Smart Electrical Planning, Roadmaps and Policies in Latin American Countries Through Electric Propulsion Systems: A Review

Abstract

This article presents a review of renewable energy systems in Latin America, highlighting recent advances aimed at transforming electricity markets to make them more environmentally sustainable. The transition of energy systems in these countries is closely linked to policies and legislation that promote the adoption of renewable energy, guided by roadmaps that facilitate planning and decision-making processes. Transportation stands out as a crucial sector in these transition efforts, and support for renewable energy is already driving significant changes in several continents, albeit with different levels of impact. The analysis involved a review of 180 articles published in ScienceDirect since 2000, focused on renewable energy systems in Latin America. Among them, only 40 scientific articles were identified that specifically address electric mobility systems for mass transportation, such as trams and railways, that is environmentally friendly. Currently, their contribution in Latin America is only 1.7%, and it is expected that they will play a fundamental role in the energy transition in 2050, contributing 9.3% within the electrified transportation sector. The results of the research revealed that Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Colombia, and Costa Rica are the countries that have carried out the most high-impact research in relation to mobility systems with 100% renewable energy systems. In Latin America, there is a limited number of authors focused on massive electric propulsion systems. The purpose of this research is to provide an overview of the energy situation related to electric propulsion systems for transport in South American countries.

1. Introduction

Currently, there is an important question regarding the modes of production and consumption of energy, in the sense that they are influencing global climate change [1]. This effect requires acknowledging that this phenomenon is global in nature and therefore presents significant, growing, and, in many cases, irreversible effects on economic activities, populations, and ecosystems, areas in which Latin America and the Caribbean is particularly vulnerable [2]. The Paris Agreement of 2015 was the starting point for several countries in the world to organize and begin making efforts to seek convincing and practical alternatives to limit anthropogenic climate change, which raises alarm due to its significant increase [3]. Latin America has been a permanent participant in the different summits regarding climate change commitments. Important researchers, academics, and rulers from different countries have been part of these agreements [4]. Researchers from different parts of the world have already sufficiently addressed the reasons for climate change but above all they have provided sufficient guidelines to confront this serious problem, and one of the aspects was to choose to change the energy matrix based on clean energy [5]. The different Conferences of the Parties (COPs) have highlighted the importance of adopting pro-environmental objectives and policies that have a notable influence on their countries. The importance of defining roadmaps that include relevant percentages of renewable energy and energy efficiency actions to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has been highlighted [6].

At the COP 28 held in Dubai, the degree of effectiveness of the agreements previously reached was already evaluated and discussed, and unfortunately it was not what as expected due to the lack of compliance by the countries in allocating important budgets to achieve these changes in favor of the environment [7]. In this sense, the urgent need arises to triple the quotas of renewable energies and also double energy efficiency to accelerate the energy transition process across the world [8]. This reality leads to reviewing the roadmaps of the countries that have planned energy transition processes and, as far as possible, seeking ways to be more ambitious [9]. On the other hand, for countries that still do not have their roadmaps, time is turning against them, and they cannot wait any longer and must design their new systems urgently to put them into practice [10]. Based on this problem, this manuscript evaluates the achieved impact of the energy transition processes in Latin American countries, mainly identifying the percentages of use of renewable energies and whether or not they have roadmaps. In this study, the transportation sector was considered to be of high interest; we proposed to evaluate the mass electrified transportation systems in the region and their degree of impact on the energy transition processes. With a purposeful nature, this study seeks to identify the shortcomings and also the good practices that exist in Latin America in relation to electrified transportation intended to massively transport passengers from one place to another.

The energy transition is a topic of global interest, and several investigations currently provide diverse approaches, but the ones that are most focused are the studies that address intelligent energy systems and that seek to become 100% renewable for various territories, whether large or small, populated or scattered [11]. The roadmaps that should be designed with a long-term vision should include all the energy systems that supply the different consumer sectors; there are few studies, and the vast majority focus on the electricity sector [12]. To achieve an effective contribution of 100% renewable energy sources (RESs), it is necessary to identify the renewable energy potential that can be exploited to reach an intelligent combination of generation sources, whether with storage systems or not, that guarantees a permanent energy supply to the consumer sector [13]. Europe is an important reference in the creation of roadmaps, both regionally and by country and even by small geographical areas. D.F. Dominković et al. [14] presented a roadmap for a zero-carbon energy system for the southeastern region of Europe in 2050. Alexandra Gritz and Guntram Wolff [15] analyzed the repercussions of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine and the impact of energy dependency in Europe. As a result, he proposed a detailed study of gas and energy security in Germany and extended his analysis to Central and Eastern Europe. Jasmin Mensik et al. [16] in their research presented top–down modeling for the case of Austria to achieve 100% renewable electricity supply through hybrid electricity storage. Hannes Kirchhoff et al. [17] presented research including a scalable, sustainable, self-service, secure, and stable design of peer-to-peer microgrids for 100% renewable swarm electrification. Asia has equal interest, and is even forming alliances with Europe to make the 100% renewable energy transition effective and sustain itself over time. Tansu Galimova et al. [18] presented a novel study on Greenland’s 100% sustainable energy transition and its interest in implementing an e-fuel and e-chemical export hub in the Arctic for East Asia and Europe.

On the other hand, it is recognized that there are countries with serious difficulties in creating their energy sustainable roadmaps and then bringing them to reality. In the case of Haiti [19], it suffered from a devastating earthquake in January 2010, in which an estimated 220,000 people died, especially in Port-au-Prince and its surroundings, presenting its worst natural disaster, the most destructive the Caribbean country has suffered in recent times. This is an example in which food subsistence comes before all things. In these types of situations, the solidarity of countries and the creation of a joint agenda to advance collaboratively in favor of weaker economies is imperative. A positive thing that has been achieved in recent years is that social conglomerates have greater environmental awareness, and this has an intangible value that will ultimately have a greater effect in the search for better days for new generations [20]. It is key to review energy sector plans, policies, tax regimes, and structures that impede progress is a political option. With each passing day, the cost of inaction outweighs the cost of action. Recent studies have shown that high prices of fossil fuels, in the absence of alternatives, generate energy poverty and loss of industrial competitiveness within their countries [21]. Ultimately, it is countries’ governments that are called upon to allocate their budgets to execute the energy transition plans and subsequently evaluate their impact [22].

The terms smart energy and smart systems have been used for several years, but they had different focuses, and authors point to different topics and give them different connotations. Henrik Lund et al. [23] conducted a review of the literature on the use of the term “Smart Energy Systems” up to the end of 2016 through the use of Scopus, and they identified 72 journal articles that used the term in the title, abstract, keywords, or references. After a detailed analysis, 69 were included in the survey publications. When analyzing these publications, it was possible to identify that the systems tended to use high proportions of variable RESs, and there has even been a more in-depth focus on guaranteeing service to demand. This is considered one of the most outstanding reviews and is worthy of recognition for those of us who are focused on this type of analysis because it sheds light on countries to transform their energy systems into much more environmentally friendly ones and progressively considers increasing the contributions of renewable energy. Currently, we see different approaches for countries, including islands. It is positive that researchers, system designers, and legislators have tools at their disposal for making decisions, especially when roadmaps are being implemented. It is important to highlight that current studies address the energy structures to be implemented in the medium and long term with more interest. However, it is necessary, just as Henrik Lund and his team achieved, to conduct a review of our own regions and evaluate the actions undertaken, highlight the positive and not stumble into situations that other countries have already experienced, and present options for the renewal of energy systems, in this case for Latin America.

The perpetual research and development of new technologies related to renewable energy sources has provided confidence and hope for regions, countries, and small territorial constituencies to achieve changes in energy markets [24]. The technologies that have achieved the greatest development in recent years and, above all, have significantly reduced their costs are wind and solar photovoltaics [25]. Wind turbines and solar panels tend to reduce costs even further and have proven to be renewable energy resources that directly impact new electrification projects given their achieved maturity and confidence [26].

Based on these important technological advances, it is expected that countries that maintain energy systems based on the burning of fossil fuels will decide to discard these polluting systems and begin their technological renewal processes [27]. Historically, the economy of Latin America has depended greatly on oil exports, but a different era is approaching, to which it is necessary to adapt and which requires changes and decisions within the countries, which is why it is necessary to make serious plans that transform energy systems to be much more environmentally friendly and in turn also transform economies [28]. In addition to the above, oil is running out, and just as it was once a key element of development, it has also left a mark of destruction. There are various cases of destruction, as can be seen in the references [29,30]. The most recent case is that which occurred in the Ecuadorian Amazon, as there are at least 427 lighters that have been burning gas for decades [31]. Populations that live around them claim that this is one of the main causes of the high number of cancer cases in the area [32]. Unfortunately, in the same localities where oil is exploited by transnational companies, the populations have been excluded from benefiting economically or at least maintaining a healthy environment without being displaced from their communities, as is the case in the Ecuadorian Amazon [33].

