Perceptions of Personal Lighting Devices and Associated Behaviors: Shifting Personal Norms and Behavior for Broader Conservation Actions

Abstract

Anthropogenic light impacts both wildlife and human well-being, and national parks are some of the only remaining large swaths of land where natural dark skies remain. Over the past two decades, a significant amount of science has contributed both to our understanding of these impacts and to engineering advances to reduce negative lighting effects. This has resulted in changes to lighting infrastructure in some national parks, and growth in Dark Sky Certification for many protected areas globally. To date, changing infrastructure, such as street and parking lot lighting, to less intrusive hues and intensities or removing lights altogether have been some of the sustainable changes made in these areas. This study advances our understanding of lighting issues by examining national park visitors’ perceptions of personal lighting use (e.g., headlamps). Specifically, this study explores camper and mountaineer perceptions of personal lighting devices and their impact on social and ecological systems in Grand Teton National Park, USA. During peak visitation in the summer of 2023, 17 mountaineer interviews and 16 general camper interviews took place in the park at night. Results indicate that campers and mountaineers are largely unaware of anthropogenic light impacts on wildlife and humans. However, once informed, they are willing to change their behaviors and reduce the use of personal lighting devices and use more wildlife-friendly lighting with amber or red settings (which, to date, are just emerging and available for general consumers by several companies). These results provide insights for developing educational strategies and personal lighting engineering designs that will ultimately lead to more sustainable normative shifts capable of reducing anthropogenic lighting impacts in parks and beyond.

1. Introduction

Increasing evidence shows that artificial light at night (ALAN), an anthropogenic pollutant, is encroaching on natural areas that are most often utilized for outdoor recreation, personal escapes, or as opportunities to connect with nature [1,2,3]. These spaces include national park units, which broadly include historic sites national monuments, as well as national parks. Traditionally, through a Euro-North American-centric lens, these lands have been managed for conservation of the natural environment in tandem with opportunities for recreation. Use of light at night provides an opportunity to extend recreational opportunities through the ability to see immediate surroundings in natural settings, which are largely devoid of on-the-ground anthropogenic light. Light in natural settings at night also provides perceived feelings of safety, which is an important component of outdoor recreation experience [4,5]. However, this desire for using nighttime lighting is increasingly being challenged by the need to protect natural dark skies and the wildlife that thrive in these settings, as well as improve visibility of the night sky as a cultural and recreational resource.

1.1. Background: Dark Skies and Lighting in Parks and Protected Areas

A growing number of parks and protected areas (PPAs) are seeking International Dark Sky Park Certification (IDSP) status through DarkSky International (formerly International Dark Sky Association), and the appeal of associated nighttime recreational experiences [6,7] may attract visitors to parks at night. To meet varying outdoor recreation desires and the simultaneous need for protecting the natural nighttime environment, headlamp manufacturers have started developing headlamps with multiple colors and intensity levels. Recent research has suggested that warmer hue lighting, rather than typical white hue lighting, is more wildlife-friendly [8,9]. These findings have prompted PPAs to implement new lighting infrastructure that protects the natural nighttime environment. For example, at Colter Bay, within Grand Teton National Park, park managers have implemented red lighting at lower intensity levels in the parking lot, and subsequently documented the positive changes this has had on the local ecosystem [10].

In their mission to “preserve, to the greatest extent possible, the natural lightscapes of parks, which are natural resources and values that exist in the absence of human-caused light,” the National Park Service (NPS) seeks to “minimize light that emanates from park facilities, and also seek the cooperation of park visitors… to prevent or minimize the intrusion of artificial light into the night scene of the ecosystems of parks” [11]. Recent and ongoing studies are determining visitor preferences and support for management actions designed to improve night sky quality, including lighting hues and light intensity changes, but these studies have focused mostly on infrastructure [12,13].

1.2. Study Purpose

To date nothing is known regarding how visitors may interpret headlamp colors or intensities. We must better understand visitor preferences for their own lighting equipment before substantive individual behavioral changes, or widespread adoption of behavioral changes, can take place. Cooperation of park visitors should begin with individual action, education, and understanding of the need for protection of natural dark skies [14,15]. This study sought to examine outdoor recreationists’ attitudes toward use of personal lighting devices (i.e., headlamps) under various color and intensity settings, perceptions of safety, ability to interpret objects at night, and potential educational strategies to promote the protection of natural dark skies in Grand Teton National Park.

