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Article

Experimental Analysis of Mechanical Property Enhancement of Paper-Pulp-Based Packaging Materials Using Biodegradable Additives

by
Amalka Indupama Samarathunga
1,2,3,
Watagoda Gedara Chathura Madusanka Kulasooriya
2,
Horawala Mahawaththage Dona Umesha Sewwandi
2,4,
Vimukthi Vithanage
1,2,3,
Ashan Induranga
1,2,3,
Buddhika Sampath Kumara
3,5 and
Kaveenga Koswattage
2,3,*
1
Faculty of Graduate Studies, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya 70140, Sri Lanka
2
Department of Engineering Technology, Faculty of Technology, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya 70140, Sri Lanka
3
Center for Nano Device Fabrication and Characterization (CNFC), Faculty of Technology, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya 70140, Sri Lanka
4
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa 10400, Sri Lanka
5
School of Mechanical, Medical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(23), 10310; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310310
Submission received: 12 October 2024 / Revised: 2 November 2024 / Accepted: 7 November 2024 / Published: 25 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Development of Composite Materials: From Smart Production to Optimal Operation)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Generally, paper-pulp-based materials are emerging in the packaging industry due to their high degree of biodegradability. Along with agricultural byproducts as an alternative, using additive or secondary materials in various processes and products has been a solution for implementing sustainability in material utilization. However, biodegradable materials still need to be improved due to the lack of properties which are essential for their use as packaging material. Currently, a number of research attempts have focused on enhancing the mechanical and thermal properties to increase the effectivity of those biodegradable materials for use as packaging material. The objective of this study is to analyze the effectivity of using sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) and wheat flour (starch) as a strengthening and thermal resistive additive. Due to its proven nano range particle size and fibrous nature, this material could positively affect the material properties. A total of twelve samples were prepared by varying the weight fraction of SCBA, white flour, and paper pulp. A compression molding method was used to prepare cylindrical samples with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 55 mm under a compression load of 2 tonnes. Wet molded cylindrical blocks were oven-dried at 105 °C for 48 h to remove excessive moisture from the samples. Subsequently, all the samples were dried further until no significant weight loss was observed after the drying process to ensure their uniform moisture conditions. The prepared samples were tested for compressive strength using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM). Both load and compressive stress acting on each sample were plotted against the deflection of the sample. For the analysis, the deflection of each sample was measured at 8.6 kN load and the sample with 10% SCBA and 12.5% starch exhibited the least displacement among all additives. The results show that the samples with 10% SCBA and 12.5% starch also had the highest compressive strength compared to the other samples. Further, samples with the same amount of SCBA were analyzed for thermal resistivity and to obtain the thermal behavior of samples which is crucial in food packaging.Overall, most of the SCBA and starch mixed samples showed superior compressive strength compared to the pure paper-pulp-based sample.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Today, in many industries, conventional petroleum-based plastics are used in packaging applications, which creates various environmental problems. Over 300 million tons of plastic have been produced in the last six years, and only less than 10% of the plastic production is recycled [1]. Therefore, as an alternative approach to packaging, the use of biodegradable materials is emerging in many industrial packaging applications to reduce the environmental impact [2]. Among them, paper-pulp-based biodegradable packaging is an emerging solution. Paper-based packaging is often preferred in various applications due to the widespread availability of the base material. It is easily formable and presents a practical solution to managing waste paper. Paper, cardboard, and other pulp-based products are considered as a replacement for single-use plastic in food packaging applications due to their eco-friendly nature, abundant resources, low price, low weight, good mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and recyclability [3].
Paper recycling benefits the environment in many respects, such as by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and saving energy. At the same time, paper pulp is a fiber-filled composite which has improved tensile strength and tear strength [4]. A newly invented material named “Nature Flex” was marketed by a United States-based company and was reported to offer an extremely wide heat seal range, printability, long shelf life, and good gas barrier properties. Billerud Korsnäs from Sweden introduced “Fiber Forms” in 2009 as a renewable packaging material [3]. Despite the eco-friendly nature of biodegradable materials, certain essential packaging properties, such as strength, thermal resistance, and water resistance, have been compromised in paper-based packaging. These factors are critical in minimizing damage to the packaged items. In this context, several research efforts have been dedicated to restoring the compromised properties by adding various additives while maintaining their biodegradability. The introduction of natural fillers to these composites is a trending research area and they have many proven advantages such as increased degradation ability, increased mechanical properties, low cost, etc. [5,6,7]. The properties of conventional and biodegradable materials used in packaging are listed in Table 1 and Table 2.
