistance, incubation centres, instructions, new market trends, experiments, research, maps, and product innovations.	Research, training & education-related strategies
Platforms, timely delivery updates, live chat, two-way feedback system, language selection option, blockchain, travel prediction algorithm, Secure Sockets Layer, GPS technologies and maps, digital infrastructure, and mobile app.	Technology-related strategies

elaborates on the results of the coding process and theme extraction.

4.3. Results and Discussion of Thematic Analysis

According to the coding process, 10 themes were extracted for this study, namely, economics, environment, geography, governance, health, safety and security, marketing, people, product/service, research and education, and technology-related strategies.

• Economy-related strategies

Economy-related strategies encompass a wide range of methods and features to optimise the financial resources engaged in the sharing process. Ref. [57] studied pricing strategies in carpooling. They highlighted the importance of maintaining fair and attractive pricing. This is crucial when car-sharing is perceived as relatively inconvenient and individual rides are marginally more expensive. Therefore, maintaining fair and appealing pricing is essential as an economy-related strategy. Moreover, a study related to Uber and Lyft observed the availability of ‘greener’ service/product options in the business portfolio as a strategic way to maximise income while reducing negative externalities [57]. An empirical study on freelancers in the online labour market identified the influence of wage levels on the freelancers’ decisions to accept a task. Therefore, the authors pointed out the importance of considering the minimum wage requirements [58]. Furthermore, Ref. [59] emphasised the value of suitable investments in online platforms to enhance e-service quality, namely, investing in implementing live chat functions, order tracking functions, and live delivery updates [59,60]. Digital platforms can offer discounts, competitive pricing, and promotions to attract and retain customers while maintaining the price value of the product or service. The tendency to choose Airbnb properties over traditional hotel stays is a new global trend. Therefore, Airbnb hosts should offer more affordable prices than traditional accommodation providers, especially for the same destination or location [60]. Ref. [61] stated that digital platforms should integrate the country’s existing and commonly used payment methods. For instance, Airbnb in China involves all primary payment services, such as Alipay and WeChat.

Research related to P2P accommodation recognised three types of trust, namely, economy-based, information-based, and identification-based trust [62]. The authors described that economy-based trust is the first step to attracting customers by publicising the monetary savings that customers or hosts can make using the accommodation platform. Also, platforms can provide price information about other accommodation options (hotels) for rooms of similar size in the exact location to attract budget-conscious customers by providing price-based comparisons [62]. Moreover, to increase economy-based trust, accommodation-sharing platforms can provide referral travel credits and limited-time special offers. The SE considers residents crucial business stakeholders, therefore, Ref. [63] specified the importance of offering financial assistance to potential hosts at low interest rates to refurbish their houses. Providing special economy-related support during a pandemic is essential. For example, platform providers can offer refunds or waive cancellation fees if the shared resource does not meet cleanliness levels, or unexpected health issues arise [64]. This strategy is consistent with [65], who reported the contribution of 10 million free rides and food deliveries for frontline healthcare workers, seniors, and people in need. Ref. [66] emphasised the right balance between supply and demand in the SE market as a vital economy-related strategy. Ref. [67] showed a way to achieve this right balance related to the Didi platform by encouraging drivers to take more orders by giving extra monetary rewards and attracting customers by offering substantial subsidies. Insisting on security deposits can be considered another economy-related strategy [68]. These security deposits can favour hosts if customers damage or destroy their prosperity. Moreover, the Chinese Airbnb platform offered reduced fees for family trips and millennials to attract more customers to the business [69].

• Environment-related strategies

Conflicts between businesses and government related to bike-sharing practices in China were observed by [70]. According to the findings, bike-sharing companies should be responsible for the recycling of shared bicycles while fulfilling environmental responsibilities. Furthermore, the authors emphasised extended producer responsibility theory and the whole life cycle of the bicycles in the scrapping and recycling stages. Moreover, producers’ environmental responsibility in design is also highlighted [70]. Ref. [71] discussed the involvement of environmentally friendly materials in shared bicycles as an environment-related strategy. According to the life cycle assessment of their study, a significant proportion of the environmental impacts are attributed to the materials used. Therefore, using environmentally friendly materials can be a feasible option to reduce environmental burdens. This observation is consistent with those reported by [72], who experimented by changing a shared bicycle’s material and body weight from 25 kg of aluminium to 18 kg of steel, reducing the total environmental impact. Furthermore, Ref. [70] suggested using durable materials and items to produce shared bicycles to maintain a sustainable bike-sharing system. Additionally, Ref. [73] conducted a life cycle assessment on bicycle-sharing in China, highlighting that the production stage contributes to the most significant adverse environmental impacts. Therefore, the authors promoted strategies such as selecting materials for better durability and longer service life, and conducting waste treatment and recycling as environment-related strategies to enhance sharing practices.

• Geography-related strategies

Location patterns of co-working spaces in India were recognised as an emerging SE practice in commercial real estate [74]. The study observed the importance of establishing co-working spaces around bars, fitness centres, metro stations, restaurants, cinemas, cafés, and creative enterprises. Therefore, it is recommended that co-working spaces be implemented close to these locations to attract customers and provide a smooth service. The suggestion of this SLR is reinforced by some earlier studies in Milan [75] and New York [76]. A similar study by [77] further confirmed that coworking spaces are agglomerated at central locations with the aim of having greater probabilities for connecting resource providers and consumers. Ref. [78] conducted a study on customer feedback and reviews of the Airbnb platform and identified ten attributes that influence guests’ satisfaction. After analysing these reviews and attributes, the ‘location’ attribute was recognised as a key consideration when selecting the Airbnb platform. While improving the ‘location’ factor may pose challenges, service providers can still take actions to partially enhance or control it, as it remains an appealing dimension to customers. The research findings are in agreement with previous research conducted by [79,80], which expressed that selecting a suitable location is a key strategy of Airbnb, providing further support for the identified strategy. Ref [80] explained that the implementation of the Airbnb platform in the dominant Chinese market was successful due to correct geography-related strategies. Airbnb took a novel approach by expanding the service coverage in order to reshape the competitive landscape created by other platforms.