2. Materials and Methods

Grand Teton National Park (GRTE) is located in the northwest corner of Wyoming, USA. This park was selected as the study site because it offers varied outdoor recreation opportunities ranging from difficult mountaineering in the 12,000 and 13,000 foot (3600 and 4000 m) Teton peaks to novice or beginner hiking, as well as wildlife viewing, scenic driving, and camping opportunities. A recent installation of wildlife-friendly lighting in Colter Bay Village highlights that there is a commitment in this park for protecting night sky resources. Additionally, the park and surrounding Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem are home to large predators such as grizzly bears, and other potentially dangerous animals such as bison. The wide range of potential recreationists in GRTE provided the opportunity to engage with respondents who may be more concerned with using personal lighting devices due to the abundant wildlife.

Throughout GRTE there are six developed campgrounds, each offering a variety of camping options and amenities including space for recreational vehicle, car, and tent camping (https://www.nps.gov/grte/planyourvisit/maps.htm, accessed on 25 January 2024). Gros Ventre, Signal Mountain, and Colter Bay Campgrounds were selected for this study due to their high user numbers. Also within the boundaries of GRTE is the American Alpine Club’s Grand Teton Climbers’ Ranch. Climbers’ Ranch is a set of rustic dormitories located just south of Jenny Lake, one of the most popular destinations in GRTE, and four miles north of the Park Headquarters in Moose, Wyoming. The Climbers’ Ranch is primarily an in-park lodging option for climbers, mountaineers, and outdoor adventurers visiting GRTE. Given the technical skill set and specialist nature of users visiting this site, Climbers’ Ranch was also selected for this study.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with climbers and mountaineers at Climbers’ Ranch (referred to as the mountaineer group) and with car, recreational vehicle, and tent campers (referred to as the camper group) at Gros Ventre, Signal Mountain, and Colter Bay Campgrounds (Figure 1). The sampling window was selected to coincide with peak visitation at GRTE; therefore, interviews occurred in August 2023, stratified over a total of nine sampling days. Interviews with mountaineers and general campers were conducted during the evening hours and concluded when quiet hours began (approximately 10 pm). Interviewees were approached using a stratified roaming approach at the campgrounds, and at the common outdoor sitting area at the Climbers’ Ranch. A total of 59 participants were interviewed in group sizes varying from one to five individuals. This resulted in 17 interviews with mountaineers that included insights from 30 participants, and 16 interviews with campers that included insights from 29 participants. To reduce bias and improve validity in the interview process, three trained university researchers were selected to administer the interviews.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted based on input from NPS staff at GRTE and within the Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division (NSNSD). While the researchers allowed the interviewees to expound on relevant topics beyond the focal questions, the core interview questions are reported in

Table 1. Table with select questions from the mountaineer interview guide.

Semi-Structured Questions Included in the Interviews: Mountaineers
Do you use any kind of lighting while climbing/mountaineering in the park? If so, please describe.
Do you have any concerns with not using lighting while climbing/mountaineering here?
Do you use any kind of lighting while camping here at Climbers’ Ranch? If so what kind and why?
Using this headlamp, what is your color preference/intensity preference?
What is your level of familiarity with human-caused lighting impacts for ecological systems/wildlife, and other humans?
How can the National Park Service best educate the public regarding their own choices and behaviors associated with reducing human-caused lighting in national parks?
What do you think, or know about National Park Service efforts to promote the protection of natural dark skies in national parks?

for mountaineers and

Table 2. Table with select questions from the camper interview guide.

Semi-Structured Questions Included in the Interviews: Campers
Do you use any kind of lighting while camping here at night? a. What kinds of lighting do you use at night while camping here? b. What are some of the reasons you use light while camping here? c. Do you feel that you have to have lights here at night? If so, why?
Do you have any concerns with not using lighting or reducing the level of lighting whiles camping here?
What is your level of familiarity with human-caused lighting impacts for ecological systems and other humans?
What is you level of familiarity with National Park Service efforts to reduce human-caused lighting impacts in national park units?
How can the National Park Service best educate the public regarding their own choices and behaviors associated with reducing human-caused lighting in national parks?
Using this headlamp, what is your color preference/intensity preference?
What role could or should the outdoor industry have in protecting naturally dark skies?

for campers. Additionally, the researchers used a mid-range priced headlamp from a prominent outdoor product manufacturer to demonstrate white and red lighting at different intensities. The headlamps were not used for demonstration until the portion of the interview that explicitly asked about color and intensity preference. The example headlamp was chosen due to its mid-range price ($35 USD) and brand familiarity (Petzl) among the outdoor recreation community. The headlamp also has similar white and red settings available compared to other mid-range priced headlamps on the market during the time of the study.