Biodegradable composite packaging materials typically exhibit lower mechanical strength values compared to their nonbiodegradable counterparts. However, certain biodegradable materials, such as PHB and PLA, boast high strength values. Despite this, the fabrication process for these biodegradable packaging materials is complex, and raw materials are often scarce, resulting in higher costs compared to nonbiodegradable plastics. Consequently, there is a need for cost-effective, high-strength, and readily available biodegradable composite materials to meet the demands of the packaging industry. Currently, several natural additives, such as bagasse ash, soybeans, dehydrated lentils, mushrooms, chitosan, and various types of starch compounds, are being blended with paper pulp to enhance its mechanical properties [21]. Several researchers have evaluated the performance of SCBA as an additive for biodegradable composite developments. The incorporation of SCBA adds value in several ways since SCBA is also a solid agricultural waste obtained from the boilers of sugar factories after the combustion of sugarcane bagasse [22]. This SCBA waste is mainly composed of silicon oxide (SiO2), with other minor components such as aluminum, iron, calcium, and potassium oxides. In some cases, fluxing and/or nonplastic materials (e.g., quartz) can be used to improve the sintering process and final material properties [1,2].
Studies on the pozzolanic properties of SCBA have been carried out by researchers in Sri Lanka and India, where SCBA has been added as an additional cementitious material, resulting in increased concrete strength [23,24]. The properties of starch-based materials can be significantly improved by blending with synthetic oil-based polymers [25]. Natural starch is one of the most promising polymers because of its inherent biodegradability, abundance, and annual renewability. It is a polysaccharide produced by plants as a means of storing energy. Most commercially available starches are isolated from grains such as corn, rice, and wheat, or tubers such as potato and cassava (tapioca).
Starch offers a very attractive low-cost base for new biodegradable polymers due to its low material cost and ability to be processed with conventional plastic processing equipment. However, these blends are not biodegradable; thus, the advantage of using a polysaccharide is lost. Therefore, polymer blends and composites made solely from natural raw materials are the best choice for the environment. A research team from Sri Lanka found that starch, which is extracted from cassava tubers, is an experimentally proven biodegradable additive material that can increase the tensile strength of the product. Further, it was revealed that biodegradability increases with the amount of starch added [26,27]. The characteristics of biodegradable composites can be summarized based on the various strength-enhancing additives listed in Table 3.
The possibility of recycling waste materials (rice husk ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, fly ash, etc.) in food packaging offers numerous environmental and financial benefits by saving raw materials. Various mechanical characterization techniques are used to obtain useful information regarding the durability of the biodegradable packaging. Among them, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural properties, burst strength, and bending resistance/stiffness are commonly used mechanical properties to determine the quality of paper-based food packaging [3]. The Universal Testing Machine (UTM), short-span compression tester, and Brinell hardness tester are well suited for analyzing a material’s behavior under different loading conditions. This testing equipment can evaluate material properties such as tensile strength, elasticity, compression, yield strength, elastic and plastic deformation, bend compression, and strain hardening [31].
Further, the biodegradable composites composed of low-density polyethylene and cellulose-hemicelluloses have shown improved material and mechanical properties. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) has been widely used for the identification and characterization of extracted compounds [32]. Researchers have explored the use of animal and agricultural byproducts, which pose inherent mechanical properties as protein sources for biobased packaging films. Researchers have used two technological processes for treating these byproducts, termed the “dry process” and “wet process” [33]. Consequently, biodegradable packaging should align with consumer expectations typically fulfilled by plastic or nonbiodegradable food packaging [34]. Given that the overarching objective of this study is to mitigate environmental pollution by minimizing the reliance on plastic or nonbiodegradable food packaging, this research aims to enhance the mechanical properties of biodegradable packaging. Although paper-based packaging materials are biodegradable, recyclable, and cost-effective, their inherent thermal properties limit their usage in applications where specific conductivity is crucial. Therefore, thermal property enhancement of paper-pulp-based materials is essential for broadening its applicability, particularly in packaging for temperature-sensitive products [35].
