Comparative Analysis on Policy Frameworks of High-Altitude Mineral Resource Management: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Abstract

As the global demand for minerals critical to clean energy and technological innovation continues to rise, the sustainable exploitation of mineral resources in high-altitude regions becomes increasingly essential for global sustainable development. Employing SWOT analysis, deep learning, and heatmap techniques, this study delves into the mineral resource policies of China, the United States, Canada, and Chile, assessing their alignment with and impact on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Despite distinct policy frameworks, a shared focus on technological innovation and environmental sustainability is evident. China’s strategic resource allocation and stringent regulations drive a green, low-carbon shift, aligning with SDG 13 (Climate Action). The United States fosters SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) through market-driven technological advancements. Canada’s collaborative approach, emphasizing indigenous rights, underpins SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production). Chile’s national governance and international collaboration mix bolsters the mining industry’s efficiency and sustainability, supporting SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy). The study underscores a trend toward sustainable practices in mineral resource management and stresses the critical need for international cooperation. The study advocates for global collaboration and sharing of green mining technologies to accelerate the industry’s transition to a sustainable and responsible future and boost SDG achievements worldwide.

1. Introduction

Mineral resources serve as the foundational substance for human existence and progress. Population growth is an inevitable issue for human society. The global oversupply of raw materials has obscured the challenge of meeting the needs of a growing population and increased industrialization, and the demand for mineral resources continues to grow. By 2030, the global population is projected to reach 8.5 billion, bringing severe challenges related to resource consumption and shortages, impacting global society significantly [1]. A broader discussion and research on current and future mineral supplies are needed to address the growing resource demand and potential supply disruptions while mitigating environmental impacts [2]. The Paris Agreement and United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target climate change and global challenges. Achieving the SDGs will require mining companies to prioritize sustainability, integrating investments in technological innovation with regional collaboration and community development. They should adopt sustainable practices, invest in community development, and adapt to local needs. Technological progress and economic factors will determine the mining sector’s future. Despite increased profitability from technological advances, companies face ongoing social and environmental responsibilities [3]. Aligning strategies with emerging trends and regulations while securing community support will be crucial for future success.

Globally, high-altitude regions like the Qinghai–Xizang Plateau, the Rocky Mountains, and the Andes have undergone intricate orogenic processes, sculpted distinctive geological landscapes, and bestowed these areas with abundant mineral resources. These areas have become keystones in global geological and mining research, offering invaluable insights into the Earth’s crustal dynamics and mineral potential [4]. However, exploiting mineral resources in these regions presents a series of future-oriented challenges, including extreme climatic conditions, fragile ecosystems, complex terrains, and impacts on indigenous communities, all collectively constituting the complexity of mineral resource management [5]. Future development in high-altitude regions must address multiple aspects of the SDGs, such as environmental protection, social equity, and economic development. Mining operations in these areas must comply with global environmental agreements to ensure that resource development does not adversely affect ecosystems and communities. It will require balancing economic interests with environmental requirements, particularly with the increasing emphasis on climate change mitigation and renewable energy infrastructure. Legal systems must proactively adapt to these future challenges by incorporating climate change and environmental protection measures.

The academic community has achieved a series of results in the research of mineral resource management. For example, some studies emphasize the importance of environmental protection in mineral resource management, proposing methods and strategies to achieve environmental sustainability in resource development [6]. Other studies focus on technological innovation in mineral resource development [7], exploring how to improve resource development efficiency through technological advancements while reducing negative environmental impacts [8]. Additionally, some studies focus on the role of international cooperation in addressing transnational mineral resource management issues [9], analyzing the importance of international legal frameworks and multilateral agreements in promoting resource management cooperation. The SDGs have become increasingly important in scientific research and society, and countries face different challenges and opportunities in achieving SDGs [10]. This study further explores the relationship between high-altitude mineral resource management policies and SDGs and analyzes how different countries’ policies promote or hinder SDG achievement. These studies collectively highlight the need for future-oriented policies and strategies to address emerging global challenges and ensure sustainable resource management. International mining legislation varies significantly due to differences in mineral resource types, industry development stages, and national contexts [11]. Countries with different resource reserves focus on different legislative aspects: developing countries prioritize resource exploration, while developed countries emphasize high-value industry chains [12]. Industry development stages influence mining laws and political, economic, and social factors [13], such as governance capabilities, environmental awareness, and social stability impact legislation [14]. The advancement of global economic integration [15] requires precise and forward-thinking legislation to ensure mining governance and industry sustainability. Scientifically sound legislation contributes to rational resource development, protection of national interests, and sustainable development. Countries should enhance cooperation to improve mining legislation and provide a stable legal framework for global mining.

Global high-altitude mineral deposits are predominantly in countries such as China, the United States, Canada, and Chile. These countries are the world’s principal producers and exporters of mineral resources, playing a pivotal role in the global supply chain for these vital commodities. Furthermore, they are exemplary and pioneering in establishing and executing legal frameworks and policies for mineral resources, contributing to the sustainable management of the world’s mineral resources and advancing environmental protection. These countries’ mineral resource management policies reflect their respective legal traditions, economic development levels, societal cultural values, and proactive responses and adaptations to future challenges and international trends. Comparative analysis of these countries’ strategic frameworks in high-altitude mineral resource management will enhance international exchange and cooperation and provide insights into how they prepare for future global environmental changes and resource security challenges. This approach addresses the global call for sustainable mineral resource management and responds to the international community’s environmental protection and social responsibility concerns in a future-oriented context.

SWOT analysis is a comprehensive strategic planning tool for evaluating the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to organizations, projects, or individuals. By identifying internal resources and capabilities (strengths) and potential internal limitations (weaknesses), as well as favorable conditions (opportunities) and potential risks (threats) in the external environment, SWOT enables decision-makers to gain a holistic understanding of key factors, leading to the formulation of astute strategic decisions. This analysis enhances an organization’s ability to capitalize on its internal strengths and external opportunities and strengthens strategies to mitigate the impact of weaknesses and threats [16]. Widely applied in various fields, including corporate strategic planning, market positioning, personal career development, and policy-making [17], SWOT analysis is an ongoing and dynamic process that requires regular updates to reflect changes in the internal and external environment. It provides a structured framework for continuous improvement and strategic growth [18]. Integrating SWOT analysis with future-oriented strategies in mineral resource management will provide deeper insights into navigating upcoming challenges and opportunities. This approach will be critical for adapting to the evolving landscape of global mineral resource management and ensuring that strategies are resilient and forward-looking.

This study systematically evaluates these countries’ strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats regarding mineral resource laws, regulations, and policies by adopting SWOT analysis and deep learning methods. Additionally, the study compares their legislative approaches, management institution settings, and specific policy implementations to reveal their characteristics and advantages in mineral resource development and management [19]. Special attention is given to how future trends and innovations in sustainable exploitation of mineral resources can be integrated into high-altitude regions while protecting fragile ecosystems and promoting coordinated socio-economic development. This study aims to provide a new perspective and strategy for the sustainable management of global mineral resources by comparing and analyzing the mineral resource management policies and practices in high-altitude regions of four key countries. The objectives of this study are (1) a SWOT analysis of mineral resource management in high-altitude regions and (2) a comparative analysis of legal frameworks for mineral resource management using deep learning and heat maps. The results of this study will offer insights into how future trends can shape policy recommendations, providing a scientific basis for international policy-making to ensure the sustainable management of mineral resources.

2. Study Regions and Significance

Mineral resources are unevenly distributed globally, significantly impacting the global economy and geopolitical landscape [20]. Among the mineral-rich countries, the United States, Canada, China, and Chile stand out for their rich mineral resources, frequent mining activities, relatively sound mining legislation, and especially their extensive high-altitude regions that are rich in mineral resources (Figure 1). The four countries are global leaders in high-altitude mineral exploration and extraction. Moreover, there are significant differences in the legal systems of these countries, which are deeply rooted in their respective histories, cultures, and political and economic systems.

China operates under a legal system with Chinese characteristics of socialism, heavily influenced by the civil law tradition, emphasizing the uniformity and authority of the law [21]. The Chinese legal system is centered around the Constitution and regulated by a comprehensive set of laws and regulations that govern all aspects of social life, focusing on collective interests and social order [22]. In contrast, the United States, as a representative of the standard law system, has a legal system primarily based on case law, with statutory law playing a secondary role. The U.S. law emphasizes individual rights and freedoms, and judges rely on precedents and can create new legal rules within certain limits. The U.S. Constitution and its amendments hold a central position in the U.S. legal system, and judges can directly cite constitutional provisions in their rulings [23]. Canada’s legal system blends civil law and common law traditions. As a federal state, Canada’s legal system consists of both federal laws and the laws of its provinces or territories. Quebec stands out as the only region in Canada that follows the civil law system, differing from other regions where case law predominates [24]. Chile’s legal system is also part of the civil law tradition, with a legal heritage deeply influenced by Spanish law. Chilean law emphasizes statutory law’s systematic and logical nature, and judges primarily rely on written legal provisions rather than precedents when adjudicating cases [25].