There are several authors who have also questioned the lack of coherence in what is expressed regarding the responsibilities of countries regarding global warming. There is a report from the United Nations (UN) [34] in which the seven main polluting countries (United States of America, China, India, the European Union, Indonesia, the Russian Federation, and Brazil) are identified as countries that are not significantly contributing to transform their energy systems into more environmentally friendly ones. Rather, they are transferring these problems to the entire world when they are the ones who must change [35]. Latin America has also been questioned in some ways in the sense that it is a region that does not pollute considerably and its economies do not sympathize, and rather those who pollute massively are not making greater efforts [36]. In 2015, Latin American leader Rafael Correa blamed rich countries for ecological damage and called for compensation [37]. “The way in which wealth and consumption are managed in rich, industrialized societies is a crucial factor in determining who is responsible for the greatest environmental impacts”, the former president said at a forum held in the Vatican. On the other hand, the academy has chosen to rather occupy a much more proactive position [38]. Several higher education institutions have also formed research groups and departments that investigate innovative ways of designing renewable energy systems and markets with 100% renewable energy [39]. There is the case of Aalborg in Denmark, which is committed to designing completely renewable energy systems in the long term [40].

According to the data presented in reference [41], in 2022, the growth of energy consumption slowed in the two countries with the highest consumption: it increased by 3% (compared to +5.2% in 2021) in China, the largest energy consumer in the world (25% in 2022), while it rose by 1.8% in the United States (+4.9% in 2021). Strong economic growth stimulated energy consumption in India (+7.3%), Indonesia (+21%), and Saudi Arabia (+8.4%), and, to a lesser extent, in Canada (+3.8%) and in Latin America (+2.7%, which includes +2.4% in Brazil and Mexico and +4.5% in Argentina). It also increased by around 3% in the Middle East and Africa (despite a 4.5% drop in consumption in South Africa due to coal supply tensions and forced load shedding in the power sector). According to OLADE [42], at the level of consumption sectors, the transportation sector participates with 38% of the total, followed in importance by the industrial sector (29%) and the residential sector (16%). Other sectors, such as commercial and services, agriculture and mining, construction, and others, together cover the remaining 17%. Transportation is a basic strategic sector in the global development of the economy for different reasons, and one very important reason is that it guarantees the mobility of citizens, alongside it also allowing for the free circulation of goods and it constituting a basic tool to increase the productivity of the productive sectors [43]. Thus, the close correlation between economic–social development and mobility has also been demonstrated. Because it is a costly activity, it would seem that transportation should be avoided or reduced as much as possible. However, there is a relationship between investments in transportation infrastructure and regional development, which indicates that this constitutes an important activity in a continuous process of expansion and modernization. In recent years, transportation has become increasingly important in industrialized countries, where it has become a basic activity from both an economic and social point of view. For this reason, this study reviews the current situation in Latin America regarding electrified mass transport and its long-term proposals for action.

A massive electric propulsion system was designed for passenger vehicles or motor trains that are powered by electricity, and it is a public service that serves to transport large groups of people on previously established routes. Public transportation in almost all major Latin American cities was once critically dependent on tram services, which became extinct about fifty years ago for various reasons. Now, especially in cities in the more developed world, the tram returns, in a modern version, generally known as light rail [44]. However, in Latin America, an old concept of urban mass passenger transportation service has been developed in the form of high-capacity buses that travel on exclusive routes, integrated with the rest of the public transportation system [45]. In general, this Latin American solution may be more appropriate for the needs of the region, for reasons of flexibility, costs, and capacity [46]. In Latin America, four regions have been analyzed, which consist of the Northern Zone of South America, the Southern Cone, Central America, and the Caribbean [47]. Of these regions, the southern cone has the greatest development in electrified transportation in South America [48]. In the countries of the Southern Cone, there are different degrees of progress in the implementation of rural electrification programs with renewable resources [49]. However, there is a growing tendency to converge on common mechanisms with the rest of Latin America, including the implementation of electrified trams and railways [50]. There are plans to include systems that are sustainable over time and managed with business criteria, mostly based on government and municipal initiatives since they have the powers to plan the use of urban land [51]. These quite interesting experiences have mostly been replicated in the rest of the region, as well as in more developed European countries such as Spain, France, and Germany [52].

1.1. Review Method

When carrying out a methodological review, it is necessary to comply with the purpose of the research, which consists of the following: In the first instance, the focus is the review of scientific articles indexed in Scopus that discuss the inclusion of renewable energy systems in Latin American countries. Subsequently, studies that have been developed and that have a vision of transforming energy systems with high components of 100% renewable energy in Latin America countries are identified. Another aspect analyzed in this study is the tools used by the different researchers when designing the roadmaps. Finally, studies that include electrified transportation systems in the region and that serve as a reference for other territorial districts are analyzed with a view to transforming energy systems into others that are much more environmentally friendly. In other parts of the world, exhaustive reviews have already been carried out on the effect that mass transportation systems cause, but in Latin America there is a lack of a significant review, which we encourage in this study.

Richao Cong et al. [53] designed an optimal scheme that helps achieve the goal of 100% renewable energy supply and future decarbonization in the municipalities of Fukuoka, Japan. Siamak Hoseinzadeh et al. [54] designed scenarios that apply sustainable energy toolkits of 50% and 100% renewable energy for Ragusa in Southern Italy.

Smart energy systems also aim to decarbonize transportation systems across the world; these systems are very complex due to the high pollution they emit in cities. Shan Liu et al. [55] presented a study on carrying out the joint operation of mobile batteries, energy systems, and transportation systems to improve the penetration rate of renewable energy. In addition, it proposed a framework of actions necessary for the joint operation of the energy system and the transportation system. The model was validated based on real data from Northeast and North China. Lin Fu et al. [56] presented a novel study that includes an economic evaluation of a pipeline-based hydrogen–electricity hybrid energy system for rail transportation. Rashid Iqbal et al. [57] carried out a comparative study based on a techno-economic analysis of different energy systems for onboard green shipping microgrids composed of photovoltaic/wind/fuel cell/battery/diesel generators with two-battery technologies. The paper used the HOMER Pro V 13.16.2 tool to evaluate the performance of the proposed system.

Subsequently, a search was carried out for research that has been conducted on countries in Latin America and that has plans to transform their energy systems into 100% renewable systems, which include electric mobility systems to massively transport people from one place to another. Natalia Morlanés et al. [58] have already explained that if there is not a baseline of the energy system, it becomes difficult to plan, so it is necessary to carry out exhaustive reviews of the energy systems in order to later propose roadmaps. Based on this, the current state of Latin America was analyzed in relation to the penetration levels of renewable energies and their feasible energy potentials. Economic recovery in Latin America will greatly depend on the use of these infrastructures as well as allocating greater budgets to technological development.

Articles from relevant journals indexed in Scopus were considered; in the search for renewable energy keywords, those that correspond to Latin American countries, had a connotation towards 100% renewable processes, and included mass electric transportation processes were filtered out. On the other hand, only research articles presented under a peer review process in conference papers or in journals were considered.

The methodologies of other research papers were also analyzed with or without the support of market design tools [59]. Several countries already have energy transition roadmaps, which can be seen on official government websites or in indexed scientific articles. It must also be recognized that there are countries that still do not make efforts to draw up roadmaps, which is regrettable since this keeps their obsolete structures in place and does not offer long-term approaches. Among the methodological developments, most of the studies were prepared with the support of specialized software, among them LUT [60], EnergyPLAN [61], LEAP [62], EnergyPRO [63], OSeMOSYS [64], Message [65], and others.

In the last part of the manuscript, VOSViewer V 1.6.20 is used, an interesting tool that allows for methodologically evaluating the interests of the defined topic to be studied. In this case study, the existence of roadmaps in Latin America is evaluated, identifying journals, researchers, or individual publications, and they can be built on the basis of citation, bibliographic coupling, co-citation, or co-authorship relationships.

In summary, VOSViewer is a software tool to build and visualize bibliometric networks. VOSViewer also offers text mining functionality that can be used to construct and visualize co-occurrence networks of important terms extracted from a body of scientific literature. Further details can be found in Appendix A.

Some research questions will be answered to determine the importance of the energy transition in Latin American countries from the perspective of sustainability through electric propulsion systems with a projection to achieve 100% RE.

• Are there possibilities to develop the energy and mobility sectors in Latin America with a high penetration of renewable energies?
• To what extent are renewables contributing to the overall energy mix?
• In the region, which countries have planned energy transition roadmaps that include the transportation sector?
• Is there a possibility that the region can transform its energy system as a single block of countries?

