Tragedy of the Commons in a Mediterranean MPA: The Case of Gyaros Island Marine Reserve

Abstract

Gyaros Island (Aegean Sea) is a recently (2019) established MPA in the Mediterranean Sea, allowing spatiotemporal small-scale fishing (SSF) activities with specific access rules. However, due to the inability of the state authorities to establish any fishing permit process, Gyaros MPA initially functioned as a No-Take Zone (NTZ), offering a rare opportunity for scientific monitoring. Significant political pressure by fisher organizations led to the opening of the MPA in June 2022 without any fishing permit restriction. The unprecedented ‘race for fish’ that followed led to a significant deterioration of the MPA status, as confirmed by scientific monitoring before and after the opening. Outcry from national media, based on concerns raised by the scientific community and NGOs, resulted in lifting access to fishing in September 2022, upgrading Gyaros MPA to a full NTZ. This study aimed to assess if and how the MPA functioning was impacted based on a series of experimental fishing trials and questionnaire surveys conducted with local fishers. Although a substantial part of the fishing community’s mindset is embracing MPAs, our results also suggest that the self-interests of a fishers’ minority, along with non-science-based policy by the national authorities, have led to overfishing and deterioration of MPA status.

1. Introduction

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are clearly defined geographic areas which are designated and regulated with the purpose of protecting marine habitats, occasionally permitting sustainable exploitation of marine resources [1]. MPAs may pose limitations to some uses but allow certain extractive activities (partially protected) or forbid all extractive activities (fully protected). Multiple-use MPAs combine partial and full protection in distinct separate areas under a zoning system [2]. In densely populated coastal areas, multiple-use MPAs may satisfy both habitat conservation objectives and socio-economic needs [3]. They are put forward as a feasible solution to alleviate the effect of human activities on marine habitats. MPAs are considered a straightforward, easy-to-enforce management strategy, in contrast to a maze of regulations (fishing gear specifications, vessel capacity ceilings, temporal restrictions, minimum conservation reference sizes, effort control, Total Allowable Catch, etc.), which confuse the respective industries, the enforcing authorities and the average consumer [4]. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) obliges the coastal States to protect the marine environment in their own Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). The establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is one of the plausible measures [5]. However, very few nations have taken the initiative to realize this obligation; Palau—an archipelago nation in the Pacific Ocean—has 99 percent of its EEZ as an MPA, followed by the UK (66%), while China’s, India’s and Turkey’s EEZ marine protected area stands at less than 0.2 percent [6]. In the European context, the European Union (EU) aspires to set 30% of marine habitats under effective protection and management and 10% as strictly protected areas by 2030 [7].

Globally, 10,000+ MPAs cover less than 5% of the world’s oceans. In the Mediterranean Sea, out of the more than 1100 MPAs, less than 7% are fully protected while being quite small in size (average < 5 km²) [2]. Nevertheless, effectively managed MPAs in the Mediterranean include Cộte Bleue Marine Park-France, Torre Guaceto-Italy, and Gokova bay-Turkey [8].

Gyaros Island, located in the Aegean Sea (eastern Mediterranean Sea), was established as an MPA quite recently (2019), making it one of the latest Mediterranean MPAs [9]. It is a barren, desolate island in the northern Cyclades islands complex (Figure 1). The island has a dark past, as it was used for banishing high-ranked officials since the Roman era. After World War II, it was converted to a concentration camp for political prisoners and as a shooting range for the Hellenic Navy. In 2008, research surveys conducted in the marine region of Gyaros island brought to light a Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) breeding colony, the largest in the Mediterranean Sea [10,11]. This discovery led to the inclusion, by 2011, of Gyaros and a buffer zone of three (3) nautical miles from its shoreline in the European Natura 2000 Network, aiming at conserving its biodiversity. In 2015, it was declared a marine Wildlife Refuge. Not long after, a state-of-the-art remote monitoring and surveillance system (a long-range radar, HD infrared cameras, and unmanned aerial vehicles UAVs—drones) was installed and operated by WWF Greece in the context of the CYCLADES LIFE project [12], supported by regular and targeted on-site patrolling by the Hellenic Coast Guard and by WWF Greece. This resulted in a reduction of 57% in illegal recreational fisheries and 85% in illegal professional small-scale fisheries [13].