• Governance-related strategies

A survey conducted by [18] identified that the most frequent negative answer for SE was insufficient legislative coverage. Therefore, the authors elucidated that the limitations of SE can be decreased by implementing specific and enforceable rules and regulations that would ensure the rights of parties involved in SE practices. Localised policy intervention can be highlighted as another governance-related strategy. Accordingly, local governments should consider SE businesses when developing relevant policies. For example, the Indian government amalgamates the incentivisation of co-working spaces in their local policies in order to promote SE practices within local communities [74]. Ref. [81] emphasised the government’s role in developing and improving policies and industry-specific standards to solve SE problems. Furthermore, the government should advocate for drafting industry-specific standards and guidelines [81]. Ref. [82] also highlighted the importance of having proper legislation to govern SE activities, as well as to enhance trust in emerging SE businesses. In addition, policymakers should implement appropriate regulations to ensure the safety and hygiene of SE practices [59]. For example, regulators can establish safety regulations and strict penalties for non-compliance. Moreover, policymakers should focus on implementing regulations related to fair pricing practices to promote online SE businesses to compete in the market [59].

Furthermore, Ref. [60] suggested that policies and strategies should be developed to improve service quality. These policies should be transparent, standardised, and universally applicable to all hosts on the Airbnb platform. To lower the risks and uncertainties in making reservations, platform developers can implement standard contracts and clauses to safeguard customers, especially related to their information and data protection. It is always vital to communicate privacy policy with customers before initiating the sharing activities [62]. Therefore, platform facilitators can develop policies to ensure that only authorised employees of the platform can access customers’ personal information and third-party partners to store and process information based on written instructions.

Even though having a proper SE policy is essential, it should always consist of flexible contracts, cancellations, or return policies to improve the user-friendliness of the policies [64]. For example, the Poparide platform refunds cancelled trips and waives any penalties due to medical emergencies [64]. Moreover, platform facilitators can develop task-specific protocols to ensure the satisfaction of parties involved in sharing the activity. For instance, Airbnb implemented a cleaning protocol to satisfy people by meeting cleanliness and hygiene standards [64,83]. Moreover, goods-sharing platforms such as BKSY, HeelNederlandDeelt, Karma, SwapSity, and Peerby implemented guidelines adhering to local and national health advice. According to [84], conflict resolution is a crucial governance-related strategy. In accommodation sharing, especially, it is essential to communicate all house rules to guests clearly, ensuring they understand and agree to comply with them before booking the property. For example, if hosts prefer not to accommodate parties, this should be clearly stated in the terms and conditions. According to [70], bike-sharing companies should consider regulatory factors when implementing internal strategies, conducting operations, and promoting co-operative governance with public involvement. Furthermore, Ref. [69] indicated that the ‘one size fits all’ strategy is not suitable, and, therefore, it is essential to develop industry-specific and company-specific policies and guidelines. Implementing operation and maintenance standards is another strategy that enhances SE practices [70]. Accordingly, government, platform, and resource providers should implement and maintain operation and maintenance standards to offer customers high-quality service. Moreover, policies and regulations should be updated and upgraded according to the new trends and innovations [70]. Furthermore, low enforcement of relevant rules, regulations, and policies hinders the successful application of food-sharing platforms [85]. Ref. [71] suggested that Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) should be implemented as a legislative measure to promote sharing practices as a sustainable and well-monitored business operation. This strategy aligns with another supporting study conducted by [86], which similarly proposed the EPR system as a regulatory measure to enhance sharing practices.

• Health-, safety-, and security-related strategies

Ensuring the health, safety, and security of peers and the process related to SE are paramount concerns that directly affect the market’s acceptance of sharing practices [87]. During COVID-19, vaccination status was essential when participating in sharing practices, especially in Airbnb properties [88]. Moreover, hosts must provide sanitising and disinfecting supplies to the guests [87], and each shared accommodation, vehicle, or toy should be deeply disinfected after each use [64,89,90]. The disinfecting strategy of this study aligns with the observation of [12], proposing to put a ‘disinfected’ tag in places where strict sanitation protocols have been conducted. A study related to toy-sharing used non-toxic organic bactericides to clean toys by considering the children’s health and safety. Furthermore, Ref. [90] stated that plush toys were not involved in the sharing process since the materials of the plush toys cannot be sanitised easily. Due to the unavailability of required skills and resources, accommodations’ hosts initiated partnerships with professional cleaning services to conduct deep cleaning and disinfection services [87]. Platform facilitators and service providers can establish hygiene and cleaning protocols to ensure guests’ health and safety, and not cause health-related issues [82]. Furthermore, some guests offer the option to select the entire house or apartment instead of shared accommodation to ensure privacy and safety among guests [82]. As safety and security strategies, some hosts provide disposable products, and some guests use door stoppers and check needle cameras [88]. Consistent with this strategy, previous research by [70] also demonstrated a similar strategy and identified these as on-site coping strategies. Ref. [59] mentioned that service providers and restaurant owners must prioritise food quality and safety, especially in the food and beverage industry. Per [89], a cab-sharing company conducted rigorous authorisation (identity check) on any partners involved in the sharing process to ensure safety and security among parties. As suggested by [91], producing and using antibacterial materials for sharing sports equipment to enhance consumers’ health and safety is essential.