The review parameters are grouped into the following:

• Identification of the Latin American country, detailed by name and parameters of the current energy system.
• Description of the study, including authors, keywords, and identification that the study presents long-term roadmaps according to the ScienceDirect database.
• Approach and methods used: design tools declared in each study and simulation approach that includes mass transportation systems.
• Information fully classified with sustainability criteria in the mass transportation sector.

Regarding the objective of each study, the reasons for the energy transition in Latin American countries are identified.

1.2. Research Location

Latin America is a geographical and cultural region of the American continent, the second largest continent in the world, made up of countries whose official language is derived from Latin (Spanish, Portuguese, and French). It is made up of twenty countries and its total population is around 650 million inhabitants. Latin America is made up of 20 countries in which, for the most part, the Spanish language is spoken. To a lesser extent, Portuguese and French are spoken. Its population belongs to a great diversity of races: indigenous natives; children of indigenous people and Europeans; and children of Africans and indigenous people and Europeans, among others.

The countries of Latin America represent 12% of the planet’s arable surface. They are home to a fifth of the world’s forests and a third of the world’s freshwater reserves.

Latin America is made up of the 20 countries, detailed below.

• In North America, there is Mexico.
• In Central America, there are the countries of Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.
• In South America, there exists the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.

1.3. Renewable Energies in Latin American

According to data provided by the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) [66], 58% of electricity generation in Latin America and the Caribbean comes from renewable sources. This renewable 58% is made up of 77% electricity from hydroelectric plants, followed by wind and solar generation that together add up to 13%, 9% biomass, and 1% geothermal. In terms of generation, solar has shown notable growth in the last decade, at a rate of 83% on an annual average. Similarly, wind generation has grown by an average of 45%. The rest of the non-conventional renewables (geothermal and biomass) remain stable at around a 1% increase.

Very reliable energy analyses have already been carried out in Latin America, among which that presented by Gonzalo Hernández Soto [67] stands out, which considers the role of foreign direct investment and new inclusive green technologies to facilitate the energy transition towards green economies in the region. Aleksy Kwilinski et al. [68] presented a study that aims to reduce CO₂ emission patterns in the transportation sector. Its solutions are based on technological changes with a large share of renewable energies to achieve positive environmental effects. Xiao Yu et al. [69] carried out an evaluation of the decarbonization potential of future sustainable propulsion and determined that renewable energies are the hope for radical changes in the transportation sector. Merve Saray et al. [70] developed a mathematical model for the energy management of plug-in electric metrobuses based on photovoltaic energy. Additionally, they carried out an optimization of the use of renewable energy in public transportation. Among the examples of cities seeking to transform their mobility systems is the city of Cuenca in Ecuador. Antonio Cano et al. [71] carried out a techno-economic analysis of environmental effects in urban public transport with emphasis on the tram. Their comparative study determined that a renewable energy system could avoid 8445.4 tCO₂/MWh. In the same city of Cuenca, a recent study was carried out by Daniel Icaza et al. [72] with international advice, who designed a novel roadmap for the transformation of the electric mobility system with the inclusion of 100% renewable energy by 2050. The results of the long-term scenario require investment in new technologies [73,74,75,76]. The future energy mix must comprise wind at 37.3%, followed by solar photovoltaic with 33.9%, hydroelectric with 25.4%, and with other technologies such as biomass hardly exceeding 3.4%.

Among the case studies of successful policy implementation and technological adoptions related to sustainable electric mobility, there are several notable cases, among them the following: There is the case study of Medellin in Colombia. Liliana Lotero Álvarez et al. [77], in their study, consider that among the solutions to the mobility problem is turning the problem into an opportunity by linking it to Sustainable Development Goal 11 “Sustainable cities and communities”. The “Medellín Quality of Life Report, 2016–2021” and the governance practices in the city were taken advantage of and put into practice for the good of citizens. The conclusion is that the government management required is one that allows coordination between public, private, and civil society actors, so that Medellín completely overcomes the difficulties in sustainable mobility. Another interesting case is the one that took place in Brazil [78], where most of the electricity is produced in hydroelectric plants, and where the scarcity of water is directly impacting energy production, so one of the affected sectors is the of electric mobility. The water–energy nexus is directly related to and affected by CO₂ emissions and their climate consequences, which requires a broader approach. The Sustainable Water and Energy Consumption (SWEC) Program was developed to mitigate water and energy supply problems at a railway company in Brazil. Thanks to this program, per capita consumption of water and energy was reduced by 10% and 19%, respectively. Additionally, this program considered implementing photovoltaic systems with a total capacity of 96.5 kWp, which would keep the system operational. Another success story is the tramway implemented in the city of Cuenca in Ecuador [79]. Currently, the difficulties in the transition to electric mobility in developing countries lie in the lack of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles and buses. Marco Toledo Orozco et al. [80] proposes a novel methodology to integrate electric vehicles and buses to optimize the existing tram infrastructure. The simulations determine that slow night charging represents 9% of the total bus fleet, improving the utilization factor of the tram system from 11% to 32%.

Local governments have generally been the managers of the destinies of their own territories, and mainly from there come the initiatives to carry out energy transition processes such as those mentioned [72]. However, national governments continue to be vital in these processes because they execute policies and in most cases they are the ones that use a large part of economic resources since they are the ones with the greatest decision-making power, while local governments have resources but are very limited by countless pressing needs [81]. On the other hand, private companies typically intervene with studies because they are specialized in the study areas, whether on implementations of trams, electric buses, and others [82]. They are also the ones who, based on the formation of consortia, in most cases carry out the implementation in coordination with the municipalities [83]. Meanwhile, civil society has different points of view, and they are the ones who feel the problems and benefits that the entire project entails [84]. Unfortunately, in most cases this is politicized, especially in South America, and these situations have been seen to in the end generate more difficulties than exist. The situation described is not unique and is very common in the countries of the region.

Latin America is treading a difficult path towards sustainable development, between opportunities and challenges in this era for the transition towards renewable sources [85]. It is a region that has significant potential for the generation of renewable energy as it has abundant natural resources, especially hydroelectric, wind, and solar energy [86], as well as essential minerals to develop clean energy backup systems such as lithium [87]. However, the energy transition in some countries in the region has been slow due to various factors such as regulatory barriers, political instability, and economic problems [88]. Furthermore, in this type of process, there are internal problems due to the lack of political will to support projects that include renewable energy systems; unfortunately, some governments prefer traditional energy sources over renewable energy. Some Latin American countries have made progress in the transition to renewable energy. For example, Paraguay, Costa Rica, and Ecuador have achieved this, mainly with hydroelectric energy. Uruguay has successfully transitioned to renewable energy, and most of its electricity is generated from wind and solar energy. Chile, on the other hand, has made significant progress, particularly in solar energy, which has helped reduce the country’s dependence on fossil fuels [89]. It is noteworthy that hydrogen produced from renewable sources is an alternative to the demand for clean energy and has gained interest in several countries in the region [90]. Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina are countries located in South America, with a considerable number of rivers and hydroelectric plants. This study shows the potential for hydrogen production in these countries using excess energy from hydroelectric plants. Paraguay presentó un potencial de generación de 5.32 × 10¹⁰ kg·año⁻¹·de H₂, Uruguay 2.19 × 10¹⁰ kg·año⁻¹ de H₂ y Argentina 3.44 × 10¹⁰ kg·año⁻¹ de H₂. Taking into account the economic viability analysis, the production and storage of H produced a profit of 0.2253 USD·m⁻³ for Paraguay, 0.2249 USD·m⁻³ for Uruguay and a cost of 0.2263 USD·m⁻³ in Argentina. On the other hand, some Latin American countries still depend heavily on fossil fuels, especially oil and gas. This is the case for Venezuela, which still depends on oil as an important source of income and energy, despite having renewable energy potential [91].

The future development of urban regions is often visualized through strategic spatial plans, according to G Palka [92]. The presentation of information rarely allows for a clear visualization of each planning intention and how the synthesis of all planning intentions builds an overall spatial development strategy. In this same vein, A Camargo-Bertel [93] provides a critical review of energy analysis and planning tools that have been used in the Latin American context. This study summarizes the most relevant criteria for selecting an energy tool in the region. These categories include geographic coverage, sectoral coverage, temporal resolution, time horizon, and integration of renewable energies. Addressing these classifications offers valuable insights into the application of energy models for the formulation of energy strategies in Latin America.

Table 1. Annual energy in 2022 per country in South America, and its renewable and non-renewable share.