Thermal conductivity of natural cellulose-based paper pulp packaging materials ranges from 0.2 to 0.09 W/m·K, which is considerably higher compared to conventional polystyrene’s thermal conductivity (approximately less than 0.03 W/m·K). However, due to porosity and moisture content, there are pulp-based compounds that have reduced thermal conductivity [36,37]. For instance, Kaolin, calcium carbonate, calcium silicate, and clay and other mineral-mixed clays were found to increase the thermal resistivity by approximately 15% in pulp-based composites [38,39]. In past research studies, insulated boxes with temperature-controlled walls have been used to analyze the thermal conductivity of different material layers due to their simplicity [40]. Furthermore, measuring the thermal properties of both liquid and solid materials is essential for understanding their behavior in various applications [41,42,43,44,45]. To properly analyze the thermal resistivity and behavior of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), particularly for food packaging, it is crucial to perform thermal property measurements.
Material recycling is an element of the sustainable development of a country. This study mainly focuses on three main pillars: social, economic, and environmental sustainability. By adding value to recycled paper and using it in more advanced applications, it primarily reduces the cost of original materials, which results in reduced cash outflow from the country. Additionally, resources will be preserved for an extended period, benefiting future economies as well [46]. Since paper is primarily obtained from renewable resources, the life cycle impact is significantly reduced compared to fossil-fuel-based packaging materials [47]. Additionally, utilizing wastepaper as a primary raw material enables recycling and reduces the environmental impact associated with paper production. Recent studies highlight the potential of using agricultural byproducts as a building material. This helps decrease landfill waste and conserves natural resources [48,49]. Additionally, the incorporation of biodegradable additives into the paper pulp enhances the material’s properties while ensuring that the final product is enriched with mechanical, thermal, and other barrier properties, which are essential as packaging materials. This promotes environmentally friendly practices by reducing reliance on synthetic additives that can harm ecosystems [50].
Furthermore, the development of paper-pulp-based packaging materials contributes to a lower carbon footprint compared to conventional plastic packaging. Currently, the inherent limitations of biodegradable properties have maintained a higher demand for conventional nonbiodegradable packaging materials. By providing an effective biodegradable alternative, this research outcome supports the transition toward more sustainable packaging solutions. Additionally, by reusing agricultural waste such as sugarcane bagasse ash, it promotes a circular economy where materials are reused and repurposed, reducing the need for virgin resources while inventing solutions for managing solid waste [51].
The ASTM D642 and TAPPI T804 standards [52,53] are commonly used to assess the compressive strength of packaging materials, particularly corrugated and fiberboard products. During the test, the fabricated container is loaded with the content until it fails due to bending and crushing [52]. Since tensile strength is also crucial in packaging materials, the ISO 1924-2 standard test method is widely used to assess the tensile properties. The dedicated machine for tensile testing operates at a constant rate of elongation of 20 mm/min, which indicates the tensile strength and tensile energy absorption of the paper board at the point of failure. ISO 1924-2:2008 also defines formulas for determining the tensile index, the tensile energy absorption index, and the modulus of elasticity [54]. Tear resistance is essential for ensuring the longevity and robustness of packaging during handling. ASTM D1922 Elmendorf Tear is a testing method that uses a pendulum impact tester to measure the force required to propagate an existing slit a fixed distance to the edge of the test sample, which is a clear indication of testing strength [55]. The three-point bending test (ASTM D790) [56] is commonly employed to evaluate flexural strength. Under a three-point bending test, a simple beam made of paper pulp is supported at two edges and loaded at the midpoint [56]. The maximum load that can be withstood prior to bending failure is an important parameter that defines the flexural capacity of packaging material. These parameters are essential in packaging materials since enhanced mechanical properties could minimize the damage to the inside content while having comparatively lightweight packaging.
According to previous studies, most of the additives have shown superior multiple properties. However, most of those additives are difficult to integrate into the actual production since they are not commonly available and add a comparatively higher additional cost to the final product. Therefore, this study focuses on the possibility of using SCBA, which is generated as waste from sugar production factories as an additive. Finally, the research outcomes will be beneficial in both ways as an additive and as an effective solution for the generated ash waste.