As pointed out by [64], it is crucial for every company involved in SE practices to establish health and safety protocols. These protocols should include instructions for spacing out reservations with 24 to 72-h intervals, stocking extra cleaning supplies, and reducing the number of touchpoints. If SE companies do not have proper health and safety protocols to guide them in health or safety crises, it is advisable for them to temporarily close their physical sharing activities until a suitable protocol and practice can be established [64]. This temporary closure as a strategy is corroborated by [92], which employs the real-life scenario of the Toronto Tool Library to illustrate this process. Following international, national, and local best practices can also be recognised as a critical strategy to enhance SE practices and bring them to the next level [64]. The importance of establishing health and safety guidelines, and cleaning protocols, is repeatedly suggested by [64]. The strategy of establishing a cleaning protocol is consistent with past studies that observe the existing practices in Turo, Lyft, SnappCar, and Uber [65,93,94]. Uber’s slogan during the COVID period, “no mask, no ride”, can be identified as a safety strategy targeting drivers and riders [64]. Additionally, using personal protective equipment and introducing detailed learning programmes and certification can be highlighted as strategies to enhance sharing practices. Moreover, guests in accommodation-sharing models tend to use door stoppers to lock the door, check needle cameras, and set a few alarm clocks to wake up, which can be recognised as security-related strategies. Accommodation providers use contactless check-in procedures to signal their effort in implementing highly preventive measures [87].

• Marketing-related strategies

In the ever-evolving landscape of SE, marketing-related strategies are instrumental in capturing the attention of a diverse audience while distributing the importance of sharing practices. According to [17], establishing a solid review system and hotlines diminished the information gap related to SE. Moreover, resource providers can communicate the preventive measures and general practices they use to market their resources [87]. When communicating these details, it is always encouraged to use self-referencing cues or Partake-in-Our-Cause (PIOC) messages such as second-person wordings, photos taken by guests, and question headlines to attract guests’ attention. Many SE companies emphasise communicating their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities as a positive marketing strategy [87]. Ref. [95] highlighted the importance of including a description of amenities and services available, and the nearest local features, when writing the hosts’ self-description paragraphs on the Airbnb platform. Refs. [88,96] indicated digital marketing through social media platforms as the best place to conduct marketing and promotional activities related to sharing practices. Furthermore, influencers and public figures can be involved in promoting the business. Moreover, Ref. [88] mentioned that social and cultural marketing strategies, such as promoting activities engaging families with elderly parents, can be involved in overcoming the social risk barrier related to SE. Furthermore, Ref. [82] described that, despite the growing attention to SE worldwide, most of the Philippines may still be unaware of sharing practices. Therefore, using social networking sites to expand promotional activities while introducing the products’ social and environmental benefits is essential. Moreover, resource providers and platform facilitators can quickly build a good reputation by marketing through social media platforms [59]. Ref. [61] mentioned that Airbnb conducted unique marketing strategies for domestic and foreign tourists visiting China to create brand awareness outside China to enter and sustain the Chinese SE market.

Making the required and essential information readily available can be identified as a strategy that helps to build trust. For example, the Airbnb platform prominently displays a customer refund policy and property damage protection insurance for hosts to generate trust for all users [62]. Also, resource providers and platforms can offer limited-time special offers to attract customers and gain trust from economic issues. Different strategies must be designed, especially targeting first-time users and marketing through social media, mobile apps, and other platforms to make the general public aware of the sharing business. Ref. [97] discussed the importance of providing extra awards or recognition, such as certificates and logo distinctions, to drivers with high customer satisfaction to increase the drivers’ engagement with SE. Understanding the target audience and using the right marketing mix, such as marketing with multiple languages, audio, and subtitles, can also be recognised as marketing-related strategies [64,65]. A study explained how cultural dimensions affect the marketing strategies in SE; if the target audience is characterised by a high level of collectivism, the SE platform should be marketed as a digital platform that brings individuals together and emphasises the feeling of being at home. Strategies should be focused on lowering uncertainty related to the use of online platforms and engaging with strangers when the target audience demonstrates a high uncertainty avoidance. Additionally, marketing strategies for restraint-oriented people should be created to save money and meet simple accommodation needs because restraint-oriented people have little interest in leisure and fun activities [66]. Ref. [98] acknowledged that some Asian countries, for example India, compared to other Western countries, give more priority to their self-esteem and do not perceive pleasure in shared consumption due to non-ownership. Therefore, they naturally do not welcome the sharing of others’ resources. The findings presented here are supported by [63,99] by mentioning that resource providers and platform developers should understand Indian consumers’ beliefs and value systems, especially millennials’ indulgence in status consumption. Hence, marketing strategies should be developed by highlighting the opportunity to use high-end products or brands on a sharing basis [98].

The promotional tagline, “why wear the same, when every time you can try new”, was used to encourage status-conscious people. On the other hand, some customers give more priority to the environmental friendliness of the business or product; in that case, marketing strategies should be developed to focus on promoting the environmental benefits such as how SE businesses help reduce the use of virgin materials, optimise the use of existing products, and reduce wastage [71,98]. Marketing through renowned companies and actual success cases is one of the best marketing strategies for attracting new customers [98]. Surprisingly, economic benefits indicated a weak relationship with customers’ intention to use luxury fashion elements on a sharing basis [98]. Therefore, luxury rental companies should highlight the other value proposition of consuming products on a sharing basis, such as highlighting that customers with limited purchasing power can live their dream by getting access to resources, and customers with purchasing power can also access inaccessible luxury fashion elements. Moreover, consistent with previous research by [98], this research highlights customers’ ability to consume a large variety of branded products if they can afford to buy luxury brands but often face the dilemma of repeating designer products as a marketing-related strategy.