In addition, China is a top consumer of mineral resources with a vast distribution, including in high-altitude regions. Its mining industry is experienced, with significant achievements in exploration, development, and management, supported by comprehensive laws for resource protection, efficiency, and environmental standards. These regulations legally support the industry’s sustainable development, which is integral to China’s economic and social stability [26]. The U.S. has stringent mining laws for sustainability and environmental protection, balancing development with preservation. The Environmental Protection Agency enforces these regulations, mandating environmental restoration. The U.S. also considers socio-economic impacts, ensuring mining activities benefit local communities and protect workers’ rights, promoting sustainable and transparent practices. Canada, a federal nation, delegates significant natural resource management to its provinces, considering mining crucial for socio-economic development. Provincial governments oversee mining operations, while the federal government is involved in strategic areas like uranium and northern territories, ensuring macro-level control for sustainable development. Chile, known for its copper production, has rich, high-altitude mineral resources. The government has established laws to manage mining interests, protect the environment, and encourage investment. Chile’s legal framework and experience offer a model for sustainable mining management, emphasizing social responsibility and community collaboration, with a focus on environmental impact assessments and protection measures [27].

3. Methods and Data

In this study, we amassed legal texts, regulations, and policy documents pertinent to mineral resource governance from the official platforms and legal repositories of China, the United States, Canada, and Chile. This meticulous step ensured the authoritative and precise character of the data sources we relied on, establishing a robust underpinning for subsequent exhaustive scrutiny.

Subsequently, advanced natural language processing methodologies were deployed to scrutinize the amassed legal texts through sophisticated deep learning architectures [28]. This process encompassed text preprocessing, feature extraction, and pattern recognition to distill pivotal insights from legal texts, regulations, and policy documents. The adoption of this approach underscores the cutting-edge and inventive nature of scientific inquiry in harnessing artificial intelligence technology for the analysis of extensive textual datasets.

Following the outcomes of deep learning analysis, this study employed the SWOT analysis technique to methodically assess the legal frameworks and policies governing mineral resource management across China, the United States, Canada, and Chile. SWOT analysis aims to comprehensively unveil the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats inherent in each nation’s approach to mineral resource management in elevated terrains, furnishing a scholarly basis for strategic decision-making in this domain. In research, NLP technology and SWOT analysis provide the foundation for a deep understanding of different countries’ legal systems. Subsequently, the powerful data visualization tool, the heatmap, was used to analyze and present this information further. TF-IDF vectorization technology creates the heatmap to transform legal description data into representative textual feature vectors. TF-IDF technology helps capture essential information in the text, reflecting the importance of different words and providing a foundation for subsequent analysis. When conducting similarity calculations, cosine similarity measurement methods were chosen, which is an effective way to measure text similarity. By calculating the similarity matrix, it is possible to clearly understand the degree of similarity between different countries in various legal categories [29].

The final heatmap visualization provides decision-makers with intuitive references, enabling a better understanding of the similarities and differences in legal systems between countries, thereby making wiser decisions [30]. This holistic analytical methodology offers essential decision-making support to government agencies, enterprises, academic institutions, and others while fostering international collaboration and advancing the evolution of legal frameworks.

Ultimately, this study scrutinized the congruences and disparities in mineral resource management strategies among the four nations via a comparative lens, particularly concerning their relevance and efficacy in high-altitude areas. This endeavor underscores the significance of cross-national comparative exploration and furnishes a multifaceted outlook and pragmatic insights for global mineral resource governance.

The methodological framework of this study epitomizes scientific rigor and ingenuity. By astutely amalgamating deep learning and SWOT analysis methodologies, it yields innovative theoretical foundations and pragmatic guidance for crafting legal frameworks and policies regulating mineral resource management in high-altitude areas, thus carrying significant ramifications for the promotion of scientific, discerning, and enduring stewardship of mineral resources.

3.1. Data

Data collection is a fundamental and critical step in conducting a comparative analysis of legal frameworks and policies for mineral resource management. This study gathered legal, regulatory, and policy texts related to mineral resource management from the official websites and legal databases of China, the United States, Canada, and Chile. These countries hold significant positions in global mineral resource production and export, and their mature and complex mineral resource management systems provide a wealth of case studies and data for research.

By accessing the National Law Information Center database of China, the US government’s public database, the Canadian government’s official website, and the official legal and regulatory databases published by the Chilean government, the study systematically gathered official documents related to mineral resource management. These data sources are considered the most authoritative and reliable, ensuring the accuracy and completeness of the research data. The collected legal, regulatory, and policy texts encompass various aspects of mineral resource exploration, development, utilization, protection, and management, covering different legal systems and administrative bodies from national to local levels (

Table 1. Data acquisition approaches.

Country	Data Acquisition Channels
China	The China National Legal Information Center database (flk.npc.gov.cn), accessed on 8 March 2024.
United States	The public database of the United States government (www.govinfo.gov), accessed on 12 March 2024.
Canada	The official website of the Canadian government (www.canada.ca), accessed on 15 March 2024.
Chile	The official legal and regulatory database published by the Chilean government (www.leychile.cl), accessed on 22 March 2024.

). These texts include specific legal provisions and policy guidance and encompass execution guidelines and administrative measures, providing a comprehensive legal background for further in-depth analysis.

Subsequently, by comparing these authoritative data with international research progress based on studies published in top academic journals on mineral resource management, this study analyzed the similarities and differences in the legal frameworks of various countries. This approach reveals innovative practices and lessons learned in each country’s mineral resource management and helps us understand the general patterns and particularities of mineral resource management under different legal systems. By synthesizing these data, this study aims to construct a multidimensional comparative analysis system of legal frameworks and policies for mineral resource management. It provides a solid data foundation for subsequent SWOT and deep learning analyses and offers scientific evidence for legal system reform and policy optimization in global mineral resource management. Furthermore, this data collection method demonstrates the study’s rigor in ensuring official and accurate data sourcing, reflecting academic research’s professionalism and scientific rigor.

3.2. Deep Learning Analysis

In this study, deep learning analysis was employed as the core technique, applying natural language processing (NLP) technology to conduct an in-depth analysis of legal texts related to mineral resource management laws collected from China, the United States, Canada, and Chile. This study effectively extracted vital information from large-scale legal texts by constructing and training deep learning models, laying the data foundation for subsequent SWOT analysis.

Text preprocessing methodologies, including tokenization, stop-word elimination, and part-of-speech annotation, were employed to cleanse and prepare the data for subsequent analysis. This process is crucial to ensure that the deep learning models can efficiently handle legal texts. Subsequently, advanced deep learning architectures such as Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), and Transformers were applied to capture complex patterns and dependencies in the textual data [31].

Considering the significant differences in research methods and policy timelines among various countries due to the involvement of diverse legal texts from different nations in the study, we creatively introduced the RNN model to avoid discrepancies arising from different spatial scales during text processing, thus preventing any potential impact on the results of text mining. The RNN model demonstrates considerable applicability and efficient technical capabilities in legal text analysis. Particularly in handling long sequence data and analyzing time series, the RNN model, through its ability to capture long-term dependencies and flexibly process variable-length sequences, effectively addresses the complexities of context and structural variations inherent in the legal texts examined in this study. This advantage is especially evident in the processing of legal documents spanning decades. Additionally, automated text mining significantly reduces the burden of manual annotation and substantially enhances data processing efficiency. The adaptability and scalability of the RNN model allow it to easily accommodate newly mined legal text data through transfer learning and fine-tuning, minimizing errors arising from temporal and spatial variations [32].

The following diagram (Figure 2) depicts the structure of an RNN, consisting of input layer x, hidden layer h, and output layer y. In the named entity recognition task, x is the input text, and y is the output label. The model tags each word in the input text. Named Entity Recognition commonly uses BIO tagging and BIOES tagging. Among them, B—begin indicates the beginning, I—inside indicates inside, O—outside indicates non-entity, E—end indicates the end of the entity, and S—single indicates the word itself is an entity. The text uses BIO tagging, where EU represents organizational entities, rejects are non-entities, German represents miscellaneous entities, and the call is a non-entity. This model needs to undergo some processing when inputting textual data, such as extracting word vectors, one-hot variables, or other statistical features, to be used as input x, and the output y is the probability of each category corresponding to the word. Each word is generally referred to as a time point t.