2. Methodology

The experiment was carried out based on three separate criteria: analyzing the effect of SCBA as a strengthening additive (Category 01), starch as an additive (Category 02), and mixed ratios of SCBA and starch as a filler and a strengthened additive (Category 03). The samples were prepared to analyze compressive strength and stiffness, as these are the primary factors governing the strength of packaging materials. The following materials were used for preparing the samples.
  • Waste papers: Collected internally from the university premises. All collected papers were used to prepare the pulp without undergoing any categorization process.
  • Sugarcane bagasse ash: Fly ash was collected from Ethimale Plantation (Pvt) Ltd., located in the Monaragala district of Sri Lanka. The ash sample was sieved to obtain uniform particles with a mesh size of 200 µm.
  • Wheat flour: Purchased locally.
  • Water: Distilled water was used instead of tap water to prepare samples to minimize the potential effects of minerals mixed in regular water.
Initially, samples were prepared for categories 01 and 02. Based on the results obtained, samples for category 03 were then prepared. The compositions of each additive for all three categories are indicated in Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6.
Cylindrical-shaped paper packaging material samples with a height of 55 mm and diameter of 50 mm were prepared considering the platform size of the UTM and ease of preparation. Crushed paper was initially mixed with a calculated amount of water and beaten in a kitchen blender for 2 min until paper pulp was formed. After that, additives were added to the same beating container, and the pulp samples were blended again for an additional minute. The measured paper pulp samples were compressed up to the same volume (same sample height) using the special compression molding machine that was designed and fabricated for this specific research study. Through this method, the uniformity of the samples was maintained during the sample preparation process. Immediately after crushing, predetermined amounts of starch and SCBA were added to the separate samples (Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6). The wet compression molding method was used to prepare samples with the desired shape using a specially designed compression rig under the metered compression load of 2 tons (Figure 1).
Soon after ejecting, the samples were dried in an electric oven at a temperature of 105 °C for a duration of 48 h. To ensure zero moisture content in the samples, the weight of the samples was measured intermittently until it showed a constant weight. Finally, all the dried samples were tested for compressive strength using 100 kN UTM, manufactured by NL Scientific, Klang, Malaysia and we analyzed the obtained load vs. displacement values.
Figure 2b shows the sample shape after compression testing. The image indicates that the sample is uniformly compressed, and dense layering is visible along the sides of the sample. The surface texture of the disc is rough, with a slightly fibrous appearance, characteristic of the pulp and ash blend. During the compression testing, the molded sample displayed clear ductile properties, with no sudden failures present (Figure 2b). The UTM automatically terminates the test when a crack forms in the sample, resulting in a significant loss of compression.
Further above, SCBA-added samples were subjected to thermal resistivity testing with a guarded heat flow meter (GHFM-01) following the ASTM E1530-19 [57] testing method to assess the suitability of SCBA as an additive. Enhanced thermal properties are essential, as packaged items such as food, electronics, and other products need to be stored and used under controlled temperatures to maintain the required product quality.
Six samples with varying SCBA content from 0% to 20% were prepared to assess the thermal conductivity of compressed samples. The final weight of each paper samples was set to 25 g to ensure uniform compression. Samples of 50 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height were prepared. In the thermal conductivity meter, the following settings were defined, considering the nature of the application of general pulp-based packaging material. For the analysis, upper plate and lower plate temperatures were set to 55 °C and 25 °C to obtain a mean temperature of 40 °C throughout the sample.