• People-related strategies

Navigating human behaviour and interaction in the SE requires people-related strategies focusing on interpersonal relationships, trust, and community building. Investing management’s time and commitment in identifying the most suitable sharing practices can be recognised as a key strategy that needs to be adopted by senior management [100]. This strategy conforms with [92,101,102], which pointed out that managerial efforts are needed to qualify a business for SE practices permanently. Ref. [88] introduced behavioural negotiation, including four aspects: information seeking, behavioural adaptation, selective choice, and seeking support, as a strategy to enhance sharing practices among peers. First, seeking information is actively acquiring information from SE platforms, search engines, and service providers. It is advisable to read past guests’ comments and photos about the property to understand the situation clearly [88]. Moreover, guests can use reports available online to check the trustworthiness of the property, and maps can be used to understand the safety and security of surrounding properties. Simply contacting the resource provider in advance to clarify any issue can also be pointed out as a simple but key action. Second, behavioural adaptation involves adjusting one’s behaviour to align with changes in the environment [88]. For example, after the COVID-19 outbreak, some guests tend to bring their own personal supplies, and guests take action by themselves to ensure safety and security, namely, locking the door with door stoppers. In alignment with this strategy, Ref. [70] underpinned that behavioural adaptation helps to form the ‘dependence reduction’. Third, selective choice is actively searching and selecting resources that meet consumer’s needs [88]. After the COVID-19 pandemic, some people have selected P2P accommodations with better hygiene and amenities, despite higher prices. This echoes the observation of [103] that people would increasingly select self-contained accommodation during and after the pandemic. Lastly, seeking social support represents engaging others to mitigate risks or barriers. Next, Ref. [88] introduced cognitive negotiation (cognitive adaptation and trusting agents) as another people-related strategy to improve sharing practices. Cognitive adaptation represents adjusting cognition to focus on the positive side or accept the negative side. Trusting agents means consumers negotiate barriers by trusting resource providers, platforms, or the government. Accordingly, cognitive adaptation is vital because consumers frequently automatically use cognitive strategies. Therefore, resource providers and platform facilitators can continuously highlight the unique features and positive reviews.

Online food delivery businesses in the Food and Beverage industry initiate partnerships with restaurants that prioritise food quality [64,104]. In addition to that, Ref. [67] stated that Didi initiated a partnership with the car leasing company to better manage their drivers and cars by conducting relevant contract procedures, car maintenance, driver selection, staff training, and dealing with drivers’ complaints. Moreover, Ref. [104] reports that tourist attraction managers should work closely with other stakeholders to promote bike sharing among tourists. As a people-related strategy, the management of any SE platform should clearly define the resource provider’s responsibilities and hospitable behaviour, namely, how to act respectfully towards guests’ requirements and remain well-mannered when handling guests. Treating guests in a friendly manner is always recommended to enhance positive word-of-mouth [60]. Moreover, digital platform facilitators can support online or offline reunion opportunities among staff, providers, and consumers to make the ‘community’ closely connected [62]. Disclosing some information about resource providers to the resource consumers can be recognised as another strategy to improve trust among peers. Furthermore, enhancing rapport among customers, resource providers, and communities may support increasing trust among parties in the SE. Ref. [69] pointed out that service providers can build a warm host–guest relationship by offering warm greetings, showing a smiling face, and providing high-quality services. Resource providers should clearly understand customers’ needs and requirements when providing products and services [78].

• Product/service-related strategies

A smooth administrative process should be implemented to operate any SE business successfully [100]. In addition, quick and easy access to sharing practices is another strategy to attract more participants to the business [105]. According to [96], sharing platform managers should implement a high level of customised products or services according to the target customer base. Ref. [105] explained that, during COVID-19, people had to stay and work indoors for months. Therefore, they switched to wearing casual or sports outfits that were more comfortable than professional outfits. However, most fashion rental platforms offer professional clothes and dressy outfits, and may not prioritise renting cosy outfits. Accordingly, resource providers and platform facilitators should consider the current market trend and peoples’ requirements when providing the service. Uber and Lyft currently use the pooling strategy to reduce transportation externalities such as air pollution, greenhouse emissions, and traffic congestion while sharing the exact vehicle with more passengers and fewer vehicle miles [57].

Psychological ownership negatively influences consumers’ intention to use fashion rentals [105]. Customers’ desire for possession may influence their desire to purchase resources instead of renting/sharing, which could impact a high level of psychological ownership. In order to attract these kinds of customer, resource providers and platform owners could offer a wide selection of apparel elements and a variety of exclusive brands with better prices than other retailers [105]. Furthermore, unique and rare resources can be included in the sharing process to attract more customers. Ref. [105] pointed out that resource providers can offer the option to buy certain products at the end of the rental period by considering the cost, efficiency, and sense of ownership. For example, Evertoys company observed that some children have an attachment to the shared toy. Whether it is a teddy bear, a doll, a blanket, or a pillow, they carry it anywhere and anytime while exhibiting a sense of attachment. Evertoys offers the option to buy certain toys to protect the children’s feelings of security, ‘home’, familiarity, and peace [90].

SE business can be successfully adapted by lowering the existing entry barriers [106]. Platform facilitators should display a variety of resource providers, such as providers in different geographical locations and with different skill sets, to match the customer demand [58]. This strategy is supported by [107] who mentioned that shared resources should be available with various features. Ref. [108] expressed that business value delivery, including offering new products and services, business solutions, operational improvements, and productivity enhancements, can be integrated to obtain incremental innovations of the existing process. Ref. [104] observed that the content and value of shared products and services should be continuously improved to create commercial value. Freelancers on these sharing platforms have the flexibility to fill their schedule with additional work, but this can affect the balance between work and personal life. Therefore, platform facilitators can monitor basic employment ethics, such as daily working hours, to maintain personal and professional balance [89].