The formula for RNN computation is as follows [33]:

$$ht=\sigma (Wxh\ast xt+Whh\ast ht-1+bh)$$

$$yt=softmax\left(Why \ast ht+by\right)$$

where ht represents the hidden state at time step (t), which captures information from all previous time steps’ inputs and the hidden state from the last time step, and its calculation is based on the current time step’s input (xt) and the previous time step’s hidden state (ht-1). σ is an activation function, typically using Hyperbolic Tangent Function (Tanh) or Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU). Wxh is the weight matrix from the input to the hidden state, which maps the input vector (xt) to the hidden state space. Whh is the weight matrix from the previous hidden state to the current one, used to pass on information from the previous time step’s hidden state. bh is the biased term for the hidden state. yt represents the output at time step (t), usually processed from the hidden state and can be used to predict the next character or word. The output is processed through the softmax function to be converted into a probability distribution. Why is the weight matrix from the hidden state to the output used to map the hidden state to the output space. by is the biased term for the output.

Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks and Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (Bi-LSTM) networks are extensions of the primary Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) architecture aimed at addressing the vanishing gradient problem and capturing long-term dependencies in sequential data. They are commonly used in deep learning to process sequential data. LSTM introduces gate mechanisms, enabling better capture of long-term dependencies and making it suitable for tasks requiring memorization of long sequences. Bi-LSTM, on the other hand, processes input sequences in both forward and backward directions, effectively capturing bidirectional contextual information in the sequential data, further enhancing the model’s performance. These models can improve performance in sequence labeling, machine translation, and sentiment analysis tasks. Bi-LSTM stands for Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory [34]. It simultaneously considers the influence of both preceding and following contexts on annotation (Figure 3).

Through training these models, the study could identify and extract key concepts and terms from legal texts, such as the definition of mineral resources, rights to development, environmental protection requirements, and management responsibilities. The extraction of these critical pieces of information relies on the models’ understanding of text structure and the parsing of semantics specific to legal language.

The deep learning analysis method employed in this study demonstrates the sophistication and effectiveness of artificial intelligence technology in processing and analyzing large-scale legal texts. Compared to traditional text analysis methods, deep learning methods can achieve a deeper understanding of textual content, thereby improving the accuracy and efficiency of information extraction. On a global scale, similar deep learning and NLP techniques have been widely applied in legal text analysis, including but not limited to archiving legal cases, comparative studies of regulations, and content mining of policy documents. These applications drive methodological innovations in legal research and provide new tools and perspectives for policy-making and legal practice.

By applying these advanced technologies to the analysis of legal frameworks and policies related to mineral resource management, this study further pushes the boundaries of legal research, offering scientific, objective, and in-depth analysis results for global mineral resource management. This methodological approach not only reflects the professionalism and academic rigor of the research but also meets the requirements of top scientific journals for innovation and scientific rigor, contributing new theoretical and practical value to the study of legal and policy aspects of mineral resource management.

3.3. SWOT Analysis

In this study, after the extraction of critical information on the legal frameworks and policies for mineral resource management in China, the United States, Canada, and Chile through deep learning analysis, further comprehensive evaluations of these countries’ mineral resource management systems were conducted using the SWOT analysis method. As an analytical tool widely used in strategic planning and policy evaluation, SWOT analysis systematically identifies strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, providing an in-depth perspective and analytical framework for mineral resource management (

Table 2. External factors evaluation matrix.

Evaluating Indicator	Interior High Strength (S)	Interior Medium Strength (S)	Interior Low Strength (S)	Interior High Weakness (W)	Interior Medium Weakness (W)	Interior Low Weakness (W)
External High Opportunity (O)	High S High O	Medium S High O	Low S High O	High W High O	Medium W High O	Low W High O
External Medium Opportunity (O)	High S Medium O	Medium S Medium O	Low S Medium O	High W Medium O	Medium W Medium O	Low W Medium O
External Low Opportunity (O)	High S Low O	Medium S Low O	Low S Low O	High W Low O	Medium W Low O	Low W Low O
External High Threat (T)	High S High T	Medium S High T	Low S High T	High W High T	Medium W High T	Low W High T
External Medium Threat (T)	High S Medium T	Medium S Medium T	Low S Medium T	High W Medium T	Medium W Medium T	Low W Medium T
External Low Threat (T)	High S Low T	Medium S Low T	Low S Low T	High W Low T	Medium W Low T	Low W Low T

).

Through SWOT analysis, the study revealed each country’s unique advantages in mineral resource management, such as abundant natural resources, mature legal systems, efficient management practices, and a focus on environmental protection. At the same time, it also identified areas for improvement, including but not limited to consistency in law enforcement, coordination issues among management institutions, and potential conflicts between environmental protection and resource development.

More importantly, by analyzing opportunities and threats, this study explored the impact of external factors such as globalization, technological progress, international cooperation, and environmental change on each country’s mineral resource management strategies. In terms of opportunities, the expansion of the global mineral resource market, the development of green mining technologies [35], and deepening international cooperation provide new directions and possibilities for the mineral resource management of each country. Threats, global environmental changes, risks of resource depletion, and international trade conflicts may pose challenges to mineral resource management.

This study employs an integrated SWOT analysis approach, combining data provided by deep learning analysis with an extensive review of literature, to verify the reliability of the analysis results through multi-source data synthesis, case studies, and ongoing industry monitoring. The data synthesis covers official documents, academic research, and industry reports from China, the United States, Canada, and Chile to gain a comprehensive understanding of the legal frameworks, management practices, and market trends in mineral resource management. Case studies focus on policies in high-altitude mining areas of these countries, such as environmental protection policies on the QXP in China, the application of the CERCLA in Colorado, USA, environmental assessments and indigenous cooperation in mining in the Yukon Territory, Canada, and environmental technologies and management in the Atacama Desert, Chile. These practical cases provide support for the reliability of the analysis. Meanwhile, continuous monitoring of industry dynamics ensures the timeliness and relevance of the analysis results, offering a scientific basis for global mineral resource management.

In summary, this study provides a comprehensive evaluation and analysis of the legal frameworks and policies for mineral resource management in the four countries through SWOT analysis. It reveals the internal strengths and weaknesses of each country’s management systems and assesses external opportunities and threats. This analytical framework provides a scientific basis for strategic choices and policy formulation in global mineral resource management, promotes a deeper understanding and application of sustainable resource management concepts, and is significant for academic research and practical innovation in global mineral resource management.

3.4. Heatmap Analysis

Relevant legal description data on mineral resources from these countries were gathered and subjected to preprocessing to guarantee data integrity and readiness for subsequent natural language processing tasks. The dataset encompassed diverse categories, including mineral resource development, environmental conservation, land management, and cultural heritage preservation. Advanced data visualization techniques, such as heatmaps, were employed for in-depth analysis and effective presentation of this information.

In heatmap generation, the TF-IDF vectorization technique mainly transforms legal description data into text feature vectors. TF-IDF is a standard method for extracting text features, effectively capturing essential information, and reflecting the importance of different words in the text [36]. The feature vector representation of legal description text is the basis for similarity calculation and heatmap generation. After obtaining the text feature vectors, the cosine similarity measurement method calculates the similarity of legal descriptions between different countries. TF-IDF technology helps capture critical information in text, reflecting the importance of different words and laying the foundation for subsequent analysis. By computing the similarity matrix, we could understand the degree of similarity among different countries in various legal categories [37].

A similarity matrix was visualized as a heat map to show the similarity of legal descriptions among countries in different categories, providing an essential reference for decision-makers. The heat map visualized the similarity matrix, where the x and y coordinates represented different categories of legal descriptions for the four countries, and each cell value represented the similarity of legal descriptions between corresponding countries in that category. The higher the number in each cell, the higher the similarity between the corresponding countries in that category.

Further processing of textual data was conducted using natural language processing techniques. The text data were divided into four levels: high-frequency, mid-frequency, low-frequency, and extremely low-frequency, based on the frequency of occurrence of keywords. Corresponding weights were assigned to each level for subsequent analysis. When converting the textual data into a word frequency matrix, a bag-of-words model commonly used in natural language processing was adopted [38]. This word frequency matrix was then weighted according to the levels of keywords to reflect their importance. After the weighting process, a weighted keyword frequency matrix was obtained, where each cell represented the weighted frequency of the corresponding keyword in legal texts from different countries.

The final heatmap visualization results provide decision-makers with intuitive references, helping us better understand the similarities and differences in legal systems among different countries and thus make wiser decisions. This multifaceted analytical framework delivers critical decision-making support to governmental bodies, enterprises, and research institutions while fostering international collaboration and advancing the refinement of legal frameworks.