N°	Country	Latitude	Longitude	Total (GWh)	Non-Renewable (GWh)	Non-Renewable %	Renewable Energy Share of Electricity Capacity (GWh)	Renewable Energy Share of Electricity Capacity (%)	Reference
1	Argentina	−35.39380478005	−65.18126954103	143,653.00	105,240.00	73.26%	38,413.00	26.74%	[94]
2	Bolivia	−16.66933349320	−64.36952823032	10,881.00	6718.00	61.74%	4163.00	38.26%	[94]
3	Brazil	−9.14866549036	−53.21532957179	656,195.00	148,529.00	22.63%	507,666.00	77.37%	[95]
4	Chile	−35.67510000000	−71.54300000000	88,575.00	44,237.00	49.94%	44,338.00	50.06%	[94]
5	Colombia	4.57090000000	−74.29730000000	83,768.00	20,622.00	24.62%	63,146.00	75.38%	[96]
6	Ecuador	−1.83120000000	−78.18340000000	28,404.01	3565.22	12.55%	24,838.79	87.45%	[97]
7	Falkland Islands	−51.79630000000	−59.52360000000	29.29	22.29	76.10%	7.00	23.90%	[98]
8	French Guiana	3.93390000000	−53.12580000000	996.00	308.00	30.92%	688.00	69.08%	[99]
9	Guyana	4.86040000000	−58.93020000000	1211.00	1125.00	92.90%	86.00	7.10%	[100]
10	Paraguay	−23.44250000000	−58.44380000000	40,850.00	2.00	0.005%	40,848.00	99.995%	[101]
11	Peru	−9.19000000000	−75.01520000000	57,083.00	21,880.00	38.33%	35,203.00	61.67%	[102]
12	Suriname	3.91930000000	−56.02780000000	1608.00	742.00	46.14%	866.00	53.86%	[103]
13	Uruguay	−32.52280000000	−55.76580000000	15,961.00	2469.00	15.47%	13,492.00	84.53%	[104]
14	Venezuela	6.42380000000	−66.58970000000	74,325.00	11,711.00	15.76%	62,614.00	84.24%	[105]
15	Mexico	23.6345	−102.5528	388,782.00	306,881.00	78.93%	81,901.00	21.07%	[106]
16	Belize	17.1899	−88.4976	471.00	34.00	7.22%	437.00	92.78%	[107]
17	Guatemala	15.7835	−90.2308	12,812.00	3419.00	26.69%	9393.00	73.31%	[108]
18	El Salvador	13.7942	−88.8965	7049.00	986.00	13.99%	6063.00	86.01%	[109]
19	Honduras	15.1990	−86.2419	11,451.56	4267.00	37.26%	7184.56	62.74%	[110]
20	Nicaragua	12.8654	−85.2072	4226.00	1298.00	30.71%	2928.00	69.29%	[111]
21	Costa Rica	9.7489	−83.7534	12,659.00	3.00	0.02%	12,656.00	99.98%	[112]
22	Panama	8.5380	−80.7821	11,742.00	2146.00	18.28%	9596.00	81.72%	[113]
23	Cuba	21.5218	−77.7812	15,633.7	14,758.21	94.40%	874.00	5.59%	[114]
24	Dominican Republic	18.7357	−70.1627	23,363.00	19,401.00	83.04%	3962.00	16.96%	[115]
25	Haiti	18.9712	−72.2852	1177.94	969.94	82.34%	208.00	17.66%	[116]
26	Puerto Rico (territory)	18.2208	−66.5901	19,462.00	18,968	97.46%	494.00	2.54%	[117]
27	Jamaica	18.1096	−77.2975	4346.00	3706.00	85.27%	640.00	14.73%	[118]
28	Trinidad and Tobago	10.6918	−61.2225	9262.00	9256.00	99.94%	6.00	0.06%	[119]
29	Barbados	13.1939	−59.5432	1200.00	1112.00	92.67%	88.00	7.33%	[120]
30	Bahamas	25.0343	−77.3963	1760.00	1751.00	99.49%	9.00	0.51%	[121]
31	Antigua and Barbuda	17.0608	−61.7964	358.00	338.00	94.41%	20.00	5.59%	[122]
32	Dominica	15.4149	−61.3705	102.00	81.00	79.41%	21.00	20.59%	[123]
33	Saint Kitts and Nevis	17.3578	−62.7820	228.00	217.00	95.18%	11.00	4.82%	[124]
34	Saint Lucia	13.9094	−60.9789	400.20	390.00	97.45%	10.20	2.55%	[125]
35	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	12.9843	−61.2872	144.00	122.00	84.72%	22.00	15.28%	[126]
36	Grenada	12.1165	−61.6784	229.20	225.76	98.50%	3.44	1.50%	[127]

shows, in detail, the levels of renewable and non-renewable energy production in each of the Latin American countries.

Table 2. Renewable energy generation in 2022 by type of technology.

N°	Country	Solar (GWh)	Solar %	Hydro and Marine (GWh)	Hydro and Marine %	Wind (GWh)	Wind %	Bioenergy (GWh)	Bioenergy %	Geothermal (GWh)	Geothermal %	Reference
1	Argentina	2204.00	5.74%	19,445.00	50.62%	12,938.00	33.68%	3826.00	9.96%	0.00	0.00	[94]
2	Bolivia	351.00	8.43%	3237.00	77.76%	120.00	2.88%	455.00	10.93%	0.00	0.00	[94]
3	Brazil	16,761.00	3.30%	362,818.00	71.47%	72,286.00	14.24%	55,801.00	10.99%	0.00	0.00	[95]
4	Chile	10,684.00	24.10%	18,072.00	40.76%	7628.00	17.20%	7628.00	17.20%	326.00	0.01	[94]
5	Colombia	530.00	0.84%	60,717.00	96.15%	60.00	0.10%	1839.00	2.91%	0.00	0.00	[96]
6	Ecuador	33.15	0.13%	24,512.86	98.69%	57.04	0.23%	235.74	0.95%	0.00	0.00	[97]
7	Falkland Islands (Malvinas)	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	7.00	100.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[98]
8	French Guiana	57.00	8.28%	586.00	85.17%	0.00	0.00%	45.00	6.54%	0.00	0.00	[99]
9	Guyana	14.00	16.28%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	72.00	83.72%	0.00	0.00	[100]
10	Paraguay	1.00	0.00%	40,574.00	99.33%	0.00	0.00%	273.00	0.67%	0.00	0.00	[101]
11	Peru	861.00	2.45%	31,926.00	90.69%	1823.00	5.18%	593.00	1.68%	0.00	0.00	[102]
12	Suriname	13.00	1.50%	847.00	97.81%	0.00	0.00%	6.00	0.69%	0.00	0.00	[103]
13	Uruguay	483.00	3.58%	5273.00	39.08%	4991.00	36.99%	2745.00	20.35%	0.00	0.00	[104]
14	Venezuela	9.00	0.01%	62,516.00	99.84%	89.00	0.14%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[105]
15	Mexico	20,254.00	24.73%	34,717.00	42.39%	21,075.00	25.73%	1612.00	1.97%	4243.00	0.05	[106]
16	Belize	10.00	2.29%	157.00	35.93%	0.00	0.00%	270.00	61.78%	0.00	0.00	[107]
17	Guatemala	241.00	2.57%	5960.00	63.45%	324.00	3.45%	2603.00	27.71%	265.00	0.03	[108]
18	El Salvador	1643.00	27.10%	1825.00	30.10%	132.00	2.18%	904.00	14.91%	1559.00	0.26	[109]
19	Honduras	1088.00	15.14%	3775.56	52.55%	778.00	10.83%	1195.00	16.63%	348.00	0.05	[110]
20	Nicaragua	27.00	0.92%	599.00	20.46%	656.00	22.40%	912.00	31.15%	734.00	0.25	[111]
21	Costa Rica	107.00	0.85%	9287.00	73.38%	1573.00	12.43%	87.00	0.69%	1602.00	0.13	[112]
22	Panama	657.00	6.85%	8154.00	84.97%	530.00	5.52%	255.00	2.66%	0.00	0.00	[113]
23	Cuba	156	17.85%	115	13.16%	40	4.58%	563	64.42%	0.00	0.00	[114]
24	Dominican Republic	878.00	22.16%	1504.00	37.96%	1231.00	31.07%	349.00	8.81%	0.00	0.00	[115]
25	Haiti	4.00	1.92%	200.00	96.15%	4.00	1.92%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[116]
26	Puerto Rico (territory)	259.00	52.43%	51.00	10.32%	143.00	28.95%	41.00	8.30%	0.00	0.00	[117]
27	Jamaica	124.00	19.38%	136.00	21.25%	280.00	43.75%	100.00	15.63%	0.00	0.00	[118]
28	Trinidad and Tobago	6.00	100.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[119]
29	Barbados	88.00	100.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[120]
30	Bahamas	8.00	88.89%	0.00	0.00%	1.00	11.11%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[121]
31	Antigua and Barbuda	20.00	100.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[122]
32	Dominica	0.00	0.00%	20.00	95.24%	1.00	4.76%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[123]
33	Saint Kitts and Nevis	5.00	45.45%		0.00%	6.00	54.55%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[124]
34	Saint Lucia	7.50	73.53%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	2.70	26.47%	0.00	0.00	[125]
35	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	3.00	13.64%	19.00	86.36%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[126]
36	Grenada	2.80	81.40%	0.00	0.00%	0.64	18.60%	0.00	0.00%	0.00	0.00	[127]

presents, in detail, the different renewable technologies involved in each Latin American country.