According to [62], platform facilitators must establish a proper 24/7 customer service system in multiple languages to satisfy customer satisfaction while enhancing identification-based trust. With the COVID-19 pandemic, sport-sharing facilities integrated individual and indoor sports facilities instead of focusing only on group and outdoor facilities as their new business avenues to cater to customer needs during the pandemic [91]. This is consistent with the findings by [91]. Ref. [91] described that South Korea is currently using overseas sport-sharing services, and there is a mediating effect between trust in sport-sharing services and the positive use intention of consumers in South Korea. Therefore, the authors suggested introducing well-known US-based hub services such as Lime, MIRROR, and PELOTON to expand the Korean market while triggering the trust factor.

A good collection of spare parts or items is another strategy to maintain a smooth sharing process [90]. Ref. [64] studied SE businesses during COVID-19 and proposed a few strategies that business owners can use during a pandemic. Accordingly, these included explicitly communicating about changes they had to make in their operation, temporary or permanently closing the operation, reducing part(s) of the operation, remaining open at total capacity, expanding or increasing the operation, changing or updating the primary offering, and changing and updating additional offering. These strategies are consistent with a previous study [109], which states that the LoveHomeSwap platform prepared and uploaded a downloadable audio guide in four different languages to communicate new updates. Refs. [69,110] highlighted that human interaction and on-site facility quality, or the physical environment, should be improved to enhance customer experience.

• Research-, training-, and education-related strategies

Implementing effective research and education-related strategies is fundamental and essential to shaping an impactful sharing environment. A project called Posthuman CollectiveEyes was conducted to explore the prospect of sharing human body parts [111]. The authors mentioned that all the sharing requirements and project conditions must be reassessed, and conducting a field study using a new prototype is essential. Moreover, the importance of conducting qualitative and quantitative assessments and evaluations based on system and usability perspectives was proposed. Conducting further research is always encouraged to gain better outcomes and further verification, especially in novel research areas [74]. Ref. [87] explained that when resource providers contact consumers, PIOC messages and language strategies can be used to book confirmations, reservation reminders, and other communication emails to encourage positive behaviours. Moreover, resource providers should avoid threatening language and provide adequate information, however, too much information can also backfire [95]. Furthermore, Ref. [88] mentioned that every party involved in the sharing process should provide accurate information to make informed decisions. Platform facilitators and policymakers should take action to minimise the asymmetric information between resource providers and consumers to offer more opportunities for both parties to know more about each other [58]. Moreover, resource consumers should post reliable comments and reviews with original pictures [88]. Research should be conducted focusing on the overall strengths and weaknesses of the business to be prepared for emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic [112]. Other related facilities and infrastructure should be provided when sharing various transportation modes. For instance, Ref. [104] proposed carefully mapping out parking areas and their station capacities for bike sharing. This proposal is consistent with a previous study [86,112], which mentioned that tourist attraction operators or relevant parties should evaluate the parking facilities. In addition, relevant training should be provided to staff of digital platforms and resource providers to make them aware of the current best practices [104]. Refs. [60,84] stated that platform management can provide this training and relevant checklists to maintain service quality standards. Furthermore, such training should enhance resource providers’ ability to maintain a smooth operation, handle customer complaints [60], and effectively recover after a failure [83]. Furthermore, Ref. [97] expressed the importance of conducting campaigns to improve the prestige and professionalism of resource providers. Ref. [64] mentioned that these campaigns can be conducted with the support of unique resources such as tutorials, checklists, and webpages [64]. Vocational training is another way of making people aware of professionalism while providing hands-on experiences [69]. Ref. [113] further supported the vocational training strategy in its study. Refs. [113,114] corroborate these strategies for professionalism.

Sensing market trends, searching for new opportunities through experimental practices, and selecting innovative resources are essential strategies to mould the future of SE [108]. Ref. [59] recognised that providing consumers with accurate, detailed, and transparent information, including photos, ratings and reviews, operating hours, pricing, and menus, is one of the key strategies for gaining customer attraction. Conducting research and experiments to identify a suitable matchmaking process is another essential strategy for maintaining the right market balance [89]. Paying more attention to novel digital entrepreneurship research is a crucial action that can be taken to move SE from the infancy level [89]. Also, understanding the local needs and developing SE business models and solutions can be highlighted as an action to ready the SE concept in diverse industrial applications [89]. Ref. [70] clarified that general research experiments and product innovations should be done to improve the quality of shared resources. Ref. [85] described that food-sharing platforms must have well-defined indicators to collect internal and external data and measure their outcomes correctly. Comprehensive research and experiments must be conducted to identify the proper range for the number of shared resources to reduce the environmental impacts and other administrative costs [71].

• Technology-related strategies

In the digital transformation era and the embedded digital platform nature of SE, businesses must strategically improve technology to optimise the sharing process and stay ahead in an ever-changing market. Therefore, it is essential to develop a user-friendly and feature-rich digital platform to facilitate sharing practices [68]. According to [100], SE businesses must design and implement technology-related processes and support digital infrastructure to seize any SE opportunity. Digital adaptations should be expanded to enhance the perceived value of the eWOM (electronic word of mouth) supported by the platform [96]. Furthermore, the authors highlighted that digital technologies are necessary in current SE practices. Therefore, platform facilitators should manage customer loyalty in cognitive and affective components through the right level of digital adaptation [96]. Ref. [57] described a novel strategy that automates the rider-matching process to cater to the pooling requirements of growing on-demand mobility platforms such as Uber and Lyft. This pooling strategy conforms with [115,116], which described pooling as a potential countermeasure to urban transportation difficulties. Moreover, many customers are reluctant to get involved in digital transactions due to the lack of trust related to payment security. Therefore, reliable and secure transaction platforms should be developed [110]. Ref. [81] suggested introducing blockchain technology to eliminate the lack of safe and reliable market trading processes. With this technology, all the details and specifications of the contracts are stored securely on the blockchain platform. Then, intelligent contracts are used to settle transactions and analyse queries to ensure transparency and credibility [81]. Ref. [117] supported this by highlighting the unique properties of blockchain technology, namely immutability, verification, and traceability. Ref. [58] specified that digital labour platforms utilise digital algorithms that move work opportunities away from workers with unsatisfactory ratings.