3. Results

3.1. Color and Shape of the Samples

When examining the dried samples, their color changed with the inclusion of SCBA. Incomplete combustion during the burning of sugarcane bagasse can lead to the presence of carbon residues in the ash. As the proportion of SCBA increases, the color tends to darken. This color change may negatively affect the surface printing of the packaged material.

3.2. Compressive Strength Analysis

Initially, the base sample, which contains only paper pulp, was tested with the UTM, and the following load vs. displacement plot was obtained. All the samples were subjected to continuously increasing compressive load, which started from zero. For ease of analysis, the deflection of the sample under the same direct load was considered. The deflection of the sample can be considered a parameter that describes the compressive strength since all the samples have the same initial size.
According to the obtained results, the sample with no SCBA shows 29.64 mm deflection under the load of 8.6 kN (Figure 3).
Figure 4 and Figure 5 show the compression testing results of SCBA mixed paper pulp samples with 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% weight percentages of SCBA. For the samples with 2.5% and 5.0% SCBA weights, the deflections under 13.5 kN load were increased. Thus, compressive strengths decreased compared to the base sample. Furthermore, samples with 7.5% and 10.0% SCBA percentages showed less displacement, which indicates a higher compressive strength. The findings prompted further investigation of samples with even higher SCBA content to assess the limits of this strength improvement on samples with 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% of SCBA weights (Figure 5).
According to the results represented in the graph (Figure 5), it is clearly shown that the sample with 10% SCBA composition shows the least displacement at moderate and higher loads. These two curves lie on top of each other. At 13.5 kN load, the samples deflect only in 29.2 mm, which is 26.3% less than the base sample. Further, displacement is nearly the same for all three compositions tested under low compression loads. Hence, the sample with a 10% SCBA composition exhibits the greatest stiffness among the tested samples.
Compression testing results of starch mixed paper samples, which represent the load vs. deflection data for four samples with 7.5%, 10%, 12.5%, and 15% wheat flour (starch) weights, were obtained (Figure 6). Samples with 7.5%, 10%, and 15% of starch show the same deflection under low compression loads. Further results clearly show that the sample with 12.5% starch has lower displacement compared to other samples for moderate and higher loads.
Figure 7 illustrates the compression characteristics of two distinct samples with equal proportions (15%) of SCBA and starch as additives. The sample with SCBA demonstrates superior compression properties compared to the sample with added starch.
Figure 8 represents the deflection of the samples of mixed ratios of SCBA and starch under compression forces. According to the deflection readings, the sample with 10% SCBA and 10% starch exhibits higher compressive properties compared to other compositions.

3.3. Thermal Resistivity Analyze

After analyzing each sample for one hour, temperature variation over time, thermal flux across the surface, thermal conductivity, and thermal resistivity of each sample were evaluated, as shown in Table 7.
The data are included in Figure 9 as two sets labeled “Upper Temperature” and “Upper Flux”, although only the “Upper Flux” line (in orange) is prominent. Initially, the flux shows a sharp increase to around 1000 W/m2, followed by an immediate drop to below zero. After this rapid fluctuation, the flux stabilizes, gradually settling around 400 W/m2 and maintaining a steady value with minimal fluctuations.
This pattern may indicate an initial transient phase where the system or material quickly absorbs and then loses energy before reaching a steady-state condition (Figure 9). The behavior aligns with findings from thermal conductivity studies, in which materials like SCBA-enhanced pulp exhibit rapid thermal changes before stabilizing, making them suitable for applications requiring consistent thermal performance over time.
According to the results obtained, increasing SCBA content leads to a slight increment in thermal conductivity of the novel material. Compared to the thermal resistivity in pure paper-pulp-based packaging material, sample no. 3 (15% SCBA-added sample) showed comparatively higher thermal resistivity (Figure 10).
In general, researchers observed that the addition of SCBA resulted in an increase in the thermal conductivity of the paper pulp material. Consequently, the novel pulp-based material is recommended for ready-to-eat meals that require faster oven heating, uniform heat distribution, and reduced power consumption. Further, high thermal conductivity can also enhance cooling, which is beneficial for cold or frozen food packaging, as it allows frozen foods to cool rapidly after exposure to warmer environments. Thus, this novel pulp-based material shows potential for use in food and other product packaging due to its enhanced mechanical and thermal properties. Furthermore, the SCBA-added packaging material can also be recommended for other equipment where thermal resistivity is not crucial, such as electronics and fabrics.