In 2019, following a highly consultative process and an agreement among a consortium of diverse stakeholders (the ‘Gyaros Co-management Committee’), Gyaros was declared by the Greek state a Marine Protected Area (MPA), with a specific zonation system (https://cloudfs.hcmr.gr/index.php/s/p5GTFVbjxNKmNk1, accessed on 16 February 2024) and specific conservation measures, regulating all human uses/activities. However, during the 2019–2022 period, the Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change (MEE) and the relevant state authorities were not able to establish the foreseen permit system for small-scale fishers to operate within the MPA. This led local fishers to feel deceived since the initial joint signed agreement between fishers, local and national state authorities, the scientific community, and NGOs was never implemented in practice. In May 2022, in reaction to the significant political pressure, the MEE issued an amendment to the existing legislation, allowing small-scale fisheries as of June 2022 to operate seasonally within the MPA without any permit restrictions or reporting obligations. Evidence of overfishing, which became apparent both from local fishers’ observations as well as scientific monitoring outcomes, was communicated to the authorities and the media by the scientific community and NGOs. Following strong criticism from national media, the MEE finally lifted access to fishing on 15 September 2022 through another legislative amendment. Thus, Gyaros MPA has since been upgraded in terms of protection to a No-Take Zone with a full ban on all fisheries across all zones of the MPA.

Herein, based on the results of experimental fishing trials and a series of questionnaire surveys conducted over a five-year period (2018–2022), we unfold the story of an “MPA in the making” with a special focus on the most recent period (May–September 2022); evidence is provided on how a continuously improving status of an MPA was discontinued by granting access to uncontrolled fishing. We chronicle how competent authorities’ diminished capacity to effectively manage the MPA and how the government’s erroneous policy-making in response to political pressure, disregarding scientific evidence, led to negative conservation impacts. We also reveal how erratic decision-making can confuse and dishearten the general public, the area users, and the relevant stakeholders and can lead to distrust in environmental conservation policies and efforts. Furthermore, we document how the mindset of some groups of fishers, driven by self-interests and disregarding the common good, can undermine the effective management of local fisheries within MPAs and diminish future benefits.

In the following lines, we initially provide the results on the MPA continuously improving performance based on the experimental fishing surveys during the period 2018–2022, with special focus on the most recent period (May–September 2022) when the MPA was opened to uncontrolled fishing. Subsequently, we present the fisher’s perceptions of MPAs based on a series of questionnaire surveys, and finally, we chronicle the events that led to the (short-term) opening of the MPA and the reason for the erratic decision-making which discontinued the progressive improving status of the MPA.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Fishing Surveys

Since 2018, the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR) has been monitoring the status and functioning of Gyaros MPA in the framework of two dedicated projects funded by the MAVA Foundation [14,15]. A total of 13 experimental fishing surveys were conducted, and 80 experimental fishing hauls were realized during the five-year period (2018–2022). Both nets and longlines were employed during the survey. Sampling sites were chosen by employing NOAAs Sampling Design Tool (https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/project/sampling-design-tool-arcgis/, accessed on 16 February 2024), accounting for depth and bottom substrate stratification (Figure 2). Surveys were realized on a seasonal basis (winter, spring, summer, autumn) throughout the period June 2018–September 2022.

Two types of fishing nets were utilized in the experimental fishing surveys: bottom static trammel nets of 23 mm (GTR23) and 36 mm (GTR36) mesh size, having a horizontal net length of 540 m and 400 m respectively, and a vertical length of around 2 m. GTR36 nets were deployed before sunset and lifted at sunrise, following local fishers’ practices. On the other hand, GTR23 nets were cast late afternoon and retrieved just after sunset.

Static bottom longlines (LLS) that were also used in the experimental surveys consisted of a nylon monofilament main line (diameter 100 ∅) and a series of nylon branch lines (diameter 60 ∅) hanging from the main line. Each longline set consisted of 200 hooks of size 12. All hooks were baited with imported frozen squid. The longlines were set very early in the morning, just before sunrise, and were retrieved a couple of hours later. GTR36 nets covered the full 2018–2022 period; GTR23 nets, as well as LLS, were used during the 2021–2022 period.