Figure 1 shows in detail the level of participation of renewable energies, corresponding to the electrical capacity in GWh, in Latin American countries by means of circular diagrams.

Below, Figure 2a shows a circular diagram of the renewable energy component in GWh for each Latin American country. Figure 2b shows that the non-renewable energy component has a 43.78% share in Latin America. Meanwhile, the renewable technologies that have the greatest participation are hydro and marine with 40.28%, wind with 7.33%, bioenergy with 4.76%, solar with 3.33%, and geothermal with 0.52%.

2. Renewable Energy Potentials in Latin American and Development Opportunities

The International Energy Agency (IEA) in its specialized report published on Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) considers the region an important link for the global energy transition, thanks to its abundant renewable energy resources. Around 60% of LAC’s electricity comes from renewable energy, which is double the world average. Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and Argentina are major producers of wind energy, and other countries in the region are also making great progress with biofuels and low-emission hydrogen. Latin America can play an outstanding role in the new global energy economy. With their incredible natural resources and long-standing commitment to renewable energy, countries in the region already have a head start in the safe and sustainable transition to clean energy. Relying on these transitions would boost the growth of local economies and provide greater security to the global energy system.

The energy transition is one of the keys in the fight to avoid an increase in temperature on the planet, which is also what the Latin American region perceives [128]. The challenge is not only to increase the levels of renewable energy production but also to reduce the use of fossil fuels (gas, oil, and coal) and to progressively replace them with renewable energy. In this regard, Latin America faces a great opportunity to improve the quality of life of its inhabitants and modernize its energy systems [129]. The region has enormous potential for the development of photovoltaic, wind, biofuel, or green hydrogen energy, and the question is how to take advantage of it and what path to take to accelerate the process.

Latin America, unlike other regions, begins with a significant advantage in that, according to Flávia de Castro Camioto et al. [130], researchers from the Department of Production Engineering, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro in Brazil, a very high hydroelectricity base has been built, which in recent decades was launched and is currently being complemented with other renewable energies, such as solar and wind. On the other hand, it is recognized that countries such as Costa Rica, Uruguay, and Brazil have a relatively high percentage of renewable energies in the energy matrix and specifically in electricity generation. Data from the IEA [131] indicate that Mexico, Brazil, Costa Rica, and Uruguay occupy the first places in the region, along with Colombia and Chile.

2.1. Towards Sustainable Transportation System in Latin America

The last four decades have seen accelerated changes in urbanization processes in Latin America. Some cities have managed their territory according to the use and occupation of the land with the aim of creating legislation according to their own realities, trying to minimize the impact on society. The first thing that stands out are the high rates of urbanization, which generate greater mobility needs for people and goods. In the last decades of the previous century, the effects caused by the burning of fossil fuels were not strongly felt, so it was very common to use mass transportation systems based on gasoline or diesel; many of them are still operational. Currently, the mobility infrastructure that is implemented in cities is much more sustainable thanks to the level of awareness available to decision makers and, above all, the pressure exerted by today’s society for the proper use of public funds in Latin American cities. Currently, there are modern electric mobility systems in several cities, but they have not yet been fully identified and evaluated. Roadmaps that start from conceiving environmentally friendly mass transportation systems have been identified and the main contributions are highlighted.

The impact generated by the expansion of metro lines due to the demand for transportation services, public and private, within cities indicates that this alternative, despite requiring higher costs of investment and capital and the adequate socialization of citizens, manages to reduce the progressive increase in automobile use, tending to reverse the trend towards lower participation in public transport. In Latin America, several of the metros implemented in cities stand out, as they have been very well received as solutions to mobility problems, especially in Santiago de Chile, Sao Paulo, Caracas, Quito, and Buenos Aires. The need to transport larger volumes of people at lower costs and without environmental impacts led to the implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), starting in the city of Curitiba in 1973. These bring with them some advantages that mainly imply lower investment costs compared to metro systems. Trams are also suitable options for transporting people in high volumes and are easily attached to cities, especially because they do not need large spaces to travel, are adaptable, and are environmentally friendly. This type of mobility infrastructure requires important planning before launching it, and the political situation can at some points play a negative role since the population may reject it without being fully aware of the benefits that will be obtained in the future.

Table 3 presents in detail the urban rail transport systems (subway) in Latin America [132], classified by city, country, name, inauguration, last year of expansion, stations, lines, length of the system, and number of passengers. These systems are usually known as a “subway”, or in Spanish as “metro”, although in certain countries they are also known as “subte” or “train”. Brazil is the Latin American country with the largest number of metro systems, with eight systems, followed by Venezuela with four metro systems. The São Paulo subway transports the largest number of passengers in all of Latin America. This is the second most used subway system in America (after the New York Subway), and the one with the greatest technological advancement and innovation. The first subway system inaugurated in Latin America was the Buenos Aires subway in 1913 [133], while the most recent is the new Quito subway in Ecuador in 2023 [134].

It is expected that at the end of 2024, the Santiago de los Caballeros monorail in the Dominican Republic will begin operating, which consists of a line of 18 stations 15 km long [135]. The Bogotá subway in Colombia is also expected to begin operating in 2028, with a line of 19 stations 24 km long. It must be recognized that the subway mobility systems detailed in Table 3 seek to expand their lines and stations given the expansion conditions of the cities.

Table 4 presents light trains in Latin America in detail. Brazil is the Latin American country with the largest number of light trains, with nine, followed by Mexico and Argentina with two, and finally Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia with one, respectively. These mobility systems are known in Latin America by different names such as “tranvías”, “metrotranvía” or “premetro”. They are also known by the English terms “light rail”, “trams” or “tramway”, and by the Portuguese term “VLT”. They commonly share part of the roads with road traffic and are not always fully electrified, so they can partially run on diesel, and among these are several Brazilian systems. Among the most prominent organizations related to transportation are the International Union of Public Transport (UITP) and UN-Habitat.

Table 3. Subway systems in Latin America.

N°	City	Country	Name	Opening	Last Year of Expansion	Stations	Lines	System Length	Annual Passengers (Millions)	Reference
1	Buenos Aires	Argentina	Buenos Aires Subway	1913	2019	90	6	56.7 km	74.0 (2020)	[132]
2	Belo Horizonte	Brazil	Subway Horizonte Metro	1986	2002	20	1	28.1 km	54.4 (2019)	[136]
3	Fortaleza	Brazil	Fortaleza Subway	2012		41	3			[132]
4	Brazilia	Brazil	Brazilia Subway	2001	2020	27	2	42.4 km	42.8 (2019)	[137]
5	Porto Alegre	Brazil	Porto Alegre Subway	1985	2014	22	1	43.8 km	48.1 (2019)	[138]
6	Recife	Brazil	Recife Subway	1985	2009	28	3	39.5 km	93.5 (2019)	[132]
7	Río de Janeiro	Brazil	Río de Janeiro Subway	1979	2016	22	3	58.0 km	118.7 (2019)	[132]
8	Salvador	Brazil	Salvador Subway	2014	2018	19	2	32.5 km	62.0 (2020)	[132]
9	São Paulo	Brazil	São Paulo Subway	1974	2022	183	13	371 km	1104.2 (2022)	[139]
10	Santiago de Chile	Chile	Santiago Subway	1975	2023	143	7	149.8 km	721.4 (2020)	[140]
11	Medellín	Colombia	Medellín Subway	1995	2012	27	2	31.3 km	155.6 (2021)	[141]
12	Quito	Ecuador	Quito Subway	2023	2023	15	1	22.6 km	N/A	[142]
13	San Juan	Puerto Rico	San Juan Urban Train	2004	2004	16	1	17.2 km	13.2 (2016)	[143]
14	Guadalajara	Mexico	Urban Electric Train System of Guadalajara	1989	2020	48	3	47.6 km	139.5 (2021)	[132]
15	Ciudad de Mexico	Mexico	City of Mexico Subway	1969	2012	195	12	201.06 km	1057.46 (2022)	[132]
16	Monterrey	Mexico	Metrorrey	1991	2021	40	3	39.3 km	109.7 (2021)
17	Ciudad de Panamá	Panama	Panamá Subway	2014	2023	32	2	39.3 km	49.9 (2020)	[132]
18	Lima	Peru	Lima and Callao Subway	2011	2023	31	2	40 km	110.4 (2018)	[132]
19	Santo Domingo	Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo Subway	2009	2018	34	2	31.0 km	49.6 (2020)	[144]
20	Caracas	Venezuela	Caracas Subway	1983	2015	52	5	67.2 km	358.0 (2020)	[145]
21	Los Teques	Venezuela	Los Teques Subway	2006	2013	5	2	11.2 km	25.5 (2017)	[132]
22	Maracaibo	Venezuela	Maracaibo Subway	2006	2009	6	1	6.5 km	N/A	[146]
23	Valencia	Venezuela	Valencia Subway	2006	2015	9	1	6.2 km	N/A	[132]

Table 3. Subway systems in Latin America.