4. Conclusions

In this study, the paper pulp composite samples were formulated under three distinct criteria: SCBA as a strengthen additive (Category 01), starch as an additive (Category 02), and mix ratios of SCBA and starch (Category 03). The samples were tested for compressive strength with UTM under varying the applied compression load on the samples. The deflection of each sample is compared at the 8.6 kN load point. When analyzing the results received for the samples prepared under category 01, it can be observed that the compressive strength of the paper composite increases with the increasing SCBA concentration, and from the samples tested, 10% SCBA/paper w% showed the highest compressive strength. The samples prepared under category 02, where starch is used as an additive to paper pulps, show a maximum compressive strength in the 12.5% starch/paper w% sample. From these experimental results, we can conclude the following. Among the samples prepared with a SCBA amount of 10%, the sample with 12.5% starch showed the highest compressive strength. According to the compressive strength variation shown in Figure 8 for mixed ratios between SCBA and starch, it is clear that mixed ratios also show enhanced properties compared to the base sample. Regardless, the deflection of the sample was increased and this is a sign of reduced compressive strength in the mixed ratio samples compared to the samples with single additive. According to the previous studies, starch behaves as a filler material in paper pulp materials. Due to the fibrous nature of SCBA and the resulting interlaced fiber network, which provides strength through physical entanglement, it shows better compressive strength compared to starch. Through scanned electron microscopy (SEM), those results can be validated further.
  • Both SCBA and starch increased the compressive strength of paper composites when added as an additive. The SCBA-based paper pulp composite showed peak compressive strength in higher w% concentration compared to starch.
  • There was no significant variation in strength of all compositions under lower compressive loads.
  • SCBA performed better than starch as an additive in regards to the compressive strength of paper composite.
  • Addition of SCBA resulted in an increase in the thermal conductivity of the paper. pulp material.
These findings suggest that SCBA and starch are promising biodegradable additives for improving the mechanical properties of paper-based materials, potentially benefiting the development of eco-friendly packaging solutions. The chemical interactions between SCBA and cellulose could result in a more cross-linked network structure, which can further enhance the strength and integrity of the paper pulp. However, SCBA did not enhance the thermal resistance of the composites, indicating an area for further exploration. Further, this research could focus on using biodegradable agents and optimizing additive ratios to find more successful biodegradable additives. The results of this study will contribute to studies on sustainable material development, which will help the transfer to environmentally friendly packaging alternatives. For future research studies, it is recommended to conduct tensile tests and flexure tests on the same material combinations to comprehensively analyze their sustainability as a packaging material. Furthermore, a water resistivity test and biodegradability analysis would add more value from the perspective of the sustainable packaging industry, which promotes biodegradable materials.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.S.K. and K.K.; methodology, A.I.S. and W.G.C.M.K.; software, H.M.D.U.S. and A.I.S.; validation, V.V. and A.I.; formal analysis, A.I.S.; investigation, B.S.K.; resources, A.I.S. and V.V.; data curation, V.V. and A.I.; writing—original draft preparation, A.I.S., W.G.C.M.K. and H.M.D.U.S.; writing—review and editing, A.I.S.; visualization, W.G.C.M.K.; supervision, K.K.; project administration, A.I.S.; funding acquisition, K.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Science and Technology Human Resource Development Project, Ministry of Education, Sri Lanka, funded by the Asian Development Bank (grant nos. CRG-R2-SB-1 and CRG-R3-SB-4).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Designed sample preparation rig. (b) Measuring weights of the dried samples. (c) Dried Samples at different SCBA percentages: 1.5%, 2.5%, 3.5%, and 5%.