All marine organisms captured were removed from the net/longline, identified onboard at the species level, and preserved in the vessels’ freezer. Individual biometric measurements were taken at the ichthyology laboratory of HCMR. These measurements are concerned with total length-TL (in mm) for fish (plus disc width-DW for skates/rays), mantle length-ML for cephalopods, and carapace length-CL for crustaceans. Morphometrics were corroborated by further data such as total and dressed weight, sex, maturity stage, gonad weight, and liver weight.

Detailed information on commercial fishing outside of the MPA was obtained from the EU Fisheries Data Collection Framework implemented since 2003 as a part of the EU Common Fisheries Policy obligations. From the relevant dataset (HCMR database [16]), small-scale fishery catches in the marine regions neighboring Gyaros Island were analyzed. These data were collected by on-board observers stationed on fishing vessels with the purpose of monitoring commercial fishing. Only SSF vessels with comparable operational features to the ones in our sampling surveys were selected. According to the EU Regulation, small-scale fishing is defined as: “Fishing carried out by marine and inland fishing vessels of an overall length below 12 m and not using towed fishing gears, and by fishers on foot, including shellfish gatherers.” (Regulation Of The European Parliament And Of The Council on the European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund and amending Regulation (EU) 2017/1004).

Besides the experimental fishing surveys, a series of other surveys were conducted within the MPA during 2018–2022, such as underwater visual census, hydroacoustics, ichthyoplankton, and benthic sampling. The results of these surveys can be traced in a series of technical reports [14,15] and recent publications [9].

2.2. Statistical Analyses of Catch Data

Catch per unit of effort (CPUE) was computed using the numbers and weight of specimens caught. Biomass abundance was conveyed in Catchweight Per Unit of effort-CPUEW (kg/1000 m of net or kg/1000 hooks).

Comparison of abundance, size of specimens caught, and species richness inside the MPA with catches outside the MPA was realized by employing multi-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA). Whenever necessary, skewed data were log-transformed to approximately conform to normality [17]. Implementation was carried out in R v.4.1.3 [18].

Species richness was assessed based on the Shannon–Wiener diversity index-H [19], computed for each sampling location from the abundance data (catch in weight). All computations were performed in the PRIMER version 5 software package [20].

2.3. Surveys of Fishers Perceptions on the Gyaros MPA

In order to record the opinion of the local small-scale fishers of the neighboring islands (Syros, Andros, and Kythnos) about the relevance to the existence and the impact of the Gyaros MPA, on-site interviews at local ports were conducted by WWF Greece staff in July and August 2022. Active fishers were selected amongst the list of all registered professional small-scale fishers at each island, based on their active status, as assessed from their registered catches through past interviews with local fisheries authorities. All active fishers were contacted in person or by telephone and asked if they were willing to participate in the survey.

The structured closed-ended questionnaire (see

Table 1. (a) Results of the small-scale fishers’ questionnaires (general perceptions on MPAs). (b) Results of the small-scale fishers’ questionnaires (perceptions on Gyaros MPA).

(a)
GYAROS MPA QUESTIONAIRES
Island	SYROS	ANDROS	KYTHNOS
No. of active fishers responding(% of overall active fishers)	19 (70.4%)	8 (22.9%)	10 (55.6%)
Age group	<20	20–29	30–39	40–49	50–59	60+
	0	0	8	7	17	5
Length of boat	0–6 m	6–12 m	12–14 m	14+ m
	2	29	6	0
Q 1. Do you know what is a Marine Protected Area (MPA)?	Yes, but I do not know in detail	Yes, an area for the conservation of marine life with rules and restrictions for all human activities	Yes, an area for the conservation of marine life with rules and restrictions only for fisheries	Yes, an area for the conservation of marine life where all forms of fishing are forbidden	No, I do not know	Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	3	14	10	8
Q 2. Your opinion on the establishment of MPAs is:	Positive	Negative		Neutral	Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answers	32	4		1	0
Q 3. Do you have direct knowledge of personal experience of the function of an MPA from Greece or from abroad?	Yes	No		I have received information from others	Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	18	8		9	2
Q 4. Do you believe that fisheries should be allowed within an MPA?	Yes, all forms of fisheries should be allowed but should be specifically regulated	Only professional small scale fisheries should be allowed but in specific zones and with specific regulations (e.g., with specified gear)		Only recreational fisheries should be allowed but in specific zones and with specific regulations	No form of fisheries should be allowed
Answered	5	23		0	8
Q 5. Do you believe that within MPAs there should be a No Take Zone throughout the year?	Yes			No	Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	19			15	3
(b)
Q 6. Do you know the existence of the Gyaros MPA?	Yes			No	Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	37			0	0
Q 7. Do you know the fisheries regulations that exist within the Gyaros MPA?	Yes, I know well the measures	Yes, but I am not certain of their details		No, I do not know them	Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	28	8		1	0
Q 8. Do you consider that the fisheries measures within the Gyaros MPA had an impact?	Yes, positive for biodiversity	Yes, positive on fish-stocks	Yes, positive on my income	Yes, negative on my income	No, had no impact of any kind	Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	6	22	1	1	2	5
Q 9. Do you know how the Gyaros MPA fisheries measures were developed?	By the relevant Ministries	By scientists	By environmental NGOs	Jointly by all stakeholders including fishers		Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	0	0	0	15		22
Q 10. You believe that the fisheries measures within the Gyaros MPA should…	Be changed and become stricter	Be changed and become less strict	Should remain the same	Should be abolished		Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	9	4	16	3		3
Q 11. Do you believe that more MPAs should be established in the Cyclades region?	Yes, many more	Yes, a few selected ones	No, we do not need more	No, we should also abolish the existing ones		Do not have an opinion/Do not wish to answer
Answered	4	22	5	4		2