4. Results

4.1. SWOT Analysis of Mineral Resource Management

Based on a SWOT analysis of the legal frameworks and policies on mineral resource management in China, the United States, Canada, and Chile (

Table 3. SWOT evaluation matrix for China, United States, Canada, and Chile.

Evaluation	Strengths		Weaknesses		Opportunities		Threats
	Internal Factors	External Factors	Internal Factors	External Factors	Internal Factors	External Factors	Internal Factors	External Factors
China	Abundant Resources, Government Support, Technological Innovation	International Collaboration, Demand for Clean Energy, Technological Collaboration	Environmental Challenges, Ecological Balance, International Competition	Geopolitical Risks, Global Climate Change, International Regulatory Pressure	Technological Collaboration, Sustainable Development	International Experience, Clean Energy Demand, Empphasis on Cooperation	Bureaucratic Challenges, Resistance to Reforms	Global Geopolitical Risks, Global Climate Change, International Regulatory Pressures
United States	Technological Innovation, Higher Education System	International Leadership, Global Trade Agreements	Income Inequality, Healthcare System, Environmental Impact	Environmental Pressure, Political Uncertainty, Global Economic Trends	Renewable Energy Development, Innovation and Entrepreneurship	International Collaboration, Market Expansion, Technological Advancements	Regulatory Changes, Economic Instability, Political Polarization	Cybersecurity Risks, Global Competition, Political Uncertainty, Natural Disasters
Canada	Indigenous Collaboration, Technological Innovation	International Cooperation, Abundant Resources, Diverse Legal Systems	Political Uncertainty, Ecological Balance	Environmental Pressure, Extreme Climate, Regional Protectionism	Balancing Resource Development, Opportunities for Collaboration	Indigenous Partnerships, Clean Energy Demand, Sustainable Development	Legal Complexity, Political Instability	Global Climate Change, Geological Challenges, Environmental Regulations, Technological Challenges
Chile	Diverse Legal Systems, Abundant Resources, Government Support	International Cooperation, Technological Innovation	Geological Instability, Political Turmoil, International Competition	Unique Geographical Conditions, Political Instability	Sustainable Development, Technological Cooperation, Indigenous Collaboration	International Collaboration, Clean Energy Demand, Emphasis on Cooperation	Legal Inconsistencies, Resource Ownership Disputes	Global Geopolitical Risks, Global Climate Change, Political Instability, Environmental Regulations

), this study delved into each country’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in mineral resource management. The analysis comprehensively considered the existing legal literature, policy documents, and the latest academic research results, aiming to provide a comparative perspective and in-depth insights into global mineral resource management.

China’s mineral resource management system exhibits a distinct feature of state control, with advantages in achieving unified planning and coordination in resource management, as well as strict regulation in environmental protection. However, the rigidity of the management system may hinder market and technological innovation, while coordination between the central and local governments also faces challenges. With globalization and green development opportunities, China needs to balance development and protection, enhance management flexibility and efficiency, and address the threat of overexploitation of resources.

The United States’ mineral resource management reflects the advantages of market-driven and private property, promoting efficiency in resource development and technological innovation. However, this model also exposes weaknesses in insufficient environmental protection and social responsibility. Faced with the opportunities of enhanced international cooperation and the development of clean energy technologies, the United States needs to strengthen regulations to protect the environment while also addressing external threats of over-reliance on foreign investment and technology imports.

Canada highlights the advantages of federal–provincial cooperation in resource management and the emphasis on indigenous rights. The weakness of this system lies in the complexity of management processes, which may lead to inefficiency. Opportunities lie in strengthening international cooperation and utilizing technological progress to promote sustainable resource development. At the same time, threats come from the uncertainty of the global market and the impact of environmental changes on resource management.

As a significant copper-producing country globally, Chile demonstrates robust state control in resource management and an open attitude towards foreign investment. However, the economic model relying on a single mineral resource carries risks, especially considering the increasing demand for environmental protection. Chile’s opportunity lies in leveraging the growing demand for global mineral resources, while threats come from fluctuating resource prices and environmental constraints.

4.2. Deep Learning and Heatmap Analysis of Mineral Resource Management Legal Frameworks

4.2.1. Similarity

As shown in Figure 4, the x and y coordinates from 0 to 23 represent the index positions of all selected legal descriptions, corresponding to different clauses in different categories of legal descriptions for each country. Positions 0 to 5 correspond to various categories of legal descriptions for China, including mineral resources, land management, and environmental protection. Positions 6 to 13 correspond to different legal descriptions for the United States, covering mineral resource development, environmental protection, and land management. Positions 14 to 19 correspond to different legal descriptions for Canada, including mineral resource management, environmental protection, and land use planning. Positions 19 to 23 correspond to different legal descriptions for Chile involving mineral resource management, environmental protection, and land use policies.

Table 4. Index positions of selected legal descriptions and their categories.

Index	Description	Country	Specific Content
0	Mineral Resources	China	Legal regulations pertaining to the exploitation, extraction, and management of mineral resources
1	Soil Water Conservation	China	Legislation related to the conservation and management of soil and water resources
2	Mine Safety	China	Laws and regulations ensuring safety measures in mining operations
3	Protection Yangtze River	China	Legal measures for the protection and preservation of the Yangtze River ecosystem
4	Environmental Protection	China	Laws aimed at safeguarding the environment and preventing pollution
5	Prevention Control Soil Pollution	China	Measures for preventing and controlling soil pollution
6	Free Exploration Policy	USA	Legal framework governing exploration rights and policies
7	Mineral Leasing Act	USA	Legislation concerning the leasing of mineral rights on federal lands
8	Multiple Mineral Use Act	USA	Policies allowing for the multiple use of public lands for mineral extraction
9	Surface Multiple Use Mining Act	USA	Regulations governing surface mining operations
10	Federal Land Policy Management Act (FLPMA)	USA	Legislation managing the use and conservation of federal lands
11	Surface Mining Control Reclamation Act (SMCRA)	USA	Laws requiring the reclamation of mined lands to minimize environmental impacts
12	State Legislatures Limit Mineral Speculation	USA	State-level legislation aimed at regulating mineral speculation activities
13	Clinton Administration Supports Mining Law Reform	USA	Support from the Clinton administration for reforming mining laws
14	Canadian Mining Regulations	Canada	Regulations governing mining activities in Canada
15	Canadian Environmental Protection Act	Canada	Legislation aimed at protecting the environment and natural resources
16	Canadian Water Regulation	Canada	Laws and regulations concerning water management and protection
17	Canadian Land Use Law	Canada	Policies governing land use planning and management in Canada
18	Canadian Forestry Regulations	Canada	Regulations concerning the sustainable management and use of forest resources
19	Chilean Mining Laws	Chile	Legal framework governing mining activities in Chile
20	Environmental Regulations in Chile	Chile	Laws addressing environmental protection and conservation in Chile
21	Water Rights in Chile	Chile	Legislation concerning water rights and management in Chile
22	Chilean Land Use Policies	Chile	Policies governing land use planning and management in Chile
23	Forest Regulations in Chile	Chile	Regulations related to the conservation and sustainable use of forests in Chile

displays the index positions of selected legal descriptions and their categories.

Distinct clusters have emerged in legal descriptions related to environmental impact assessments, technological innovation in intelligent mining, and the intersection of economic and social development. It indicates that these key areas are critical focuses for countries when devising strategies for mineral resource management and serve as a vital foundation for international cooperation and policy dialog.

China’s “Prevention Control Soil Pollution” and the United States’ “State Legislatures Limit Mineral Speculation” (5–12 in Figure 4) demonstrate a high degree of similarity in legal frameworks and policies related to mining management and environmental protection. Both China and the U.S. have stringent measures to control mining and pollution. China’s law focuses on soil protection, with strict regulations for pollution control and land restoration after mining. In the U.S., state laws limit speculative mining practices and enforce strict mining oversight and reclamation standards to restore land to a near-natural state and prevent environmental harm. Each country uses a comprehensive legal approach encompassing prevention, control, and restoration for natural resource management and environmental protection.

The U.S. “Multiple Mineral Use Act” and Chile’s “Forest Regulations in Chile” (8–23 in Figure 4) both address the multiple uses of mineral resources and the management of forest resources. They share similar legislative focuses on resource management, multiple-use policy frameworks, sustainable development, and compliance with environmental protection requirements. The U.S. law promotes the balanced use of public land resources, including mining, while managing environmental and social effects and encouraging sustainability. Chile’s regulations aim to multi-use forest resources, balancing economic, ecological, and sustainability goals, such as ecosystem protection and biodiversity. It reflects shared global efforts to reconcile resource development with environmental stewardship.