Integrating global positioning system (GPS) technology and maps can be another critical technological action to facilitate customers’ locating of service providers and tracking their real-time delivery [59]. In addition, app developers should enhance security and payment methods by integrating easy-to-use payment methods such as digital wallets and Apple Pay. Consumer data security should be protected by integrating fraud protection and encryption technologies [59]. For example, two-factor authentication or biometrics can be added to enhance security. Web app developers can include creative features such as customising orders based on dietary restrictions and preferences, one-click reordering, and personalised recommendations to offer consumers a more enjoyable and convenient experience [59]. To illustrate, Postmates integrate user-centred features such as geo-location-based reorders, customising orders, and scheduling delivery in advance. Ref. [62] elaborated on the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) technique of the Airbnb platform for transmitting verification information. Ref. [97] proposed a practical initiative to introduce Internet-based mobile technologies in personal devices to form a new means of communication beyond traditional websites. This is further supported by [118], which mentions that these personal devices will facilitate SE initiatives’ easy use and practice. Incorporating high-end digital features such as accepting payments from reputed payment systems, a 24/7 customer operation helpline, an Internet chatbot, and an online checklist for customers will enhance the customers’ trust, and influence resource providers’ service intentions [63]. Ref. [64] expressed those transferring operations to online systems and updating or renovating digital infrastructure as technology-related strategies. Ref. [67] proposed an inter-process communication (IPC) based on advanced artificial intelligence and a travel prediction algorithm to increase matching efficiency as a technological innovation. Furthermore, the authors mentioned that having an app-owned rating system and a two-way scoring mechanism is essential to build trust on the digital platform. Additionally, Industry 4.0 and digitalisation technologies can be integrated to manage better sharing activities and prepare them for future advancements [68,70].

According to the results and discussion of the thematic analysis, strategies that enhance SE practices can be identified and categorised, as shown in

Table 5. Summary of strategies that influence SE practices.

Category	No.	Strategy	Responsible Party
Economy-related strategies (A)	A1	Offer affordable prices compared to traditional service providers in the exact location.	RP
	A2	Cost-splitting by engaging others	RC
	A3	Increase investments in technological improvements and R&D	PF, RP
	A4	Follow the fair pricing strategies when setting up the rates	PF
	A5	Offering special offers, discounts, and referral credits to attract customers	RP
	A6	Provide financial assistance	G
	A7	Enable cancellations with refunds if advertised cleanliness or features are not met.	PF
	A8	Waive cancellation and late fees due to the pandemic or health crisis	PF
	A9	Provide monetary rewards to encourage resource providers to take more orders/bookings.	PF
	A10	Take a security deposit from the customer	PF, RP
	A11	Integrate various user-friendly payment methods (digital wallet, credit cards, instalments)	PF
Environment-related strategies	B1	Take responsibility for recycling shared bicycles	RP
	B2	Use environmentally friendly and durable materials as much as possible	RP
Geographic-related strategies	C1	Select popular and developed areas to conduct the business	PF
	C2	Strategically position coworking spaces near diverse amenities (bars, gyms, and metro train stations) to enhance accessibility and convenience.	PF, RP
	C3	Gradually extend the business to various locations while improving the service coverage.	PF
Governance-related strategies	D1	Implement flexible and user-friendly contracts, cancellations and return policies	PF
	D2	Implement industry-specific and well-regulated legal framework	G
	D3	Define resource providers’ and consumers’ responsibilities	PF
	D4	Follow international, national, and local best practices and guidelines	PF, RP
	D5	Communicate all household rules	RP
	D6	Periodically review policies and find the balance between consumer and provider where both parties perceive the policies as fair.	PF
	D7	Take strict actions against non-compliance or dishonest hosts when reporting inconsistencies	G, PF
	D8	Enhance the level of operation and maintenance standards	PF
	D9	Implement legislative measures for Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) to promote sustainable sharing	G
	D10	Improve complaint handling and compensation procedure	PF
Health-, safety-, and security-related strategies	E1	Disinfect and deep clean resources between users	RP
	E2	Bring your supplies (toothbrush, towel, cup, etc.)	RC
	E3	Take actions for your safety (bring door stoppers, check for needle cameras and set a few alarm clocks)	RC
	E4	Select accommodation from more developed or avoid isolated areas	RC
	E5	Select a resource provider who has a lot of listed resources	RC
	E6	Try to involve others (family or friends) when staying alone in an accommodation.	RC
	E7	Get the service from professional cleaning services	PF, RP
	E8	Communicate all health and safety guidelines	PF, RP
	E9	Provide disposable supplies	RP
	E10	Use or try to incorporate antibacterial materials for a shared resource	PF, RP
	E11	Installing CCTV cameras	RP
	E12	Implementing health and safety measures in COVID situations, such as limiting the number of people, increasing opening hours, self-checking, avoiding physical contact, etc.	PF
Marketing-related strategies	F1	Offer cross-promotions	PF, RP
	F2	Write honest reviews with actual images	RC
	F3	Highlight unique and advanced features when advertising	PF, RP
	F4	Improve the content or features of the shared resource	PF, RP
	F5	Launch a two-way rating/feedback system	PF
	F6	Invite celebrities/influencers with trustworthy reputations to support the business.	PF, RP
	F7	Use social media for advertising	PF, RP
	F8	Apply the right marketing mix considering socio-demographic characteristics.	PF, RP
People-related strategies	G1	Enhance willingness and interest to incorporate SE practices by providing incentives (awards, prizes, certificates, logo distinction/super-host badges)	PF
	G2	Establish a good rapport with other parties	PF, RP, RC
	G3	Establish good partnerships and collaborations with other individuals and companies to leverage resources, expertise, cross-promotions, and networks for mutual benefits	PF, RP
	G4	Provide accurate and updated information and procedures about the business/parties, platform, and sharing resources and provide quick responses to queries	PF, RP, RC
Product/service-related strategies	H1	Provide diverse contact methods (telephonic communication, emails and their website, audio/video, subtitles).	PF, RP
	H2	Offer a wide range of products/services and exclusive brands with better prices.	PF
	H3	Offer unique and rare items	PF, RP
	H4	Provide the option to buy the product at the end of a certain period after fulfilling relevant requirements.	PF
	H5	Provide easy access/check-in and a simple and convenient sharing process	PF, RP
	H6	Provide an option to select a preferred service provider based on various criteria.	PF
	H7	Offer 24/7 roadside assistance and emergency support	PF
Research-, training-, and education-related strategies	I1	Clearly communicate the required information and procedures about the shared resource.	PF, RP
	I2	Provide accurate and up-to-date information about the business/provider, including operating hours, pricing, menu/catalogue, reviews, and ratings	PF, RP
	I3	Seek all required information from the resource provider	RC
	I4	Conduct education and training sessions	PF
	I5	Offer guidance and assistance	PF
	I6	Establish incubation centres	G
	I7	Mention instructions in the multiple languages	PF, RP
	I8	Use plain language when communicating without having too many technical terms	PF, RP
	I9	Actively involve residents in the decision-making process related to destination and local environment	G, PF, RP
	I10	Implement Partake-in-Our-Cause (PIOC) communication strategy	PF, RP
	I11	Explore new market trends and modify the business process accordingly	PF, RP
	I12	Conduct experiments and research when selecting a product/service to be shared	PF, RP
	I13	Conduct research on people’s behaviour needs	PF, RP
	I14	Map out resting/parking areas and their storage capacities	PF
	I15	Conduct product innovations to improve the quality	PF, RP
Technology-related strategies	J1	Maintain a feature-rich and user-friendly platform	PF
	J2	Provide timely and accurate delivery updates	PF
	J3	Setting up live chat functions and 24/7 hotline service in multiple languages to facilitate immediate communication	PF
	J4	Develop an advanced travel prediction algorithm to allocate resources and matchmaking.	PF
	J5	Allow language selection option	PF
	J6	Integrate blockchain and Secure Sockets Layer technologies to enhance the security and reliability of the platform.	PF
	J7	Provide a clear visual comparison related to other similar resources	PF
	J8	Develop a communication mechanism for reporting emergencies	PF
	J9	Integrate high-end GPS technology and maps	PF
	J10	Evaluating and upgrading digital infrastructure time-to-time	PF, RP
	J11	Integrate carpooling option	PF, RP
	J12	Develop a mobile app version to provide better access	PF