) included five questions that addressed issues related to the fishers’ opinion on the existence of the MPA, the specific fisheries measures within the MPA, their impact on marine biodiversity, as well as on their catches and income/livelihoods. In addition, six more general questions addressed broader issues in relation to their views on MPAs as a tool for nature conservation, on the need to establish additional MPAs in their region, and on how MPAs should be regulated in terms of fisheries. The interviews lasted on average 45 min, and the fishers’ responses were recorded anonymously on-site in hard copy by the interviewers and were then transcribed in an electronic spreadsheet format for analysis.

3. Results

3.1. Fishing Surveys

During the 2018–2022 surveys, up to 100 species/taxa have been observed: 40 in the GTR23 nets, 84 in the GTR36 nets, and 29 species in the LLS. The standardized mean catch rate (expressed as CPUEW) inside the MPA was always higher than outside the MPA, with a steadily increasing trend over time for all gears studied (

Table 2. Biomass abundance-CPUEW (in kg/1000 m of net or 1000 hooks deployed) in and out of the MPA when comparing experimental surveys with commercial fishing catches in Gyaros MPA during 2018–2022.

Period	Area	GTR23	GTR36	LLS
2018–2020	Inside MPA		11.0
	Outside MPA		7.9 *
2021–2022	Inside MPA	17.0	20.6	52.5
	Outside MPA	16.0	8.3 *	24.4 *

*: Statistically significant difference at the 0.05 level.

).

GTR36 nets data, spanning over five years (2018–2022), allowed us to draw general inferences and assess the MPA’s effectiveness in terms of protecting fish populations. The trend of fisheries relative abundance (CPUEW), expressed in kg per 1000 m of net deployed, was steadily increasing throughout the years, reaching its peak in 2022 (Figure 3). The increasing trend was found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05). Further investigation of this pattern at the seasonal level, revealed that the overall increasing trend of CPUE was actually reversed in autumn 2022 (Figure 4) with a dramatic and statistically significant drop of CPUEW, measured at 30 kg/1000 m of net in autumn 2021, down to 15 kg/1000 m of net in autumn 2022. To further assess this irregular finding, we focused on the data collected during each autumn between 2018 and 2022. Besides the conspicuous 50% drop in fisheries-related abundance during autumn 2022 (

Table 3. Autumn annual time series of fisheries-related relative abundance-CPUEW in kg/1000 m and the number of species observed from the experimental fishing trials with GTR36 trammel nets in Gyaros island during 2018–2022. (Note: only autumn values are compared for each year).

Year	CPUEW (kg/1000 m of Net)	Nb of Species
2018	10.2	16
2019	10.9	12
2020	19.1	11
2021	30.6	14
2022	15.1	7

), an analogous significant drop was also observed in the number of species caught, which have fallen to an all-time low—just seven species (Table 3).

Diversity indices based on the Shannon–Wiener H′ indices for biomass, showed similar trends. Investigation of the area effect (in/out of MPA) on diversity indicated statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) among areas; elevated values were always observed in the protected area (

Table 4. Shannon–Wiener diversity Index H′ calculated by season inside and outside the Gyaros MPA between 2018–2022 as inferred from the GTR36 trammel net catches.