The U.S. “Surface Multiple Use Mining Act” and Chile’s “Chilean Mining Laws” (9–19 in Figure 4) both involve the management and regulation of mining activities to ensure the rationality and sustainability of resource development, minimizing adverse impacts on the environment and communities. It is reflected in the legal frameworks of both countries, which include provisions for environmental protection and sustainable development. The U.S. and Chile stress the importance of public participation and transparency in mining regulations, ensuring that decisions are made fairly and openly. They enforce strict regulations throughout the mining process to maintain legal and sustainable practices. Although the U.S. focuses on public land management and Chile on mining activities, both countries incorporate environmental and social considerations into their laws to promote resource optimization and sustainable development.

The U.S. “Surface Mining Control Reclamation Act” (SMCRA) and Chile’s “Chilean Land Use Policies” (11–22 in Figure 4) involve legal descriptions of mining management and land use policies in these two countries, showing similarities in land resource management, environmental protection, and socio-economic development. The U.S. SMCRA ensures surface mining is conducted responsibly, focusing on land reclamation and environmental restoration to minimize ecological harm. Similarly, Chile’s land policies prioritize the sustainable and rational use of land to balance social, economic, and environmental interests. Both countries highlight the necessity for environmental protection and have stringent legal standards to promote resource sustainability and ecosystem health.

Canada’s “Canadian Mining Regulations” and Chile’s “Chilean Mining Laws” (14–19 in Figure 4) both involve mining management and operations nationwide, aiming to promote mining development while protecting environmental and social interests. Both countries share similar legal approaches to mining, emphasizing environmental protection, community engagement, social responsibility, and miner safety and health. They require mining companies to work with local communities, contribute positively to the economy and society, and minimize negative impacts. Stringent safety regulations are in place to protect miners, showing a joint commitment to sustainable mining practices and resource management.

4.2.2. Weighted Keyword Frequency

A heatmap was generated from the weighted keyword frequency matrix, with the horizontal axis representing four countries and the vertical axis representing keywords. The value in each cell indicates the weighted frequency of the corresponding keyword in legal texts from different countries. By extracting keywords from legal documents of China, the United States, Canada, and Chile, a weighted keyword frequency heatmap (Figure 5) could be generated.

The x-axis shows four studied countries, the y-axis lists extracted keywords, and the cell values indicate keyword frequency in legal texts after weighting and standardization. The results reflect the focuses and preferences of the four countries in mineral resource management. Comparing the keywords frequencies across these countries highlights similarities, differences, and potential cooperation opportunities.

In China’s legal texts, keywords mainly focus on mineral resource development and land management, reflecting China’s policy priorities. In contrast, the U.S. legal texts emphasize environmental protection and cultural heritage preservation, likely due to its capitalist economic system. Canada prioritizes environmental assessment and land management, while Chile focuses on environmental protection and cultural heritage. Comparing keyword co-occurrence among countries reveals commonalities and differences. For instance, keywords like “mineral development” and “environmental protection” are frequently mentioned across multiple countries, indicating shared challenges and considerations. Chile’s higher frequency of keywords related to mining development and governance suggests substantial experience and resources in these areas, offering opportunities for other countries to learn and collaborate. Analyzing similarities and differences in keyword frequency distribution, co-occurrence, and each country’s strengths and weaknesses can assess the feasibility and prospects of cross-border cooperation, providing a basis for formulating cooperation plans. Moreover, the U.S. and Canada have similar legal demands regarding mining safety and environmental impact assessments. In contrast, China and Chile may have different requirements for resource development permits and environmental assessments.

The heatmap further illustrates the convergence and divergence of policies and regulations. The insights gained can assist mining companies in developing compliance strategies that consider the legal requirements of different nations. By recognizing the high similarity between countries’ policies and regulations, companies can leverage these commonalities to streamline their global compliance processes and mitigate legal risks.

4.3. Case Study on Implementation of Major National Policies in High-Altitude Regions

This study formed

Table 5. Mineral resource management practices in high-altitude areas of four countries.

Country	Mining Area/Region	Background	Measures	Effects
China	Qinghai Salt Lake resources	The Qaidam Basin in Qinghai Province is a major Salt Lake resource base in China, mainly containing potassium, magnesium, and lithium resources.	Implement environmental protection policies, and promote resource comprehensive utilization and efficient extraction technologies.	Reduced environmental pollution, improved lithium resource utilization efficiency, and promoted sustainable resource development.
China	Lhasa mining area in Xizang	The Xizang region is rich in mineral resources but has a fragile ecosystem.	Implement the “Xizang Plateau Ecological Environmental Protection Plan,” promote ecological restoration technologies, and control mining scope.	Reduced impact of mining on the plateau ecosystem, and some ecological restoration.
China	Bauxite mines in Aksu, Xinjiang	Aksu in Xinjiang is an important bauxite mining area.	Adopt “eco-mining” model, advance green mining construction, implement energy conservation and emission reduction, and conduct ecological environment monitoring.	Strengthened ecological environment protection in the mining area and improved environmental protection levels.
USA	High-Altitude Mining Area in Colorado	Metal mineral resources are abundant in high-altitude areas, but environmental protection is challenging.	Implement the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), and use advanced mining and waste treatment technologies.	Improved the environmental impact of mining and successfully restored contaminated land.
USA	Pebble mine, Alaska	One of the world’s largest undeveloped copper-gold deposits.	Implement strict environmental assessment procedures and consult with communities and environmental organizations.	Increased transparency and social acceptance, but still faces significant controversy and opposition.
USA	Carlin Trend gold mine, Nevada	One of the world’s important gold mining areas.	Use “heap leaching” technology and implement a comprehensive waste management system.	Reduced negative environmental impacts, improved resource recovery rate, and economic benefits.
Canada	Diamond mining in Northwest Territories (e.g., Ekati Mine)	An important global diamond production area.	Implement strict environmental impact assessment procedures and cooperate with indigenous communities.	Protected the environment, promoted indigenous community involvement, and enhanced social sustainability of resource management.
Canada	Lac des Iles mining area, Ontario	Important platinum group metal mining area with higher geographical elevation.	Implement “Mining Environmental Management Plan” (EMMP), and monitor and mitigate environmental impacts.	Reduced pollution to water bodies and soil while maintaining high mining production efficiency.
Canada	Lac des Iles Mining Area, Ontario	Important platinum group metal mining area.	Implement “green mining” principles, including energy conservation and emission reduction, environmental protection technologies, and mine site rehabilitation.	Reduced environmental impact of mining and improved ecological restoration capability of the mining area.
Chile	Copper mining in Atacama Desert (e.g., Escondida Mine)	A major global copper mining region.	Implement “Environmental Management System” (EMS), water and energy efficiency measures, and introduce dry tailings treatment technology.	Achieved efficient mining, and reduced water resource consumption and environmental impact.
Chile	Los Bronces Mine, Metropolitan Region	Important copper mining area.	Implement “Green Mining” plan, reduce waste generation, and improve water resource utilization efficiency.	Achieved a win-win in environmental protection and economic benefits.
Chile	El Teniente Mine	Large copper mining project located at high altitude.	Introduce “smart mining” technology, including automation and remote monitoring systems.	Improved mining area management efficiency and reduced environmental impact.

by summarizing and comparing resource management practices in high-altitude mining areas across China, the United States, Canada, and Chile. Based on this, this study analyzes the experiences and outcomes of different countries, providing examples and evidence through the analysis of successful practices and existing issues in mining management. These countries have adopted different strategies and measures in mineral resource management to achieve a balance between resource development and environmental protection. These practices are closely aligned with the SDGs and demonstrate a strong commitment to them. By implementing these efforts, countries have made significant strides not only in enhancing the efficiency of resource management and environmental protection but also in contributing to the realization of global sustainable development objectives.

China’s practices focus primarily on environmental protection policies and technological innovation, which are highly relevant to the SDGs. The development of Salt Lake lithium resources in Qinghai Province, through comprehensive utilization technologies, has significantly reduced environmental pollution and improved resource utilization efficiency and contributed to SDG 13 (Climate Action) by reducing carbon emissions and protecting the ecological environment. In Xizang, the implementation of ecological restoration techniques and control of mining areas has reduced the impact of mineral exploitation on the fragile plateau ecosystems, which is in line with the goal of SDG 13 to address climate change and its impacts. With its eco-friendly mining models and green mining construction, the bauxite project in Aksu, Xinjiang, has improved environmental protection levels in mining areas, further promoting sustainable development and aligning with SDG 13. These measures enhance the sustainability of resource development and provide effective solutions for environmental protection in mining areas, actively participating in the global effort towards SDG achievement.