Each interview was recorded using Otter.ai (Version 3.44.1-240221) an online transcription software. Following data collection, the interviews were transcribed. To begin the process of coding transcriptions, the automated transcriptions from Otter.ai were first validated and confirmed. Each interview was transferred into MaxQDA 24 and subsequently coded using this software. Interviews were initially transcribed using MaxQDA and subsequently reviewed and corrected by the researchers. A multi-phased iterative process between the two lead researchers was applied to the code and ultimately extracted key quotes [16]. During Phase 1, a code book was developed following the semi-structured interview guide. Interviews were initially coded using MaxQDA software to extract relevant interview segments. During Phase 2, segments were exported and further coded by the team of researchers. This phase included initial coding by one individual, resulting in a summary list of main ideas that were expressed in the interviews while exemplary relevant quotes were flagged. Phase 3 included a lengthy discussion among all of the researchers to establish a final summary list of resulting concepts. These thematic concepts were further refined during Phase 4, where the researchers extracted agreed upon, relevant key quotes that highlight and provide justification for the thematic topics. Resulting salient themes are organized by mountaineers, and then by campers.

3. Results

In total, 33 interviews were completed with four rejections (due to, for example, personal time constraints such as needing to go to sleep) for a response rate of 89.2%. Interviews ranged from approximately 6 minutes to 44 minutes in length (variation attributed to group size and individuality of interviewee), resulting in over seven hours of transcribed and coded interview data. 17 interviews were conducted with mountaineers (n = 30 individuals) and 16 interviews were conducted with campers (n = 29 individuals). Eight interviews were conducted with female mountaineers and 22 with male mountaineers. Regarding the camper interviews, 13 interviews were completed with females and 16 with males. Eight of the mountaineers and eight of the campers were first time visitors to GRTE.

3.1. Mountaineers

Several themes involving existing beliefs and norms around headlamp colors and intensities emerged from the mountaineer interviews. From the interviews we learned that all responding mountaineers owned and used headlamps. While climbing, all but one used white light with variations in intensity ranging from the dimmest to the brightest setting, depending on location and purpose of using lighting. Mountaineers were not concerned with using their headlamps for seeing wildlife, but rather for seeing climbing terrain. The themes from the mountaineer group, which are described below ranked by salience, include: saving batteries, preserving vision and not bothering others, education, and improved function through industry and engineering.

3.1.1. Saving Batteries

A major theme resulting from mountaineer interviews involved perceptions regarding light use and batteries. The majority of mountaineers reported using their headlamp at a lower setting to preserve battery, rather than to protect the natural dark skies found in the park. Most of the respondents who exhibited this belief, regarding saving batteries by reducing light intensities, did not mention red or amber lights specifically, but instead described how white light at lower settings “saves batteries” (mountaineer interview #8). During mountaineer interview #7, respondents noted that they use the “lowest one [headlamp light level] just because I want to save batteries”. Only one respondent explicitly mentioned the use of amber or red for reducing battery consumption. Specifically, the respondent from mountaineer interview #15 highlights this finding, stating “I always think of things if I, if I get stuck up here for like two weeks, you know, I want my batteries to last as long as possible, so I can have this thing. And normally the red, the colored lights, you know, they’re at like a super low lumen, you know, it’ll last”.

3.1.2. Preserving Vision

Another theme from mountaineer interviews involved the existing norm around protecting the vision of others by reducing light impacts. During mountaineering interview #1, a climber stated, “just chatting, and someone’s got the headline right in your face, it’s like really annoying." Several mountaineers reported using the red light setting on their headlamps around camp, in order to not disturb others around them. For example, a respondent during mountaineering interview #5 said, “Normally if I’m camping I’ll do red light—try not to disturb like other people”. Similarly, during Mountaineering Interview #6, a respondent noted “Yeah, red light’s nice. I think it’s nice for running around in the tent for things, to avoid waking people up”. In the same manner, during mountaineering interview #9, a climber said “I don’t like to disturb other people”, so they often choose to use the red/amber setting on their headlamp. This thematic result highlights the potential for leveraging existing norms for preserving vision to ultimately reduce lighting impacts.