Responsible party: Government (G), Platform facilitator (PF), Resource provider (RP), Resource Consumer (RC).

. Despite being grouped into specific categories supported by the given theoretical background, strategies often exhibit a dual affiliation with two or more categories simultaneously due to their broad applicability and support across different categories. The findings of this study have vital implications for SE research and practice. This study introduced a fresh perspective on the SE research field by highlighting key strategies that we can apply to enhance the overall SE practices based on different areas of implementation. Relevant to practical and managerial implications, the identified key strategies could be considered key aspects in implementing SE practices based on different stakeholder involvements. This study facilitates SE professionals’ understanding of how they may successfully implement and operate SE businesses or practices by integrating the identified vital strategies. Our review showed that it is necessary for every party in the SE process, such as the resource provider, resource consumer, SE platform facilitator, or government, to understand their roles and responsibilities in the process and take appropriate actions to optimise the overall efficiency and long-term sustainability of the SE practices.

5. Limitations and Future Research Directions

The methodological process supported by [22]’s five-step approach and PRISMA technique was followed in this research to facilitate a rigorous and transparent SLR. However, certain limitations need to be addressed, paving the way for future research directions in the SE research field. Considering the previous SLRs related to SE and reducing the scope of the research to a manageable quantity, this research only focused on SE strategies. Additionally, this SLR only considered peer-reviewed journal articles in English, which may be seen as a limitation. However, these limitations could potentially be considered when conducting SE research in future. Additionally, this SLR outlines future research directions as well. By synthesizing current research findings and aligning them with the real world, this review identifies key directions for future investigation, as detailed in

Table 6. Potential future research directions.