In the United States, mineral resource management emphasizes the implementation of laws and regulations and the application of technological measures, which have a significant impact on the SDGs. Through the Comprehensive Environmental Response, compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and advanced waste treatment technologies, the High-Altitude Mining Area in Colorado has successfully improved the environmental impact of mining and restored polluted land. It contributes to SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) as it showcases how technological innovation can enhance resource development efficiency while addressing environmental concerns and providing a sustainable model for the industry. The Peabody mine in Alaska, with its efforts in environmental assessment and community involvement, although controversial, has increased transparency and social acceptance, which is also an essential aspect of sustainable development. The Carlin Trend gold mine in Nevada, by effectively reducing environmental burdens and improving resource recovery rates and economic benefits through stacking technology and integrated waste management systems, further demonstrates the United States’ ability to combine technology and policy for sustainable resource management in line with SDG 9. These indicate that the United States effectively combines policy, technology, and social participation in mining management, focusing on promoting the SDGs through market-driven and technological means.

Canada’s mineral resource management places a greater emphasis on the integration of environmental protection and social sustainability. Through stringent environmental impact assessments and collaboration with indigenous communities, diamond mining in the Northwest Territories and the Lac Rocher mine in Ontario have achieved a win-win situation for environmental protection and social participation. It supports SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) by creating employment opportunities and economic benefits for local communities. It also contributes to SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) by ensuring sustainable resource utilization and SDG 13 through reduced environmental impact. Implementing green mining principles and innovative mining technologies has significantly reduced the environmental impact of mining and improved the ecological restoration capabilities of mining areas, further emphasizing Canada’s commitment to sustainable development and its alignment with the SDGs. These demonstrate Canada’s high regard for environmental protection, community interests in mining management, and its efforts to achieve multiple SDGs simultaneously.

Chile’s mining management focuses on environmental management systems and efficient resource use. Copper mining projects in the Atacama Desert, such as the Escondido Mine, through the implementation of environmental management systems and dry tailings treatment technologies, have significantly reduced water consumption and environmental impact. It contributes to SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) by improving water resource utilization efficiency and SDG 12 by reducing waste and environmental footprint. The Los Bronces Mine in the Metropolitan Region and El Teniente Mine, with their achievements in a win-win for environmental protection and economic benefits through green mining programs and innovative mining technologies, further illustrate Chile’s efforts in promoting sustainable mining. These examples show that Chile emphasizes innovative technology applications and comprehensive environmental protection measures in mining management, actively working towards SDG achievement in the mining sector.

The different strategies and measures these countries adopt in mineral resource management demonstrate a global effort and unique practices in balancing resource development and environmental protection. Comparing the experiences of various countries shows that scientific policies, technological innovation, and community involvement are critical factors in achieving sustainable development in mining.

Organizing the SWOT analysis of these actual cases into an external factors evaluation (EFE) matrix can help identify and assess opportunities and threats in the external environment (

Table 6. External factors evaluation matrix of SWOT analysis for actual cases.

Factor Category	Factor Description	Weight	Rating	Weighted Score	Remarks
Opportunity	Growing global demand for lithium batteries	0.15	4	0.6	Positive impact on resource management in Qinghai, China
	Increased environmental awareness and technological advancement	0.12	4	0.48	Beneficial for ecological restoration and sustainability in Lhasa, Xizang
	Cost savings and environmental benefits from technological progress	0.1	4	0.4	Effective for the green mining plan at Ango-Care Mine, Chile
	Innovations in mining management due to smart technologies	0.1	3	0.3	Beneficial for production efficiency and environmental protection at Casa Mine, Chile
Threat	Potential environmental pollution risks	0.12	2	0.24	Challenge for resource management in Qinghai, China
	Community opposition potentially affecting project progress	0.1	2	0.2	Challenge for diamond mining in Yukon, Canada
	International market price fluctuations	0.08	3	0.24	Potential risk for Ango-Care Mine, Chile
	Continuous updates and tightening of environmental regulations	0.08	2	0.16	Challenge for the Lakecroft Mine area, Canada

). The matrix meticulously assesses the external opportunities and threats for mining operations in different geographical contexts. Each factor within the matrix is accompanied by a weight, a quantitative measure of its relative significance, and a rating that qualitatively captures the extent of its impact, ranging from 1, indicating highly unfavorable conditions, to 4, signifying extremely favorable circumstances.

After weighting calculation, the total weighted score for opportunities is 1.78, indicating that opportunities in the external environment positively impact mineral resource management, mainly due to technological advancements and market demand growth. The total weighted score for threats is 0.84; although it is relatively low, paying attention to potential impacts such as environmental pollution risks, community opposition, and market fluctuations is still essential. Using the EFE matrix helps the company identify the best ways to capitalize on opportunities and threats that need special attention. Using weighted scores aids in formulating strategic plans that address the external environment, optimize resource allocation, and manage risks. This matrix provides an overall assessment of the external environment for mineral resource management in various countries, helping to identify critical opportunities and threats and offering a basis for strategic decision-making.

Opportunities are particularly highlighted with the highest ratings. The escalating global demand for lithium batteries, reflected by a weighted score of 0.6, underscores its significant positive impact on Salt Lake lithium resources management in Qinghai, China. Similarly, technological advancements and increased environmental awareness have been assigned a weighted score of 0.48, beneficial for ecological sustainability in Lhasa, Xizang. Technological progress for cost savings and environmental benefits also scores highly, with a 0.4 weighted score, pointing to its effectiveness in the green mining initiatives at the Ango-Care Mine in Chile. Smart technology-driven innovations in mining management have received a favorable rating, contributed a 0.3 weighted score, and indicated a positive influence on production efficiency and environmental protection at the Casa Mine in Chile.

On the flip side, threats are present, with environmental pollution risks carrying a 0.24 weighted score, reflecting a notable challenge for Qinghai’s resource management. Community opposition, with a similar weighted score of 0.2, poses a challenge to diamond mining progress in Yukon, Canada. International market price volatility also registers a 0.24 weighted score, suggesting a significant risk to the financial stability of the Ango-Care Mine in Chile. Regulatory threats are represented by the continuous updates and tightening of environmental regulations, which, with a 0.16 weighted score, present an ongoing challenge for the Lakecroft Mine area in Canada.

The EFE matrix provides a snapshot of the current state of play in the mining sector and offers strategic insights. High scores for opportunities suggest areas where mining operations can leverage global trends and technological advancements for growth and sustainability. Conversely, the lower threat scores highlight areas requiring strategic planning and risk mitigation. The matrix serves as a valuable decision-making tool for stakeholders to prioritize investments, enhance operational efficiencies, ensure regulatory compliance, and navigate the complex landscape of the global mining industry.

5. Discussion

5.1. Comparative Analysis of Mineral Resource Management Policies

The comparative analysis of mineral resource management policy frameworks in high-altitude regions among China, the United States, Canada, and Chile reveals distinct strategies closely tied to each nation’s environmental, economic, and social priorities.

China promotes the steady progress of the national economy and the construction of a security system through forceful overall planning, focusing on national economic development and security [39]. China’s emphasis on state leadership and ecological protection, as seen in the implementation of eco-mining models in Qinghai and Xizang and the enactment of The Ecological Protection Law for the Qinghai–Xizang Plateau in 2023, places particular importance on SDG 13. This top-down approach allows for effective coordination and implementation of policies aimed at reducing the environmental impact of mining and promoting sustainable development in high-altitude regions, which differs from other countries in terms of policy focus and implementation mechanism.

The United States’ market-driven policies encourage private sector participation and technological innovation, focusing on efficiency and competitiveness [40]. The United States’ approach, as demonstrated by its use of advanced technologies and strict environmental regulations like CERCLA in high-altitude mining areas such as Colorado, is more closely aligned with SDG 9. The market-driven nature of the policies promotes innovation in resource management and exploitation, aiming to achieve sustainable development through technological advancements and economic incentives, which is distinct from the strategies of other countries in terms of the driving force behind policy formulation.

Canada’s balanced framework emphasizes federal–provincial cooperation and Indigenous rights. Canada’s policies, exemplified by its practices in regions like the Yukon and Ontario [41], with rigorous environmental impact assessments and active engagement with indigenous communities, show a stronger focus on SDG 8, SDG 12, and SDG 13. The emphasis on cooperation and community rights contributes to social equity and sustainable resource management, setting it apart from other countries regarding the balance it strikes between different aspects of sustainable development.

Chile’s export-oriented strategy is marked by an openness to foreign investment and a focus on national revenue. Chile’s implementation of environmental management systems and intelligent mining technologies in the copper mining industry in the Atacama Desert contributes significantly to SDG 7 and SDG 12 [42]. The country’s focus on economic growth and ecological sustainability through these measures reflects its unique position in the global mining industry and its efforts to balance economic interests with environmental protection, differentiating it from other countries regarding its strategic priorities.