3.1.3. Education

A prominent result for mountaineers revolved around generally not knowing about potential lighting impacts on wildlife or human well-being. However, through the course of the interviews, several respondents noted willingness to change behaviors, suggesting that simply educating the public could change onsite behaviors. During mountaineering interview #7, a respondent said, “I had no idea—honestly just knowing it. Now, I’ll be way more likely to use red light instead of white in the evening time in my campsite.” With similar sentiment, during mountaineering interview #15, a respondent stated “There’s something beautiful about the night sky, there’s something beautiful about being able to see the stars. And if you have too much light pollution lights that are shining upwards and blasting into space, people I think people inherently hate that—if you explain to people, they are more likely to comply.” For most mountaineer respondents, willingness to change lighting-related behavior was largely driven by the desire to protect the natural environment, and specifically wildlife. For example, during mountaineering interview #1, a respondent spoke about the need to educate the public about wildlife and lighting, stating “Like animals and how that might trigger them, whether they’re nocturnal animals that have to migrate elsewhere because they’re not getting like, obviously the darkness and their typical hunting patterns”. Similarly, during mountaineering interview #6, a respondent highlighted the importance of educating the public about potential impacts by “conveying the downsides of light on wildlife”. During mountaineering interview #16, a respondent noted “personally, wildlife would be good for me, because I absolutely understand that we are in their territory, and I want them to not have a rough time in their own home”.

3.1.4. Improved Function, Industry, and Engineering

The final theme from the mountaineering interviews related to engineering improvements that could be facilitated through lighting, and specifically outdoor manufacturers. A few mountaineers mentioned potential concerns with using light to see potentially dangerous wildlife, but this was overshadowed by more frequent concerns regarding the use of light for seeing climbing conditions and safety associated with navigation. Several of the mountaineers noted that they would use red or amber lighting more often than white lighting if the red and amber were a little brighter. For example, during mountaineering interview #1, a respondent said that when using current red/amber headlamp settings, they are “not able to pick up the contours of the ground”. Mountaineers suggested that current red and amber headlamp intensities were suitable for camp, but not safe enough to pursue climbing activities. For example, during mountaineering interview #7, a respondent stated [I use white light] “because I’m doing it mostly for safety. Unless there were a really high intensity red light, like higher intensity”, which would change their behavior and color preference to red/amber. Similarly, during mountaineering interview #8 a climber said “as long as I can still see and do my activity safely”, they would be willing to use the red or amber settings.

Others suggested that industry could play a stronger role in educating the public about what different headlamp light settings might be useful for, and how to ultimately reduce lighting impacts. For example, during mountaineering interview #2 a respondent said “when you buy one of these—I know, there’s always a pamphlet and everything, but does it say the settings for that [red/amber lighting better for wildlife]”. A mountaineering respondent during interview #3 took this further to highlight the marketing potential, as well as the budding potential for industry to create more of a norm for reducing lighting impacts. They suggested “as a marketing tool, I think people would buy into it and stuff like that. Like, oh, buy this headlamp, because it allows you to use lower light, or whatever, you know, that is better for, you know, less disturbing to wildlife. I think people would, absolutely, that would just become kind of embedded in there. It’s like anything else we do as climbers—once it becomes, it sticks.”

3.2. Campers

Differing from the mountaineers, not all of the campers owned or used headlamps; in addition to headlamps, campers described using lanterns, flashlights, recreational vehicle (RV) lights, and string lights at their camps. While several of the mountaineers were already using red or amber colors with their headlamps (i.e., for saving batteries and preserving vision), only one of the campers described currently using those headlamp settings at camp. Similar to the mountaineers, preserving vision and industry and engineering were important topics resulting from the camper interviews. However, using red or amber at lower intensities for saving batteries was not as prevalent for campers. Rather, the most dominant themes for campers were safety (using light to see wildlife), preserving vision and improving their experience, and education.

3.2.1. Safety

Campers described using their lights for seeing while cooking, reading, socializing, and navigating to the bathroom facilities. Differing from mountaineers, campers conveyed more concern for using lights to see potentially dangerous wildlife. For example, during camper interview #1, a Gros Ventre Campground respondent noted “Yes [I use lights], because of how active bears are here”. In general, campers expressed the notion that using lights made them feel safer at night. This finding did not differ by campground or camper type (e.g., RV or tent). During camper interview #7, a Gros Ventre Campground respondent simply states “I feel more secure with it [lights]”. Similarly, during camper interview #14, a respondent said “it’s probably safer to have lights”.