Figure 1. (a) Designed sample preparation rig. (b) Measuring weights of the dried samples. (c) Dried Samples at different SCBA percentages: 1.5%, 2.5%, 3.5%, and 5%.
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Figure 2. (a) Compression testing using UTM. (b) Sample shape after compression testing.
Figure 2. (a) Compression testing using UTM. (b) Sample shape after compression testing.
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Figure 3. Load vs. displacement (without SCBA).
Figure 3. Load vs. displacement (without SCBA).
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Figure 4. Load vs. displacement for SCBA (2.5–10%).
Figure 4. Load vs. displacement for SCBA (2.5–10%).
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Figure 5. Load vs. displacement for SCBA (10–25%).
Figure 5. Load vs. displacement for SCBA (10–25%).
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Figure 6. Load vs. displacement for starch (7.5–15%).
Figure 6. Load vs. displacement for starch (7.5–15%).
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Figure 7. Load vs. displacement for SCBA (15%) and starch (15%).
Figure 7. Load vs. displacement for SCBA (15%) and starch (15%).
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Figure 8. Load vs. displacement of samples with mix ratios (SCBA 10% fixed and starch 5–20%).
Figure 8. Load vs. displacement of samples with mix ratios (SCBA 10% fixed and starch 5–20%).
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Figure 9. Thermal flux across the sample vs. time.
Figure 9. Thermal flux across the sample vs. time.
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Figure 10. Thermal properties vs. SCBA composition.
Figure 10. Thermal properties vs. SCBA composition.
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Table 1. Nonbiodegradable composite-based food packaging materials and their properties.
Table 1. Nonbiodegradable composite-based food packaging materials and their properties.
NamePropertiesTensile Strength (MPa)References
LDPE film (low-density polyethylene)Stiff21.98[8,9]
Strong
Tough
Resistant to chemical and moisture
PP film (Polypropylene)Harder~48[9,10]
Denser
Transparent
Resistant to heat and chemicals
PVC film (Polyvinyl Chloride)Stiff3.56[9,11]
Medium strong and transparent material
Resistant to chemicals grease and oil
Good flow
PS Film (Polystyrene)Clear~22.95[9,12]
Hard and brittle material
Foaming produces an opaque
Rigid
Lightweight material with impact protection and thermal insulation properties
Table 2. Biodegradable composite-based food packaging and properties.
Table 2. Biodegradable composite-based food packaging and properties.
NamePropertiesTensile Strength (MPa)References
Fish gelatin filmExcellent film-forming ability9.08[13]
High binding potential with water and emulsifying properties
Edible, poor strength, durability, and low barrier effects
PLA (polylactide)Good mechanical strength, biocompatibility, abundance43.19[14]
Brittleness, low thermal stability, and low barrier properties
PHB (Polyhydroxybutyrate)Excellent moisture barrier and excellent mechanical performance40[15]
Crystallinity, biocompatibility, and is naturally compostable
PLA/PHB film 41.20[16]
Chitosan/PCL (Polycaprolactone)
fibrous mat		Great biocompatible, biodegradable, low-set processing temperature (60 °C)14[17]
Low barrier properties and lack of mechanical strength