High-altitude mining poses significant environmental challenges due to the fragility of ecosystems in these regions. All four countries have policies that emphasize environmental protection. China’s stringent environmental regulations and the implementation of comprehensive utilization technologies and eco-mining models [43] contribute to SDG 13. The United States’ enforcement of environmental compliance through acts like CERCLA, focusing on restoring contaminated lands, also aligns with the environmental protection aspect of SDGs. Canada’s integration of environmental impact assessments into mining policies and the involvement of indigenous communities in decision-making processes support SDG 13 and other related SDGs [44]. Chile’s adoption of advanced environmental management systems and technologies to reduce the mining sector’s environmental footprint aligns with Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 12. This common emphasis on environmental protection reflects a global awareness of the importance of sustainable resource management and the need to address environmental challenges, laying a foundation for international cooperation.

Critical areas of convergence among these countries include a shared commitment to environmental protection and technological innovation, both essential for SDG achievement. Adopting innovative mining technologies and environmental management systems across all countries indicates their efforts towards sustainable development [45]. China and the U.S. are at the forefront of technological innovation in mining, as seen in their push for green mining plans and advanced waste management systems, contributing to SDGs 9 and 13. Although there are differences in the level of community engagement and Indigenous rights consideration, with Canada and Chile showing a more inclusive approach, the overall trend of all countries towards sustainable resource management through technology and environmental protection demonstrates a global consensus on the importance of SDGs in the mining sector. It provides a basis for sharing best practices and collaborating to further SDG implementation.

In summary, the mineral resource management policies of China, the United States, Canada, and Chile in high-altitude regions are tailored to meet their respective environmental, economic, and social objectives. Despite differing approaches, there is a common thread of striving for sustainable and responsible mining practices that protect the environment, foster technological advancement, and uphold social responsibilities. As global dynamics evolve, these policies will continue to be refined to meet the challenges of the 21st century’s mining sector.

5.2. Challenges and Prospects of Mineral Resource Management in High-Altitude Regions

High-altitude ecosystems are particularly fragile, with a limited capacity to withstand disturbances [46]. Mining activities can destroy habitats, cause pollution, and cause irreversible damage to these sensitive areas. The remote and often harsh conditions of high-altitude regions pose significant logistical challenges, including transportation difficulties, lack of access to necessary resources, and the high costs associated with infrastructure development. Navigating the legal and regulatory frameworks in high-altitude mining can be complex, with multiple layers of jurisdiction, including national, regional, and sometimes international regulations that must be considered [47]. High-altitude regions are often home to indigenous communities for whom the land holds cultural and spiritual significance. Mining activities can disrupt these communities and necessitate careful consideration of social impacts and rights [48]. The high-altitude environment presents health risks to workers, including altitude sickness and other related conditions, which must be managed to ensure a safe working environment.

China’s policy framework in high-altitude regions like Qinghai and Xizang is underscored by strong governmental support and a centralized approach to resource planning. China faces significant ecological and environmental protection challenges in high-altitude regions. Policies must balance economic development with the preservation of fragile ecosystems. Implementing environmental protection policies, such as those in the Qinghai Salt Lake lithium resources and the Lhasa mining area, has significantly reduced ecological impact and enhanced resource utilization efficiency. Adopting “eco-mining” models in regions like Xinjiang reflects a commitment to sustainable practices. However, challenges remain in infrastructure development costs and the need to further engage with local communities to ensure social equity. China has opportunities to promote technological innovation and green mining practices, accelerated by policy incentives for sustainable mining development [49]. Nationally supported research and technological innovation offer new approaches and methods for the mining industry.

A blend of market-driven initiatives and stringent regulatory compliance distinguishes mineral resource management in high-altitude regions such as Colorado and Alaska. The application of the CERCLA in Alpine mining areas and the comprehensive environmental response in Pebble Mine, Alaska, exemplify a proactive stance on environmental remediation and community engagement despite some controversies. However, the variability of state and federal regulations can create a complex landscape that mining companies must navigate, and there is an ongoing need to balance economic interests with environmental conservation. In the U.S., high-altitude mining is subject to stringent environmental regulations such as the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act. Additionally, mining rights on public lands are complex [50]. The U.S. has opportunities to promote technological innovation and the adoption of best mining practices through policy initiatives while incentivizing environmentally friendly mining development.

Canada’s approach highlights federal–provincial cooperation and Indigenous rights, particularly in the Yukon diamond mining and Ontario’s Lac des Iles mining area. The country’s strategies are marked by rigorous environmental impact assessments and a focus on social sustainability, which have successfully integrated community interests into mining operations [51]. However, the challenge lies in maintaining this balance amidst economic development pressures and the need for harmonizing federal and provincial regulations [52]. Canada must navigate a complex legal framework and indigenous rights issues in high-altitude mining. Environmental impact assessments and land use rights can pose obstacles to development. Canada can optimize mining policy through enhanced cooperation between federal and provincial governments and consultations with indigenous communities. Additionally, Canada can leverage its strengths in mining technology and sustainable development to promote high-altitude mining.

Chile’s policy framework, especially in the Atacama Desert copper mining, is defined by state control and an openness to foreign investment. Implementing “Environmental Management Systems” and innovative technologies like dry tailings treatment and smart mining have positioned Chile as a leader in efficient mining practices and environmental conservation. However, the prospects for the future include the need to reduce the industry’s environmental footprint further and to address social inequality concerns. Chile faces water scarcity and environmental protection pressures in high-altitude mining. The country also grapples with mining taxation policies and community relations management issues. Chile has opportunities to attract foreign investment and improve mining efficiency and environmental friendliness through policy reforms and technological innovation. The government’s support for the mining industry and emphasis on environmental management provide avenues for mining development.

All four countries must coordinate policies at different levels to ensure that mining development is harmonized with environmental protection, community interests, and economic growth, which is crucial for SDG achievement. To collaboratively advance the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with particular emphasis on SDG 7, SDG 8, SDG 9, SDG 1, and SDG 13, there is an opportunity for all nations to improve the efficiency and sustainability of mining by adopting and developing new technologies. Countries can jointly invest in the research and development of clean energy mining technologies to reduce the carbon footprint of mining activities. Ensuring local community involvement in mining development decisions can increase social acceptance and reduce conflicts, an essential part of SDG 8 and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions). Establishing and enforcing strict environmental standards can help mitigate the impact of mining on high-altitude ecosystems, directly contributing to SDG 13. The global exchange of best practices and technological innovations can enhance policy and drive practical progress in high-altitude mining across nations. For instance, countries can exchange experiences in sustainable mining management through international conferences and cooperation platforms and jointly develop solutions to common problems. This international cooperation is not only beneficial to the individual development of each country but also essential for global sustainable development.

In the future, these policy frameworks must evolve to accommodate the increasing demand for minerals essential to clean energy technologies and to meet the pressing need for climate change mitigation. The future may see increased international cooperation in sharing best practices, a push for clean technologies to reduce the carbon footprint of mining, and a greater focus on ensuring the social license to operate by respecting the rights of local and indigenous communities. Furthermore, international cooperation can also be crucial in addressing the social aspects of high-altitude mining. For instance, countries can work together to develop guidelines and frameworks for ensuring the fair participation of local communities in mining projects and the equitable distribution of benefits. It would help achieve SDG 8 by creating employment opportunities and improving the economic well-being of local communities, and SDG 16 by promoting social stability and justice in mining regions. Through such collaborative efforts, the international community can enhance the sustainability of high-altitude mining and contribute to the global achievement of SDGs.

5.3. Shaping the Future of High-Altitude Mining: Global Cooperation for Sustainable Development

5.3.1. Future Trends in High-Altitude Mining

As global demand for critical minerals rises, high-altitude regions become increasingly significant to the mining industry. Global high-altitude regions offer unique opportunities for mineral resource management within the context of globalization. Policy and regulatory alignment advancements, environmental sustainability practices, and community engagement will shape future trends in high-altitude mining. These are crucial for the responsible exploitation of these resources. The pursuit of sustainable mineral resource utilization in high-altitude regions is expected to not only bolster the preservation of vulnerable ecosystems but also catalyze economic growth and enhance the social fabric of local communities. This approach ensures that the benefits of mineral extraction are balanced with the imperatives of environmental conservation and community welfare.

Policy and regulatory alignment: It is anticipated that the principal high-altitude regions worldwide will increasingly align their policies and regulations, culminating in a more unified international legal architecture. This harmonization will help clarify legal ambiguities and foster cross-border investment initiatives.

Environmental protection and sustainable practices: Environmental protection in high-altitude regions will become more stringent, tending to promote joint environmental monitoring conservation efforts and implementing sustainable mining practices. Ensuring that mining activities do not harm these fragile environments is vital.