N°	City	Country	Name	Opening	Last Year of Expansion	Stations	Lines	System Length	Annual Passengers (Millions)	Reference
1	Buenos Aires	Argentina	Buenos Aires Subway	1913	2019	90	6	56.7 km	74.0 (2020)	[132]
2	Belo Horizonte	Brazil	Subway Horizonte Metro	1986	2002	20	1	28.1 km	54.4 (2019)	[136]
3	Fortaleza	Brazil	Fortaleza Subway	2012		41	3			[132]
4	Brazilia	Brazil	Brazilia Subway	2001	2020	27	2	42.4 km	42.8 (2019)	[137]
5	Porto Alegre	Brazil	Porto Alegre Subway	1985	2014	22	1	43.8 km	48.1 (2019)	[138]
6	Recife	Brazil	Recife Subway	1985	2009	28	3	39.5 km	93.5 (2019)	[132]
7	Río de Janeiro	Brazil	Río de Janeiro Subway	1979	2016	22	3	58.0 km	118.7 (2019)	[132]
8	Salvador	Brazil	Salvador Subway	2014	2018	19	2	32.5 km	62.0 (2020)	[132]
9	São Paulo	Brazil	São Paulo Subway	1974	2022	183	13	371 km	1104.2 (2022)	[139]
10	Santiago de Chile	Chile	Santiago Subway	1975	2023	143	7	149.8 km	721.4 (2020)	[140]
11	Medellín	Colombia	Medellín Subway	1995	2012	27	2	31.3 km	155.6 (2021)	[141]
12	Quito	Ecuador	Quito Subway	2023	2023	15	1	22.6 km	N/A	[142]
13	San Juan	Puerto Rico	San Juan Urban Train	2004	2004	16	1	17.2 km	13.2 (2016)	[143]
14	Guadalajara	Mexico	Urban Electric Train System of Guadalajara	1989	2020	48	3	47.6 km	139.5 (2021)	[132]
15	Ciudad de Mexico	Mexico	City of Mexico Subway	1969	2012	195	12	201.06 km	1057.46 (2022)	[132]
16	Monterrey	Mexico	Metrorrey	1991	2021	40	3	39.3 km	109.7 (2021)
17	Ciudad de Panamá	Panama	Panamá Subway	2014	2023	32	2	39.3 km	49.9 (2020)	[132]
18	Lima	Peru	Lima and Callao Subway	2011	2023	31	2	40 km	110.4 (2018)	[132]
19	Santo Domingo	Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo Subway	2009	2018	34	2	31.0 km	49.6 (2020)	[144]
20	Caracas	Venezuela	Caracas Subway	1983	2015	52	5	67.2 km	358.0 (2020)	[145]
21	Los Teques	Venezuela	Los Teques Subway	2006	2013	5	2	11.2 km	25.5 (2017)	[132]
22	Maracaibo	Venezuela	Maracaibo Subway	2006	2009	6	1	6.5 km	N/A	[146]
23	Valencia	Venezuela	Valencia Subway	2006	2015	9	1	6.2 km	N/A	[132]

Table 4. Light rail systems in Latin America.

N°	System	Country	City	Opening	Passengers	Average Daily Boardings	System Length	Seasons	Average Distance Between Stations	Lines	Reference
1	Urban Electric Tram System	Mexico	Guadalajara	1989	1,004,330,957	310.0008	47 km	48	1000 m	3	[147]
2	Mexico City Light Rail	Mexico	Ciudad de Mexico	1986	273,036,237	83.121	12.8 km	18	711 m	1	[148]
3	Río de Janeiro Tramway	Brazil	Rio de Janeiro	2016	220,000,009	110.0009	28 km	2910	965 m	3	[149]
4	Fortaleza Tram	Brazil	Fortaleza	1997	14,400,000	50	54.40	37		3	[150]
5	Medellín Tramway	Colombia	Medellin	2015	884,900,013	37.00014	4.3 km	9		1	[151]
6	VLT of Baixada Santista	Brazil	Santos y São Vicente	2016	810,000,015	27.50016	11.5 km	15	766 m	1	[147]
7	Natal Tram	Brazil	Natal	1982	372,800,018	9.30019	56.6 km	22		2	[147]
8	VLT of Maceió	Brazil	Maceió	2011	274,300,018	11.00020	34.6 km	16		1	[152]
9	Tram of João Pessoa	Brazil	João Pessoa	1985	200,200,018	10.10021	30 km	12		1	[153]
10	VLT de Sobral	Brazil	Sobral	2014	160,000,012	1.50022	13.9 km	12		2	[154]
11	Metro de Teresina	Brazil	Teresina	1989	122,400,023	8.2	14.5 km	9	1611 m	1	[155]
12	Premetro	Argentina	Buenos Aires	1987	108,700,025	3	7.4 km	18		1	[156]
13	Metrotranvía of Mendoza	Argentina	Mendoza	2012		7.00026	17.8 km	24		1	[147]
14	VLT do Cariri	Brazil	Juazeiro do Norte	2009	46,600,012	1.30027	13.6 km	9	1511 m	1	[154]
15	Tramway of Cuenca	Ecuador	Cuenca	2020	39,000,000	120	20.4 km	27	750 m	1	[157]
16	Mi Tren	Bolivia	Cochabamba	2022			32.5 km	22		2	[147]

Table 4. Light rail systems in Latin America.

N°	System	Country	City	Opening	Passengers	Average Daily Boardings	System Length	Seasons	Average Distance Between Stations	Lines	Reference
1	Urban Electric Tram System	Mexico	Guadalajara	1989	1,004,330,957	310.0008	47 km	48	1000 m	3	[147]
2	Mexico City Light Rail	Mexico	Ciudad de Mexico	1986	273,036,237	83.121	12.8 km	18	711 m	1	[148]
3	Río de Janeiro Tramway	Brazil	Rio de Janeiro	2016	220,000,009	110.0009	28 km	2910	965 m	3	[149]
4	Fortaleza Tram	Brazil	Fortaleza	1997	14,400,000	50	54.40	37		3	[150]
5	Medellín Tramway	Colombia	Medellin	2015	884,900,013	37.00014	4.3 km	9		1	[151]
6	VLT of Baixada Santista	Brazil	Santos y São Vicente	2016	810,000,015	27.50016	11.5 km	15	766 m	1	[147]
7	Natal Tram	Brazil	Natal	1982	372,800,018	9.30019	56.6 km	22		2	[147]
8	VLT of Maceió	Brazil	Maceió	2011	274,300,018	11.00020	34.6 km	16		1	[152]
9	Tram of João Pessoa	Brazil	João Pessoa	1985	200,200,018	10.10021	30 km	12		1	[153]
10	VLT de Sobral	Brazil	Sobral	2014	160,000,012	1.50022	13.9 km	12		2	[154]
11	Metro de Teresina	Brazil	Teresina	1989	122,400,023	8.2	14.5 km	9	1611 m	1	[155]
12	Premetro	Argentina	Buenos Aires	1987	108,700,025	3	7.4 km	18		1	[156]
13	Metrotranvía of Mendoza	Argentina	Mendoza	2012		7.00026	17.8 km	24		1	[147]
14	VLT do Cariri	Brazil	Juazeiro do Norte	2009	46,600,012	1.30027	13.6 km	9	1511 m	1	[154]
15	Tramway of Cuenca	Ecuador	Cuenca	2020	39,000,000	120	20.4 km	27	750 m	1	[157]
16	Mi Tren	Bolivia	Cochabamba	2022			32.5 km	22		2	[147]

2.2. Problems and Opportunities Detected in Transportation Development Policies in Latin American Cities

Analyzing urban mobility in the medium and large cities of Latin America, in recent times they have been subject to a rapid increase in the rate of urbanization, which has surprised the main authorities, following the absence of coordinated and integrated planning regarding land use and the deterioration in public transportation systems commonly powered by fossil fuels [158]. This situation has also triggered a sustained increase in motorization and, parallel to this, a significant growth in crime in cities that are trying to create legislative bodies to try to stop these actions that have fallen directly on citizens [159]. Statistics provided by [160] reveal that between 1950 and 2021, the urban population in Latin America and the Caribbean went from 41.3% to 81% of the total population and is expected to rise to 87.8% by 2050. On the other hand, cities in the region are identified have experienced a process of territorial expansion characterized by low population density and informal settlements in peripheral areas [161]. In general, these actions have not been accompanied by the public entities in charge of ensuring order and the generation of long-term development plans and, with this, an integrated planning of land use and transportation provision [162]. As a consequence, the peripheral areas are inadequately connected by public transportation networks, while the low density has made such services more expensive. It must also be recognized that several cities have made important decisions about their transportation systems, trying to promote massive mobility systems and avoid congestion with private vehicles [163]. These mobility systems have adapted very well to urbanized environments; they coexist with other transportation systems, and they are mostly a tourist attraction, especially those supplied by environmentally friendly electrical energy [72].