3.2.2. Preserving Vision and Improving Experience

Similar to the mountaineers, several campers described how red or amber lighting, or white lighting at lower intensities, improves their visitor experience by preserving vision. For example, during camper interview #1 a Gros Ventre Campground respondent noted that “We try to use the red light at night, but if the terrain is more difficult, we use our white light—I feel like it’s easier on the eyes and it’s not as much of a nuisance.” Another respondent described using their headlamp on the lowest intensity setting, as they said “I use it because I don’t blind other people. It’s nice when other people use it so they don’t blind me” (Camper Interview #3). Finally, during camper interview #10, a respondent noted a benefit of using their headlamp on red or amber settings for their visitor experience while camping. They stated, “usually we only use white light, but we just bought one that does red light, which is great, because there’s less bugs flying”.

3.2.3. Education

Aligning with the mountaineer results, campers were overwhelmingly supportive of using red or amber lighting and reduced intensities once informed that they are more suitable for ecological well-being. Respondents highlighted the need for more education, and specifically education that focused on the benefits to wildlife. For example, during camper interview #4 a respondent said, “I’ve always wondered what red was for—I didn’t know that. I would be more attuned to this stuff about the wildlife—I mean, it’s a national park. The point is to preserve wildlife”. Similarly, during camper interview #10, a respondent at Colter Bay Campground stated “I feel like if you made it really about the animals—if you specifically said like certain animals and mentioned studies that might change people’s behavior, because like, we didn’t really know that”.

During several of the interviews, campers mentioned using personal lighting to get to the campground bathrooms, but also commented on the facility lighting they experienced inside and outside the bathroom. For example, during camper iunterview #7 a respondent at Gros Ventre Campground noted, “If you go to the bathroom, they use a really daylight harsh light”. Similarly, during camper interview #12, a Gros Ventre Campground respondent said “exterior lighting is unnecessary—you’re out in the wild—you want to be as less intrusive as possible”. The finding that campers tend to use their personal lighting devices when needing to use the bathroom, and also that they experience intrusive bright lighting in the bathrooms, provides an opportunity to further educate campers. During camper interview #11, a respondent at Colter Bay Campground highlighted this opportunity, suggesting that bathrooms could be a location where the park service could educate the public about lighting impacts. They stated, “the bathroom door is where we get a lot of information that we actually use, so if there were signs on the bathroom doors and campgrounds, we would pay attention”. Other forms of education such as increasing information on park websites and social media platforms were also suggested as mediums to educate the visiting public. Finally, while GRTE already hosts dark sky-focused interpretive talks at both Colter Bay and Gros Ventre Campgrounds, several respondents noted this as a good opportunity to increase education. For example, during camper interview #16, a respondent suggested increasing “ranger talks—like even starting with the Junior Rangers”.

3.3. Summary of Results

From the interviews, themes were developed around current lighting practices, awareness of the impact of artificial light, and willingness and strategies to encourage dark sky-friendly lighting practices. It is evident from the interviews that both climbers and campers are willing to change their lighting practices after becoming aware of the negative impacts of ALAN. Interviews also revealed strategies that would encourage dark sky-friendly lighting practices. There is a general lack of understanding of the impacts of ALAN, but a willingness to change behavior. Few interviewees (mountaineers or campers) were aware of the negative impacts of ALAN. However, almost all interviewees were willing to change the lighting color and intensity after being made aware of the impacts. One mountaineer stated that they “had no idea…Now, I’ll be way more likely to use red light instead of white in the evening time” and a camper stated “as long as I can see, like what I need to see, I don’t mind a lower light level, I actually prefer it because you get like a longer battery life and whatnot, and preserves your night vision”. From this, we learned that there is an overwhelming level of public unawareness of the impacts of ALAN and knowledge of the NPS efforts to protect natural dark skies.

Both campers and climbers stated that agencies and organizations such as NPS, Leave No Trace, and outdoor recreation gear industry should play a part in educating the public. Many reported that information regarding the impacts of ALAN on wildlife life would be persuasive in changing their behavior. One camper stated that “if you made it really about the animals… that might change people’s behavior”. One camper even suggested that creating messaging and signage similar to the information seen around parks regarding bear safety could be an effective way to engage with as many people as possible and be repetitive enough to create change.

4. Discussion

From Heberlein (1973) it is suggested that if an attitude is widely held it will function normatively to define behavior and be an effective means of social control [17]. Enforcement of rules and individual contact in PPAs can be difficult, and even deter some outdoor recreationists from utilizing a space; however, a potential management action is to change user attitudes.