2018–2022	GTR 36 mm Nets
	Inside MPA	Outside MPA
Winter	1.62	1.08
Spring	1.88	1.31
Summer	1.75	1.48
Autumn	1.35	1.51

—Figure 5). Once again, the lowest value for the H′ indices inside the MPA was observed in autumn; this was an effect of the very low values during autumn of 2022.

A comparison of the results from our surveys conducted just before and after the opening of the MPA without any limit in fishing effort and on-site inspections (surveys of 15 May 2022 and 15 September 2022) revealed the significant negative impact induced on the fish populations. There was a clear difference between autumn 2022 and all other autumn surveys (see Table 4) for the population metrics under study (CPUE, Nb of species) for all types of fishing gears, these being significantly lower after the opening of the fishery (

Table 5. Comparison of some population metrics before (May 2022) and after (September 2022) the opening of the fishery on 1 June 2022 for all fishing gears surveyed in Gyaros MPA. (CPUEW: kg/1000 m of net or hooks deployed).

Fishing Gear	Survey	CPUEW	Nb of Species
GTR36	May 2022	23.1	22
	September 2022	15.1 *	15
GTR23	May 2022	19.9	21
	September 2022	15.3 *	21
LLS	May 2022	52.6	19
	September 2022	13.9 *	5

*: Statistically significant difference at the 0.05 level.

).

Furthermore, in the trammel net catches, certain widespread species of significant commercial value that usually comprised a high portion of the catch (e.g., Mullus surmuletus-striped, red mullet, Pagrus pagrus-red porgy, Sepia officinalis-common cuttlefish) were absent during the September 2022 survey. Even more striking differences were apparent in the LLS, where a 75% reduction in both catch rates and number of species was observed (Table 5). Species that were now absent from the catch comprised almost 70% of the catch in the samplings conducted before the opening of the fishery; namely, Diplodus sargus (white seabream), Epinephelus costae (goldblotch grouper) and Pagrus pagrus (red porgy). However, an analogous effect on the size composition of catches was not as conspicuous; statistical differences among sizes of specimens caught were observed only in the LLS surveys with a decrease in total length for a limited number of species (Diplodus vulgaris-annular seabream, Pagrus pagrus-red porgy and Spondyliosoma cantharus-black seabream).

3.2. Surveys of Fishers’ Opinion

In total, 37 fishers from the neighboring Gyaros MPA islands responded to the questioners (Table 1), representing approximately 57% of the active fishers of these islands (19 out of the 27 active fishers from Syros, 8 out of the 27 active fishers from Andros, and 10 out of the 18 active fishers from Kythnos). Their ages ranged from 20 to 60+ years, representing the age range in the Cyclades region for the small-scale fisheries sector. The size of their vessels ranged from 5 to 14 m long, which is also representative of the small-scale fleet in the Cyclades region (Table 1a).

All fishers interviewed were aware of the existence of the Gyaros MPA, and a high percentage (76%) of them had good knowledge of both past and current fisheries’ regulations. The majority (75%) of the fishers recognized the MPA’s importance and considered that the Gyaros MPA positively impacted the conservation of marine biodiversity and the local fish stocks. Further, 3% of the fishers reported that the MPA had a direct positive impact on their income, another 3% said that it had a negative impact on their income, and just 5% said that it had no impact whatsoever (Table 1b). It should be noted that, even though the interviews coincided with the period of open-access fishing within the MPA, this occurred incidentally, as this part of the work was not originally designed to record the fishers’ opinion on the current at the time of conditions within the MPA. Instead, it aimed to assess the general attitude of local active fishers towards the overall impact of the MPA during the 2019–2022 period. Our results show that active fishers’ opinions were not significantly influenced by the changes in the legislation during the course of 2022 on the regulation of small-scale fishing within the MPA. Indeed, 46% of the fishers considered that the strict fisheries regulations were adequate and should remain as is. In contrast, 26% proposed that they should become even stricter, and only a minority suggested that they should become more lenient or be entirely abolished (11% and 8%, respectively).

Lastly, with respect to the general views of the fishers on establishing MPAs in the wider Cyclades area, 60% of the respondents were quite positive on the establishment of additional MPAs, with diverse views on their number, size and strictness in terms of fisheries restrictions. A smaller proportion of the fishers (14%) considered that existing MPAs are adequate in number, while another 11% were strongly negative and even suggested that the existing MPAs should be abolished.