The actions implemented in several cities have served as a reference for others that seek effective solutions in transportation, thus providing good practices and lessons to develop a coherent policy framework that also drives the long-term smart energy transition, and therefore climate resilience of transport in Latin America [164]. All countries are making efforts to change their obsolete energy systems for modern mobility systems, some with greater investments than others according to their realities, but they are aware that the path to environmental sustainability is one of the main challenges of the sector. Together with the fight against climate change, additional objectives include the following:

(i)

Position themselves as first movers in the transition;

(ii)

Mitigate the economic impact of the energy transition in key sectors for the economy, such as the automotive industry, maritime, or aerial;

(iii)

Attract investments and generate green jobs that compensate for those that may be lost in the transition;

(iv)

Lead the establishment of global standards;

(v)

Improve the quality of life by reducing local emissions and environmental pollution.

2.3. Policies

The adoption rate of zero- and low-emission technologies is far behind compared to benchmark countries. The quality of public transportation services in the region is lower than that offered in many advanced economies, which discourages their use [165]. In Europe and the United States, 3.5 million zero- and low-emission light vehicles were registered in 2022, and China registered 5.9 million vehicles, meanwhile in Latin America and the Caribbean this figure was below 40 thousand units considering PHEVs and BEVs, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles [166]. The average age of the surface public transport fleet exceeds 15 years, even reaching more than 20 years in some countries (compared to 11.4 years in Europe), which affects the perceived level of comfort and user safety while reducing the operational efficiency of the units [167].

The change in the structure of mobility systems, especially for environmentally friendly systems such as those based on electricity and hydrogen, depends greatly on the policies that are presented in the countries and those that end up being implemented when considering important budgets. In 2021, renewable energies amounted to 59% of energy generation in LAC, with hydroelectric energy predominating [88]. The development of electric mobility represents a great opportunity in a region with one of the cleanest energy production matrices in the world [168]. In LAC, more than a quarter of primary energy comes from renewable energy, which is double the world average [169]. The contribution of energy systems is also subject to achieving a better understanding of the dynamics of urban form in the LAC region. It is an important contribution to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11, “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable”. Urban policy has a role to play in supporting the cities in terms of its productivity, quality of life, and urban sustainability, while mitigating the increased vulnerability that often accompanies urban expansion [170].

In

Table 5. Goals and actions for climate change mitigation in the context of Latin American transportation, adapted from [160,171].

	Shift	Improve
Argentina	Development of sustainable mobility in urban passenger transport, including measures such as energy efficiency labeling of vehicles, promotion of buses with alternative energies, encouragement of lightweight vehicles with low-emission technologies, and the renewal of the bus fleet (from Euro 3 to Euro 5), in addition to promoting active mobility. Planning of a freight railway investment plan with a focus on sustainable railway transport, aimed at prioritizing freight rail.	Promotion of natural gas and electricity usage in the transportation sector overall. Enhancement of efficiency in road freight transport (RFT): bi-trains and scaling, Smart Transport Program (including driver training), fleet renewal with scrapping of trucks (National Road Plan for 2025). River freight transport: fleet renewal with alternative energies.
Bahamas	Promoting the utilization of mass transit.	Promotion of electrifying road transportation. Enhancing incentives for electric vehicle adoption. Evaluating government vehicle usage and implementing a program to switch appropriate vehicles to electric models. Integration of electric vehicles into the government’s vehicle pool. Deployment of electric vehicle charging infrastructure.
Barbados		Since April 2021, the government procurement policy prioritizes electric or hybrid vehicle purchases. The Barbados Transport Board aims for a fully electric fleet by 2030.
Belize		Deployment of 77 hybrid and electric buses by 2030, with 17 expected by 2025. Implementation of a policy framework by 2025 to encourage more efficient vehicles and alternative fuels, including fuel economy labels, emissions tests, fuel economy standards, and regulations on imported vehicles based on emissions. Enhancement of passenger electromobility.
Bolivia		By 2030, there is a planned yearly growth of 10% in the proportion of electric vehicles within the public transportation fleet.
Chile	Replacing private motorized transport with buses and bicycles as a means to decrease its usage.	Adoption of electric vehicles in taxis and urban public transit. Integration of hydrogen-powered transportation.
Colombia	Shifting freight transportation from roads to inland waterways. Promoting active transportation and Travel Demand Management (TAnDem). Restoring the La Dorada–Chiriguana–Santa Marta rail corridor.	Targeting 600,000 electric vehicles by 2030 as part of electric mobility efforts. Implementation of Performance-Based Air Navigation (PBN). Modernization program for road freight transportation.
El Salvador	Promotion of mass transit, cycling, walking, speed restrictions, and traffic management zones to prioritize road safety and enhance public spaces.	Implementing electric vehicle technology in vehicle fleets, focusing primarily on passenger, public, and private transportation sectors.
Guatemala		A program aimed at updating the private vehicle fleet with more efficient alternatives, including electromobility and biofuels, alongside efforts to encourage the use of advanced ethanol in gasoline.
Haiti		Enhancing motorcycle maintenance and usage practices. Imposing limitations on the importation of used vehicles.
Honduras		Promoting the adoption of electric vehicle technology.
Mexico	Expanding and refurbishing the railway system.	Adoption of electric vehicle technology. Implementation of more fuel-efficient vehicles. Initiatives for cleaner transportation.
Nicaragua	Enhancing the public transportation system in Managua.
Paraguay		Enhancing the replacement of fossil fuels with biofuels, with potential additions of up to 7.5% for diesel and 27.5% for gasoline, depending on engine type. Promoting efficient driving practices in both public and freight transportation. Gradually transitioning from traditional vehicles to electric and hybrid alternatives. Implementing the use of environmentally friendly green hydrogen.
Dominican Republic	Expansion and establishment of additional routes of metro stations in Santo Domingo. Implementation of new electric-powered cableway lines in Santo Domingo. Modification of infrastructure to accommodate cycle paths in major cities and encouragement of bicycle utilization for shorter journeys.	Upgrading the bus fleet with the integration of advanced, more efficient technologies. Modernizing taxis and collective taxis by incorporating more efficient technologies. Enhancing the private vehicle fleet through the adoption of more efficient technologies.
Surinam	Transforming street layouts to enhance pedestrian friendliness.	Implementing emissions regulations for both public and private vehicles by 2027. Restricting the importation of vehicles older than 5 years for both public and private use. Enhancing the public transportation system by incorporating segregated bus lanes, relocating bus stations outside the city center, and introducing shuttle buses within the city center.
Uruguay		Expanding the quantity of electric vehicles and rapid charging infrastructure by 2030, aiming for 30% of new light passenger vehicles sold to be electric by that time. Additionally, the plan includes incorporating 600 hydrogen fuel cell freight vehicles into the fleet by 2030.

shown below, it can be seen that there is interest among Latin American countries in changing the mobility matrix by generating policies aimed at the sustainability of transportation.

3. General Results of Sustainable Transportation Studies Framed in Renewable Energy Production Systems

In the review process carried out in ScienceDirect, a total of 40 articles were identified to analyze renewable energy systems with the purpose of powering mass transportation systems such as trams or subways. Several studies have a focus on establishing hybrid systems using renewable energy and combustion systems, which we discarded, only selecting those that study completely renewable systems. The majority of the articles disseminated in ScienceDirect correspond to research carried out in South America (26) and to a lesser extent in Central America and the Caribbean with (14) articles. In the registry of environmentally friendly 100% renewable transportation systems, 65 have been identified in the region but only 40 have been framed in studies of interest with a focus on the energy transition with a vision of 100% renewable energy. Within the research, it was also possible to identify several old mobility systems based on fossil fuels that are maintained and have been declared cultural heritage, which means that they will be present for a long time, possibly continuing to be subsidized and difficult to renew. On the other hand, there are also rulers and researchers who care about mobility systems, try to be innovative, and tend to take advantage of large-scale renewable energy systems, such as Mexico, aiming to implement the Mayan Train. It is long-distance rail transport that connects the southeast of Mexico. It is owned by the public company Olmeca-Maya-Mexica. The train offers three types of services: passenger train, tourist train, and cargo train. The sections corresponding to the Mérida–Cancún–Chetumal route will be electrified. This represents 700 km (435 mi) of route, including double-tracking for multiple services. Next, Figure 3 defines the main aspects to consider in the bibliographic review obtained from ScienceDirect.