Community engagement and rights: Indigenous and local communities in high-altitude regions possess a deep-rooted bond with the land and its bounties. There is a growing commitment to nurturing the evolution of community engagement and benefit-sharing frameworks within these regions. This approach is designed to achieve a harmonious equilibrium between indigenous populations’ interests and mining enterprises’ objectives.

Emphasis on social responsibility: The management of mineral resources in high-altitude regions will emphasize the social responsibilities of mining companies to tackle global challenges such as resource scarcity and environmental degradation. It is crucial to promote innovative solutions, including exploring alternative resources, advancing circular economy principles, and adopting cleaner mining practices. Steering the mining industry towards a more sustainable and responsible future is vital.

The future of high-altitude mining depends not only on technological advancements and economic development but also on ensuring environmental protection and community empowerment. International cooperation will play a crucial role in harmonizing policies, advancing sustainable practices, and fostering inclusive development in these regions. By working together, countries can harness the potential of high-altitude mineral resources while safeguarding these unique ecosystems for future generations.

5.3.2. Approaches for Future Cooperation and Implementation

Realizing these opportunities requires a strategic and coordinated approach, building on the trends identified in high-altitude mining. International cooperation will be instrumental in harmonizing policies, advancing technological innovation, safeguarding the environment, and empowering local communities.

Policy harmonization and regulatory alignment: Governments and international organizations should prioritize developing standardized legal frameworks to address the complexities of mining across different jurisdictions. Bilateral and multilateral agreements outlining common environmental and safety standards can reduce operational ambiguities and create a more predictable environment for international mining companies. These frameworks should also account for high-altitude regions’ unique ecological and social contexts to ensure mining activities do not undermine local ecosystems or communities. Aligning regulations is essential to streamline operations and ensure compliance with international standards while respecting the unique conditions of high-altitude regions [53].

Collaborative technological innovation: Addressing the challenges of high-altitude mining necessitates coordinated efforts among nations, leveraging international consortia and strategic public–private partnerships to drive research and development [54]. Joint research facilities, data and technology sharing, and funding mechanisms for innovative mining technologies will accelerate advancements in cold-resistant machinery, remote operations, and sustainable extraction methods. Establishing international intellectual property agreements will encourage the free flow of ideas while protecting innovators’ interests.

Environmental protection initiatives: Countries with high-altitude mining activities must collaborate to create and enforce transboundary environmental agreements. These initiatives should include joint environmental monitoring programs, conservation efforts, and establishing global best practices for sustainable mining. Developing international environmental standards ensures that mining activities preserve high-altitude ecosystems and mitigate environmental degradation risks [55].

Community engagement and rights protection: A critical component of sustainable high-altitude mining is the active engagement and protection of indigenous and local communities. International cooperation can facilitate the creation of standardized frameworks for community consultation and benefit-sharing agreements. These frameworks should be adaptable to various cultural and legal contexts, ensuring local communities are consulted and share in the economic benefits of mining activities [56]. Protecting these communities’ rights will enhance the social license to operate and reduce conflicts between mining companies and local populations.

Global climate change mitigation collaboration: The mining industry must align its activities with global climate change mitigation strategies [57]. International cooperation can play a crucial role in developing and implementing technologies that reduce the carbon footprint of mining operations, such as renewable energy integration and carbon capture. Collaborative efforts in climate research, policy development, and technology deployment will ensure that high-altitude mining contributes to global sustainability goals rather than exacerbates environmental challenges.

Economic cooperation and development: International cooperation should promote economic development in high-altitude regions through shared infrastructure investments and trade agreements [58]. Collaborative efforts to stabilize commodity prices and promote fair trade can ensure that high-altitude mining contributes to the broader economic development of the regions involved. This approach will benefit local communities economically and create a more stable and prosperous global mining industry.

By implementing these approaches, the global community can effectively address the challenges and seize the opportunities presented by high-altitude mining. Coordinated efforts will ensure that mineral extraction in these regions is conducted sustainably, ethically, and in a manner that benefits all stakeholders.

6. Conclusions

Through an in-depth analysis of the legal frameworks and policies governing mineral resource management in China, the United States, Canada, and Chile, this study presents vital insights and forward-looking recommendations to guide the future of global resource governance. The research finds that, although these countries have different priorities regarding resource development, environmental protection, and social responsibility, they are all gradually moving towards sustainable development.

China emphasizes state leadership and environmental protection, with future policy frameworks focusing on centralized management and strict protection of ecologically fragile areas. To better achieve SDG 13, although advanced environmental policies and innovative technologies have improved resource extraction efficiency and reduced ecological impacts, there is a need to further balance ecological protection with resource extraction in high-altitude regions. Continuous policy improvement is required to address the challenges of enforcing stringent environmental regulations and, for example, strengthening the supervision and enforcement mechanisms to ensure that all mining activities strictly comply with environmental standards. Additionally, enhancing coordination between local and central governments is crucial. Local governments should be given more incentives and support to participate in ecological protection, and resource development should be actively promoted. Moreover, efforts should be made to ensure the resilience of sensitive ecosystems amidst increasing environmental pressures. It can be achieved by investing in the research and development of advanced ecological restoration technologies and promoting sustainable land use planning in high-altitude regions. By doing so, China can contribute more effectively to climate change mitigation and sustainable development.

The market-driven and innovation-oriented policies of the United States reflect its strategic approach to sustainable development. To promote the coordinated development of SDG 9, despite controversies, proactive environmental governance measures like CERCLA demonstrate a commitment to transparency and social participation. However, future challenges remain in advancing sustainable mineral resource development while protecting indigenous lands and high-altitude ecosystems. The United States can fully utilize its mature environmental impact assessment mechanisms and legal frameworks. It can incorporate more social and environmental factors into the assessment process to ensure sustainable resource management models. It can also encourage the private sector to invest in the research and development of environmentally friendly mining technologies through policy incentives. By innovating sustainable resource management models that can adapt to future environmental and social challenges, the United States can promote sustainable development in the global mining industry and contribute to achieving multiple SDGs.

Canada’s policy framework emphasizes federal–local cooperation and the integration of Indigenous rights, providing a good model for SDG implementation. To contribute more to the SDGs, especially in social equity, environmental protection, and economic sustainability, strict environmental assessments and collaborative community engagement have positioned Canada as a leader in sustainable development. However, with the intensification of climate change, Canada faces increasing challenges in dealing with extreme climate conditions and ensuring full respect for Indigenous rights in resource development. In the future, Canada should further strengthen federal–local cooperation. For example, it establishes a more efficient coordination mechanism to ensure policies are implemented consistently at different levels. At the same time, it should continue to rely on its regulatory solid standards and technological innovation. It can promote the development and application of climate-resilient mining technologies and improve the effectiveness of environmental protection measures. By doing so, Canada can better address the challenges and lead the global transition towards more equitable and sustainable resource governance, making more significant contributions to achieving SDGs.

Chile’s policy environment reflects a combination of state control and international cooperation, emphasizing its strategic focus on efficiency and environmental management. To focus on achieving SDG 13, advanced environmental management systems and cutting-edge technologies have significantly improved mining practices and environmental protection. However, more forward-looking strategies are required to manage the impact of resource extraction in high-altitude glacier regions. Chile can continue to leverage its strengths in environmental management and technological innovation, such as investing in the research and development of advanced glacier protection technologies and formulating more stringent environmental protection standards for mining activities in glacier regions. It can also actively participate in international cooperation projects related to sustainable mining and climate change mitigation, sharing its successful experiences and learning from other countries. By doing so, Chile has the potential to lead the world in sustainable mining practices, especially in regions most affected by climate change, and make meaningful contributions to global sustainable development.

Despite differences in legal systems and cultural contexts, these countries show increasing consensus on environmental protection and sustainable resource development, reflecting a global awareness of the long-term impacts of resource management. Future trends in high-altitude mining are essential to foster the sustainable utilization of resources and safeguard the delicate high-altitude ecosystems. Concurrently, these efforts should create opportunities for economic growth and social advancement within local communities. This consensus underscores the need for cooperative and forward-looking solutions to address the unique challenges of high-altitude mining. Technological innovation and international cooperation will be vital in addressing these challenges as globalization deepens. Future strategies must prioritize knowledge sharing, technology transfer, and policy coordination to promote collective, sustainable resource management across borders. It can be achieved by establishing international platforms for sharing best practices and research findings related to high-altitude mining and SDGs. Countries can jointly develop training programs to enhance the capacity of local communities in sustainable mining practices, thereby further supporting SDG 8. Moreover, international cooperation in the research and development of clean energy mining technologies can accelerate the transition towards a low-carbon economy in the mining sector, which aligns with SDG 7 and SDG 13. By strengthening these aspects, the global community can achieve the SDGs in high-altitude mining more effectively.