PBSA/(90 wt.% PBS + 10 wt.% PBSA)
film PBS (Polybutylene Succinate)		Good processability and thermal stability, and chemical resistance28.97[18]
Mechanical properties similar to PE and PP materials
Cassava starch/chitosan 8.98[19]
PVA/gum Arabic
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)		Higher barrier properties
Good thermal stability		16.10[20]
Table 3. Additives and their properties.
Table 3. Additives and their properties.
AdditivesSourcePropertiesReferences
PaperWood, CottonVery good retention of elastic modulus in flexure with heating[28]
Bamboo, StrawGood moisture absorption
Water vapor permeability increased
CornAntioxidant capacity increased
StarchPotato starchIncrease apparent density values[29]
Rice starchEnhance the resistance to ultraviolet and thermal aging
Increase the food shelf life
BagasseSugarcaneStrength properties (burst factor and breaking length are comparable due to better bonding characteristics.)[30]
Optical properties (brightness stability is higher and opacity is lower)
Printability is superior
Table 4. Composition of paper and SCBA.
Table 4. Composition of paper and SCBA.
SampleWater 90%
((V ± 0.5) × 10−3 L)		Paper
((W ± 0.5) × 10−3 kg)		Percentage of Paper (%)SCBA
((W ± 0.5) × 10−3 kg)		Percentage of SCBA (%)
145045.00905.0010
245042.50857.5015
345040.008010.0020
445037.507512.5025
Table 5. Composition of Paper and Starch.
Table 5. Composition of Paper and Starch.
SampleWater 90%
((V ± 0.5) × 10−3 L)		Paper
((W ± 0.5) × 10−3 kg)		Percentage of Paper (%)Starch
((W ± 0.5) × 10−3 kg)		Percentage of Starch (%)
1450.042.5085.007.5015.00
2450.043.7587.506.2512.50
3450.045.0090.005.0010.00
4450.046.2592.503.757.50
Table 6. Mix ratio of the samples (Constant SCBA).
Table 6. Mix ratio of the samples (Constant SCBA).
SampleWater 90%
((V ± 0.5) × 10−3 L)		SCBA (Constant)
((W ± 0.5) × 10−3 kg)		SCBA Percentage (%)Paper
((W ± 0.5) × 10−3 kg)		Paper Percentage (%)Starch
((W ± 0.5) × 10−3 kg)		Starch Percentage (%)
1450.05.001042.50852.505
2450.05.001040.00805.0010
3450.05.001037.50757.5015
4450.05.001035.007010.0020
Table 7. Thermal analysis results.
Table 7. Thermal analysis results.
SCBA CompositionThermal Conductivity (W/mK)Thermal Resistivity (m3K/W)
0% (Pure paper pulp)0.23110.0670
5%0.24690.0657
10%0.26990.0632
15%0.26730.0671
20%0.26780.0653
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Samarathunga, A.I.; Kulasooriya, W.G.C.M.; Sewwandi, H.M.D.U.; Vithanage, V.; Induranga, A.; Kumara, B.S.; Koswattage, K. Experimental Analysis of Mechanical Property Enhancement of Paper-Pulp-Based Packaging Materials Using Biodegradable Additives. Sustainability 2024, 16, 10310. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310310

AMA Style

Samarathunga AI, Kulasooriya WGCM, Sewwandi HMDU, Vithanage V, Induranga A, Kumara BS, Koswattage K. Experimental Analysis of Mechanical Property Enhancement of Paper-Pulp-Based Packaging Materials Using Biodegradable Additives. Sustainability. 2024; 16(23):10310. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310310

Chicago/Turabian Style

Samarathunga, Amalka Indupama, Watagoda Gedara Chathura Madusanka Kulasooriya, Horawala Mahawaththage Dona Umesha Sewwandi, Vimukthi Vithanage, Ashan Induranga, Buddhika Sampath Kumara, and Kaveenga Koswattage. 2024. "Experimental Analysis of Mechanical Property Enhancement of Paper-Pulp-Based Packaging Materials Using Biodegradable Additives" Sustainability 16, no. 23: 10310. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310310

APA Style

Samarathunga, A. I., Kulasooriya, W. G. C. M., Sewwandi, H. M. D. U., Vithanage, V., Induranga, A., Kumara, B. S., & Koswattage, K. (2024). Experimental Analysis of Mechanical Property Enhancement of Paper-Pulp-Based Packaging Materials Using Biodegradable Additives. Sustainability, 16(23), 10310. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310310

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