Table 6. Studies classified by countries and tools used according to ScienceDirect information bases.

N°	Country	LUT	OseMOSYS	LEAP	EnergyPLAN	Own Program	No Tool	Total Research Obtained from ScienceDirect
1	Argentina					[172]		1
2	Bolivia	[173]					[174]	2
3	Brazil					[175,176,177,178]		4
4	Chile					[179,180]		2
5	Colombia			[62]			[181,182]	3
6	Ecuador			[183]	[72]	[184,185,186]	[187,188,189,190]	9
7	Paraguay					[191]	[174]	2
8	Peru					[192]		1
9	Uruguay						[193]	1
10	Venezuela						[194]	1
11	Mexico					[195]	[196]	2
12	Nicaragua				[197]			1
13	Costa Rica		[198]			[199,200]	[201]	4
14	Panama						[202]	1
15	Cuba						[203,204,205]	3
16	Dominican Republic		[206]			[207]		2
17	Barbados						[208]	1
	TOTAL	1	2	2	2	16	17	40

is presented below, classifying the countries, publications, and tools used by the authors.

From the data provided by ScienceDirect, it is clear that Ecuador, Brazil Cuba, Colombia, and Costa Rica are the countries that have the greatest scientific production regarding propulsion systems for mass transportation and analysis of 100% renewable energy sources for their operation. Ecuador has one article that uses EnergyPLAN, one article in LEAP, three articles with its own programs, and four that were not used a recognized design tool. Brazil has three studies that use its own programs with respect to Colombia, one article uses LEAP and two use its own programs. Cuba also has three articles that do not use design programs. Costa Rica has one studio using OseMOSYS, two studios that use their own program, and one that does not use a design tool.

In the general analysis of the proposed roadmaps for LAC countries, 22 of the 40 studies were identified as using the top–down methodology, including LUT, OseMOSYS, EnergyPLAN, LEAP, with 9 using their own programs and 6 without any tools. This methodology is conceived as a process of designing future scenarios that have a macro vision, that is, that obey the taking of actions at a higher level, with global data, and then it is schematized to the rest of the system at a level of minor details. This style is applied at the energy market level, and generally the supporting software macro data referring to the base system are entered and based on projections and the conception of the desired future, and then restrictions are included at a detailed level, such as growth percentages of certain generation sources, acceptable levels of exploitation of certain technologies, etc. In short, this method can be adjusted depending on the particular characteristics of the future energy market aiming to achieve 100% renewable energy in the long term. Since different energy markets have different structures, sizes, policies, legislation, and specific challenges, each study defines which methodology will achieve the best results. However, it must be recognized that the top–down methodology does not work for everyone. It may not be the best option for energy systems that require greater flexibility and responsiveness.

On the other hand, the remaining 18 studies used bottom–up design methodologies. This is particularly the case for authors who have used their own simulation programs or have not used simulation tools. This approach is largely contrary to the top–down approach because the analysis of the macro situation is not the priority; however, it also usually takes into account factors such as future electricity demand. Specifically, the bottom–up process begins by studying micro aspects such as energy potential by province and how much each area can contribute until determining general figures. These processes occur on different fronts in a detailed way until a macro scenario is assessed in the coming years. From a detailed analysis, opportunities in the market are determined, and from there and through iterative analysis or with the support of simulation tools, alternatives are established in the decision-making sectors with the aim of long-term decarbonization.

4. Conclusions

The review presented in this document has shown that research exists in most countries in Latin America. In Central American and Caribbean countries, full government support to transform mobility systems into ones that are much more environmentally friendly is not yet provided. In South America, although the literature does address mass mobility systems with greater interest, the dissemination carried out through scientific articles is not sufficient. There are countries that have a rich history in the development and implementation of mobility systems; however, the changes that need to be made to make them more environmentally friendly have not been strongly addressed with an energy supply approach based on generation sources that tend to significantly reduce pollution. There are cases like Ecuador, which makes efforts to improve the quality of life of its inhabitants through sustainable mobility. There is research but there is still no vision of expansion to different cities for these systems that are currently operating and have been very good, as highlighted by the international community and in the case of the Cuenca Tram. The case of Costa Rica is an example to follow, as its advances are significant and neighboring islands can very well take these experiences to decarbonize their energy systems, not necessarily immediately due to the weak economy that limits other islands but by setting long-term objectives. Several countries are making significant efforts but in a disjointed manner; strategic plans must be developed that include mobility based on true planning, and the necessary budgets must be allocated to execute them effectively and without neglecting the main needs of their citizens. The different studies highlight the importance of the transportation system to be in tune with the changes that the electrical system is experiencing, as this is a golden opportunity to modernize the systems. Today, the electrical grid is being integrated into mobility systems, but this still needs to be put into practice in Latin American countries. It is concluded that 100% renewable energy sources are technically applicable to mobility systems. Unfortunately, there is still resistance to change and the old systems based on fossil fuels continue, but it is time to plan new mobility systems based on other experiences within the same region, and if we analyze a little, Europe and Asia can be seen already enjoying these changes. The identified articles have reliable and verifiable data; they focus on the evaluation of modern technologies with diverse applications, are based on the energy potential available in the territory, and, if that were not enough, the economy in each location is boosted. In Latin America, research has been found to mostly address hybrid systems to guarantee mobility services; as most of them are connected to the public electrical network, this will depend a lot on the generation levels, so autonomous systems can be formed if appropriate.

In general terms, energy transition systems are linked to the modernization of the mobility system; the two are closely related. Latin America enjoys high hydroelectricity and can constitute a significant base for forming hybrid systems with both solar and wind energy and can supply modern mass mobility systems, avoiding the use of fossil fuels that have been a problem in public health so that future generations can avoid being affected. So far, as can be seen in the review, only 40 studies have been carried out with a view to the decarbonization of transportation, and those that have a vision of transforming the systems in an integrated way have been published in journals. This implies that the rest of the countries, without at least serious planning or research, hardly have a horizon for sustainable and beneficial development for their citizens. Although several countries are interested in changing their obsolete systems, they are not doing so in an organized manner; rather, isolated efforts from cities or small territories are made but without due coordination. Their current contribution in Latin America is only 1.7%; however, in 2050, they can form a key element of the energy transition, contributing up to 9.3% participation within the electrified transportation sector.

As mentioned above, the research is specifically limited to the analysis of mobility systems with a vision to be supplied by 100% renewable energy systems in Latin America. The research was analyzed country-by-country and culminated with a bibliographic analysis of the studies available in ScienceDirect. As future work, it is recommended to expand the research horizon to all mobility systems, including private vehicles and public transport, to provide a much broader perspective to see where mobility is going in Latin America and present a much more sustained development perspective so that decision makers have many more tools to make economic investments within their countries.

Electric propulsion systems for mass transportation represent a great opportunity for Latin America and the Caribbean. Their practical implications will contribute to increasing energy security and resilience, will help reduce the negative health effects caused by local pollution, will improve transportation and electricity services, and will impact the decarbonization process in the region. In addition, new value chains will be developed in the digital and automotive industries, with the opportunity to generate high-value-added jobs.

5. Directions for Further Research

This study provides valuable information, but it can also be expanded to future research, such as mass transportation mobility systems that are promising, solve problems that are currently present, and can be deepened in the future. Several studies have already focused on what mobility systems represent, including extensive and detailed studies on how a mobility system should be integrated into regional electrical systems. Several countries are looking for comprehensive solutions, and public transportation is of interest and requires an order based on sustainable mechanisms. From this review, it is possible to determine the importance of future work to identify strategies for the supply, transportation, and installation of tram and subway systems. It is challenging for countries to find technology suppliers, transfer, and finally carry out the assembly. It is considered necessary to structure the appropriate processes to massively promote these technological systems, which can be effective solutions in the short, medium, and long term, especially if energy transition for the Latin American and Caribbean countries is a priority. It is also important to note that as future work, based on the current study, a new, much broader bibliographic review is intended to be carried out with various databases, above all, identifying the barriers and opportunities that these mobility systems present in the region. Future studies may carry out more in-depth comparative analyses between countries or regions to identify global best practices. These studies will be effective in managing complex decision making under conditions of uncertainty and, on the other hand, the experiences in certain countries and the research carried out so far may provide important development perspectives so that economic resources can be allocated for mass production in practice.

Future studies should also explore the long-term impacts of sustainable mobility technologies, which can incorporate artificial intelligence and blockchain, in the digital energy transition. Future research could also investigate the role of consumer behavior in shaping energy demand and the adoption of digital energy solutions applied to mobility systems. These areas have potential for deeper exploration as digital energy transitions evolve in the coming years.