3.3. Establishing the MPA

During the 2016–2018 period, as part of the CYCLADES LIFE project [12], a consortium of 15 diverse stakeholder groups (‘Gyaros Co-management Committee’), including local fishers, the MEE, the Hellenic Coast Guard, local authorities, scientists, academics and Non-Governmental Organizations-NGOs), coordinated by WWF Greece, developed a detailed proposal unanimously putting forward the vision of Gyaros island marine reserve (MPA). The ‘Gyaros Co-management Committee’s’ final outcome was to submit a commonly agreed proposal for the creation of an MPA in the marine area of 3 nautical miles around the Gyaros island to the national authorities. A detailed set of rules governing the MPA accompanied this proposal, which included a zoning system for the marine areas around the island, each one having a different conservation/protection status. According to the proposal, access to fishing was allowed for a period of five months per year (June–October) and only to small-scale fishing vessels using static nets or longlines. Strict regulations on the maximum length of nets, minimum mesh sizes, and the maximum number of hooks and hook sizes were also defined, agreed upon, and proposed. A Key element in the proposed management of fisheries within the MPA was the obligation to issue a fishing permit valid for a maximum of 48 h and a mandatory logbook for reporting effort and catches. The competent authority proposed to take over this task was the Management Authority of Cyclades Protected Areas (MACPP), functioning under the umbrella of the MEE. This agency, in accordance with its mandate, was foreseen to receive and evaluate applications from fishers willing to fish in Gyaros MPA and keep a record of all fishing vessels to facilitate the effective monitoring, surveillance, and control of fishing activities within the MPA.

After a period of almost a year (July 2019), the MEE published a Ministerial Decision (389/4 July 2019) declaring Gyaros island and the surrounding 3 nm marine area as an MPA, allowing spatiotemporal exploitation by small-scale fishers (based on the detailed proposal of the ‘Gyaros Co-management Committee’). However, the burden of receiving fishers’ applications, evaluating them, and issuing fishing permits was never taken up by either the MACPP, which became inactive soon after its establishment or the Hellenic Coast Guard, the two competent authorities with relevant jurisdictions, due to the absence of a relevant permit issuance mechanism and the lack of operational readiness and capacity/resources to establish one. As a result, no-fishing permits have been issued, and thus, in practice, the entire Gyaros MPA area functioned as a full No-Take Zone during the 2019–2022 period.

4. Discussion

Worldwide, disputes for fisheries rights are not infrequent. The reason is that fisheries have a long and strong tradition in most coastal countries, and the interest in marine conservation and MPA establishment is on the rise (e.g., EU biodiversity strategy for 2030 [7]). Often, fishers feel threatened, disregarded, and excluded from the decision-making process. A study in Brazilian MPAs [21] concluded that although fishers managed to improve their political representativeness, the majority of their proposals have not yet been realized. A wide-reaching study in 87 MPAs [22] identified competition over the use of marine resources, feelings of exclusion, poor communication, and inequities in the distribution of MPA benefits as the main reasons leading to conflicts. More specifically, in the Mediterranean, these conflicts stem from different concepts of heritage, appropriation of resources, and preservation [23].

Such conflicts over fisheries rights can rise above the narrow MPA geographical locale and escalate into international disputes: Cod wars between Iceland and Britain in the 1970s [24], flying fish catch dispute between Trinidad & Tobago and Barbados [25], territorial rights on fishing between China and Taiwan [26] and the most recent post-Brexit UK and France dispute over Jersey fishing grounds [27].

In this study, we provide evidence on how an MPA that was formally established in 2019, based on a common agreement between a diverse group of stakeholders on its zoning plan and zone-specific conservation measures, and has subsequently functioned as a full no-fisheries area over a four-year period, had a substantial positive impact to local resources (see also [9]). Focusing on the most recent period (May–September 2022), we document the strong negative impact of granting, through a non-science-based and participatory decision, uncontrolled access to small-scale fisheries that exerted excessive fishing pressure, leading to a deterioration of the species diversity and the populations within the MPA. Our results show how erratic non-science-based and participatory policies can have strong and immediate negative impacts, and thus, benefits gained over several years can dissipate even within a period of just a few months.