Research Aspects	Suggested Research Directions
Expanding the scope of the study	Since the SE is a relatively new and rapidly evolving phenomenon, this SLR represents the first attempt to synthesize its key strategies based on existing studies. The articles included in this review, along with other relevant publications, were selected according to an established article selection process and criteria aligned with our study’s focus. This review lays the groundwork for future conceptual and empirical research on SE across various applications. As such, future research can expand upon the current selection process by incorporating more recent articles and exploring SE research across different industries.
Methodological aspects and applications	The descriptive analysis revealed that the SE studies mainly focus on accommodation and transportation sectors, exhibiting a limited exploration of other industries in sufficient depth. Therefore, the prospect of implementing SE and applying the identified SE strategies from one industry to another is worth exploring in the future.
	To identify the quantitative perception and to validate the effectiveness of the identified SE strategies, future studies could conduct a comprehensive quantitative analysis. This exploration could involve applying statistical methods to measure the performances and success rate of these strategies, depending on various shareable resources and sectors. This approach paves a future research path towards more robust and context-sensitive SE strategies.
The importance of an in-depth investigations	Considering the novelty of SE practices across various industries, active government participation is essential. The study revealed the value of implementing an industry-specific and well-regulated legal framework as one of the most required governance-related strategies. Therefore, future research can explore implementing an SE-related legal framework to improve public acceptance of this concept.
	Future research could investigate the implementation process and relevant attributes of fair pricing strategies to maintain the fairness of rates related to the sharing process. This could involve different pricing models based on demand fluctuations, shareable resource availability, and SE users’ involvement. Moreover, researchers could examine how fair pricing can be maintained and explore best practices in implementing fair pricing across various industries.
	A thorough research initiative is required to explore the actual environmental benefits of the sharing process, considering the material usage and emissions related to it. This could involve evaluating the lifecycle impact of sharing compared to traditional resource ownership models. Future research could analyse key aspects such as energy consumption during manufacturing and maintenance, and GHG emissions related to resource distribution. In particular, future research could analyse whether sharing reduces the demand for new products, thereby lowering overall negative environmental impacts.
	The study recognised the importance of geographical position when conducting sharing activities. Therefore, future studies could explore the correct strategic position of businesses related to SE by considering population density, tourist attractions, nearest other amenities, social and cultural attributes, etc.
	It is noteworthy to investigate the accuracy and trustworthiness of ratings and feedback displayed in SE digital platforms and a mechanism to establish and verify a two-way rating system in order to evaluate the deficiencies in digital platforms and SE business.
	It is worth exploring and mapping the available parking or rest areas, and their storage capacities for SE mobility platform drivers. Researchers could evaluate how these parking and rest areas impact overall driver efficiency, fatigue, and well-being. Assessing the storage capacities is also essential for optimising vehicle management during peak hours in these locations.
	The study recognised the importance of technology-related strategies: implementing blockchain technology and developing a mobile app-based platform. Therefore, future research can assess the prospect of integrating blockchain technology and developing a mobile app version for each digital platform.
	This research observed that strategies often exhibit a dual affiliation with two or more categories. Therefore, strategies could be further analysed to explore their relationship with related factors based on the implementing background or the nature of the industry to which they are applied.
	This SLR explored the strategies that enhance SE in a broader perspective without limiting it to a particular industry. Therefore, future research is needed to investigate the applicability of these strategies in different industries/sectors.

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6. Conclusions

This research aimed at understanding the strategies influencing successful SE applications. Accordingly, an SLR was conducted referring to the last ten years and identified 40 peer-reviewed journal articles. The study’s findings were analysed using descriptive and thematic analysis methods. The descriptive analysis revealed that, although the review considered articles from 2014 onwards, research on the SE strategies has primarily emerged over the last five years. Both developed (45%) and developing (42%) countries almost equally contribute to the research areas, while China was recognised as the hotspot for SE research, accounting for nine articles. Six articles were from the Sustainability journal, with the highest number of related articles. In terms of database sources, 81% of the articles were from SJR and 52% from Clarivate databases. Data collection methods revealed that the majority of studies relied on single data collection and analysis methods. Primarily, the questionnaire survey was recognised as the most common data collection method, and structural equation modelling was highlighted as the most common data analysis method in SE research. Additionally, when categorising the articles by industry or sector, it became evident that most SE research mainly concentrated on the accommodation industry. According to the cross-analysis, the strategy categories of research, training, and education were highlighted in 21 studies, and the accommodation sector was highlighted with 47 occurrences of different strategies.

The thematic analysis revealed 84 strategies that enhanced practices and grouped them into 10 categories: economy-, environment-, geography-, governance-, health-, safety-, security-, marketing-, people-, product/services-, research-, training-, education-, and technology-related strategies. Each strategy was presented to relevant responsible parties (government, platform facilitator, resource provider, and resource consumer), who are responsible for implementing the strategy to achieve a successful SE operation. Offering affordable prices, special offers, and discounts were highlighted, and the importance of taking security deposits from customers was highlighted as an economy-related strategy. Furthermore, fair pricing strategies and the integration of various payment methods were mentioned as economy-related strategies. In order to sustain the business successfully in the future, the responsibility of sharing resources and using environmentally friendly and durable materials were recognised as environment-related strategies. Strategically positioning shared spaces near diverse amenities and gradually extending the business to improve service coverage were illustrated as geography-related strategies. Furthermore, implementing an industry-specific legal framework was repeatedly cited as a most-needed strategy in many studies, while implementing legislative measures for extended producer responsibility was highlighted as another governance-related strategy. Disinfecting and deep cleaning shared resources between each use and implementing health and safety measures were described as health-, safety-, and security-related strategies. Among marketing-related strategies, offering cross-promotions, using social media for advertising, inviting influencers to support the business, and launching a two-way rating and feedback system were highlighted. Establishing a good rapport and partnership was noted as a people-related strategy, while providing easy access and a simple sharing process was mentioned as a product/service-related strategy. Moreover, offering 24/7 assistance and emergency support, and providing a wide range of products and services were discussed as product/service-related strategies to enhance SE practices. Providing clear communication about all the information, offering training and education, establishing incubation centres, involving PIOC communication strategies, and conducting research and innovations were elaborated as research-, education-, and training-related strategies. Moreover, maintaining a feature-rich and user-friendly digital platform, setting up a live chat function, developing advanced travel prediction algorithms and GPS technologies, integrating blockchain technology, and developing a mobile app-based version of each digital platform were identified as technology-related strategies that can be implemented in order to enhance SE practices. Accordingly, the results of this research can be synthesised to yield a range of theoretical and practical implications. Overall, this SLR provides a noteworthy contribution to expanding the knowledge related to strategies that can be implemented to enhance SE, which have previously received limited research attention. Several future research directions were also suggested to broaden the current knowledge of the research domain. These findings signify practical importance since they highlight the strategies to be applied in developing and maintaining SE practices in the quest towards more sustainable and circular practices.