4.1. Implications

The interviews conducted in Grand Teton National Park suggest that park visitors would be willing to change their lighting practices to be more wildlife friendly, such as by lowering light intensity and changing to wildlife friendly light colors (red/amber) after education. This finding supports previous work that found that education about the negative impacts of lighting increased human acceptance of low lighting levels and decreased acceptance of higher lighting levels in the built environment for those with strong biospheric values [18].

The interviews revealed that there is a low level of knowledge of the negative ecological impacts of ALAN, which presents an opportunity to PPA managers to educate users on a new facet of environmental health and stewardship. Interviewees stated that education from organizations such as Leave No Trace and the National Park Service would be appropriate to educate PPA recreationists about the impacts of ALAN. Lawhon and authors (2020) assert that PPA visitors are more likely to practice Leave No Trace if they perceive the practices to be effective at reducing impacts [19]. Evidence of effective practices can be demonstrated by parks through investment in lighting infrastructure upgrades to wildlife-friendly light fixtures as well as widespread messaging throughout the park. Visitor education programs, such as Leave No Trace, which has historically provided the National Park Service with science-informed educational strategies, are used to encourage a variety of outcomes, including promoting conservation behaviors, raising awareness, increasing knowledge, and influencing attitudes [20,21,22,23,24]. More recent Leave No Trace research suggests that there may be a “spillover effect” from this type of education and awareness beyond the boundaries of the parks and protected areas where the education is provided [25]. For example, research suggests that individuals that are educated in Leave No Trace are more likely to practice sustainable behaviors every day within their home environment and communities [25]. With this, messaging from Leave No Trace could be an effective management tool in increasing visitor awareness to the impacts of ALAN on natural dark skies while also influencing, or changing, visitor attitudes and behaviors – potentially beyond the park boundaries.

Outside of increasing awareness of protecting natural dark skies, managers and messaging can focus on creating normative shifts in nighttime recreationists’ behaviors. From the interviews, it is recommended that messaging focus around three main points—wildlife, battery life, and respect of others—in order to influence nighttime recreationists’ behaviors. Both climbers and campers emphasized that information regarding the impacts of ALAN on wildlife would persuade them to change their lighting practices. Climbers and campers would also be motivated by the understanding that using lights at lower intensities would preserve battery life while also protecting natural dark skies. Finally, climbers’ interviews revealed that many climbers use red light in camp out of respect for their fellow climbers. Respect of fellow outdoor recreationists could be a motivator in encouraging behavior shifts regarding best lighting practices [26]. Furthermore, these results also suggest that education material related to infrastructure lighting changes in parks might also focus on reducing impacts to wildlife to increase visitor support of management actions.

4.2. Limitations and Considerations for Future Research

There are a number of limitations with this research that merit consideration for future research. This study focused only on one national park and was a qualitative study, limiting the generalizability of these results. However, information gained from this study suggests that future quantitative studies focusing on mountaineers, tent campers, and vehicle campers, and this park and other types of protected areas, could provide worthwhile information to guide management action regarding lighting practices in PPAs. An additional component of future research on messaging and education, as it influences actual behavior, would be critical for guiding management to encourage personal behaviors and norms regarding dark sky-friendly lighting practices.

Personal lighting devices used by outdoor recreationists do not significantly deteriorate natural dark skies in PPAs. A few headlamps are not erasing the Milky Way from night skies in national parks. However, shifts in recreationists’ attitudes and behaviors will increase general knowledge, awareness, and advocacy for protecting natural dark skies. Results suggest that the outdoor industry and specifically lighting manufacturers should play a role in both improving light functionality (e.g., considering enhanced red or amber settings; starting with red or amber rather than white when turning on lights), and educating the public. Holistically, these efforts could prompt widespread support and investment in large-scale change for substantial preservation of dark skies.

5. Conclusions

This study sheds light on the critical intersection of anthropogenic light impacts, personal lighting behaviors, and attitudes towards preserving natural dark skies in parks and protected areas. While national parks stand as crucial bastions of preserved landscapes, the increasing awareness of the often-overlooked consequences of artificial lighting prompts an evaluation of recreationists practices. The results of this study reveal a lack of awareness among campers, climbers, and mountaineers regarding the ecological and social repercussions of ALAN on wildlife and humans. However, the positive response to this information underscores the potential for transformative change in visitor behavior after education. By harnessing these insights, future educational strategies and personal lighting engineering designs can be tailored to foster more sustainable norms, facilitating a collective effort to mitigate anthropogenic lighting impacts in parks and protected areas and beyond.