4.1. Inability to Properly Implement Fisheries Management in the MPA

Fishers’ growing dissatisfaction with the de facto no-fishing status of the MPA and the inability of the state authorities to issue permits and thus allow them to fish legally within the MPA, at least on a seasonal basis, even if stemming from a relatively small proportion of fishers, turned out to be quite effective in exerting political pressure to the MEE. Accumulating complaints from the fishers, who were not in favor of the MPA fisheries measures and interventions of local policy actors appeared effective towards steering the MEE to overturn its initial decision in May 2022 and grant fishing access starting from June, without the need to issue permits or the obligation to report effort and catches. The unprecedented ‘race for fish’ that was initiated from day one, attracting fishers from all over Greece, left the majority of local fishers somehow puzzled about what they agreed to.

In contrast, the decision to open the Gyaros MPA to fishing generated serious concerns from environmental and conservation groups, which were disseminated publicly to the national media. Not long after, Gyaros was put under the spotlight by the media, which contacted all involved parties for comments (MEE, HCMR, NGOs, fishers). Ministry officials, in their effort to dissipate responsibility, claimed that this unilateral decision was, in fact, a joint decision taken after consulting and in agreement with all key parties involved. In contrast, scientists and NGOs expressed their concerns, stressing that such a non-science-based and consultative decision would undermine all past efforts and jeopardize the up-to-date benefits stemming from the effective protection of the MPA.

This chorus of disapproval from various sources (media, scientists, NGOs) finally led the Minister of MEE to lift in September the open access to fishing within the MPA through a new amendment of the Ministerial Decision (586/15 September 2022). According to this, Gyaros island became a No-Take Zone based on ‘the need for further shielding and protecting the fish fauna of the island of Gyaros and in general of the marine environment of the area’. A summarized depiction of the status governing fishing activities in the Gyaros MPA, in chronological order, is provided in

Table 6. Status governing fishing activities in the Gyaros MPA, in chronological order.

Agreement between Stakeholders “Gyaros Co-Management Committee” March 2018	Rules as Set in Ministerial Decision of 4 July 2019	What Actually Happened between 4 July 2019–10 May 2022	Rules as Set in Ministerial Decision of 10 May 2022	Rules as Set in Ministerial Decision of 15 September 2022
1. Fishing permits		Coast guard declines permit issuing—This was not foreseen in the agreement signed between the 15 relevant stakeholders of the Gyaros Co-management Committee (Coast guard and Ministry included) → MPA functions as a de facto NTZ *	No permit	Gyaros declared a No-Take Zone; Pending a Special Environmental Study which will lead to a Presidential Decree
To be issued by MPA Management authority	To be issued by Coast guard
valid per individual vessel	yes
48 h duration	yes
Priority access to local small-scale fishers (SSF)	no	no **	no
2. Zoning system	yes	yes	yes
3. Temporal access to SSF (June–October)	yes	no	yes
4. Static Gillnets		no
Max net length = 4000 m	yes	-	yes
mesh size ≥ 22 mm	yes	-	yes
5. Static Trammelnets		no
Max net length = 4000 m	yes	-	yes
mesh size ≥ 23 mm	yes	-	yes
6. Static longlines		no
max Nb of hooks = 1000	yes	-	yes
hook size ≥ 12	yes	-	yes
7. Logbook obligation			No logbook obligation
all catches reported to management authority	yes	no
8. All other NATURA2000 obligations/restrictions apply	yes	yes	yes

MEE claims: * Management authority was not existent or discontinued—Coast guard the only option. ** According to Greek Constitution, all citizens are equal before the law and favoring local communities is not an option [28].

.

The hierarchy of the national legal system governing MPAs places the Ministry (MEE) at the top, overseeing the recently established MPA Management Agency (Natural Environment and Climate Change Agency—NECCA). However, monitoring, control, and surveillance of MPAs is predominantly the role of the Coast Guard, with few exceptions where NECCA has its own means of surveying (e.g., Gyaros MPA, National Marine Park of Alonissos Northern Sporades-NMPANS and National Marine Park of Zakynthos–NMPZ).

It is arguable that the future of the MPA is guaranteed, as its full and unequivocal legal protection status can only be secured by the issuance of a Presidential Decree, the highest level of legislative tool available that cannot be easily amended as the relevant Ministerial Decisions. A process for the issuance of Presidential Decrees for all MPAs and PAs, including Gyaros’, of the country has been initiated by the Greek government but has been greatly delayed over the past four years.

4.2. Tragedy of the Commons and Small-Scale Fishers

Certain fisheries, governed by open access to resources and incomplete property rights, set the typical paradigm of the “tragedy of the commons” a theory communicated through an essay in the late ‘60s [29]. In an ecological context, it can be translated as: “a situation in which individual users, who have open access to a resource unhampered by shared social structures or formal rules that govern access and use, act independently according to their own self-interest and, contrary to the common good of all users, cause depletion of the resource through their uncoordinated action in the case that there are too many users related to the available resources” [30]. Nobel prize laureate Elinor Ostrom in her classical work, Governing the Commons [31], provided the theoretical framework of co-management, putting forward that local people acting together to solve collective action problems can do much better than “the state”. She even suggested that a productive symbiosis between local groups and the state is feasible.

Although local fishers’ associations were members of the ‘Gyaros Co-management Committee’, which jointly put forward the proposals for strict fisheries management measures within the MPA, it seems that the concept of the MPA and the long-term benefits that may result from it was grasped by the majority of the fishers of the area but not by all local fishers nor by fishers nationwide that did not participate in the Committee but also visited the MPA to fish. Thus, a small percentage of fishers, apart from damaging marine resources, have also caused reputational damage to the fishing industry and penalized the majority of fishers who respected the rules.

One can argue that a relatively small percentage of small-scale fishers from the Gyaros MPA nearby islands, based on the results of the fishers’ survey, felt deceived by the inability of the state authorities to grant them permits and later when access was granted to all small-scale fishers nationwide, realized that playing by the rules and respecting the de facto no-fishing status of the MPA, was not in their favor. The above consideration may also explain the discrepancy observed between the positive attitude of the majority of local fishers towards the strict fishery measures within the MPA, recorded in the questionnaires, and the local fishers’ subsequent practice when the fishery restrictions were seasonally abolished, as they joined the fishers coming from other areas of the country in the race to overexploit the local fish populations.

However, it is impossible to estimate who visited and fished the MPA and the true fishing effort exerted due to the lack of permits and official logbooks. Based on observations from the Hellenic Coast Guard and WWF Greece crew patrolling the area (M. Margaritis/WWF, personal communication), there were seven fishing boats operating within the MPA on 1 June 2022 (the first day of opening the fishery), 17 boats on 2 June, and this number more or less leveled to around 20 vessels/day for most of the June–August period. Furthermore, based on information stemming from the local fishers, a number of the fishing vessels, when weather conditions allowed, remained within the MPA for several days and were actively fishing non-stop. In view of such heavy fishing vessel traffic and fishing activity and not having available any form of permits that could, to some extent, limit access to the MPA, the Hellenic Coast Guard did not have the capacity to perform detailed inspections on a daily basis to assess if fishers respected the zones-specific gear regulations and thus adequately control fishing within the MPA. The situation became even worse in July and August when the local Hellenic Coast Guard vessel was summoned by the central Hellenic Coast Guard authorities and was transferred to the country’s eastern marine borders to assist in the control of illegal immigrants’ flows, thus leaving the Gyaros MPA without any control by competent authorities, despite the pressure conducted by conservation groups to impede that decision. Assuming that 20 vessels are deployed, the maximum of 4000 m of nets allowed per vessel gives a rough estimate of 80 km of nets cast every day. This is more than three times the perimeter of the Gyaros island coastline (28 km). These estimates were further confirmed by local fishers from the nearby islands (Syros, Andros, Kythnos), pointing out that some of them unsuccessfully attempted to reach the MPA. However, the area was ‘congested’ by fishing vessels and fishing gears and did not manage to cast their gears, or whenever they did, this was in unfavorable places, yielding insignificant catches.

4.3. The Future (Lessons Learned/Recommendations)

From the above considerations, one may conclude that the future is ‘gloomy’ and that erratic policy decision-making and fishers ‘self-interested’ behavior, seeking short-term benefits, are major obstacles in fisheries management within MPAs and for marine conservation in general. However, based on the results of the fishers’ questionnaires, it is evident that the mindset of a substantial part of the local fishers’ community is changing towards embracing the concept of MPAs and recognizing their benefits for both marine biodiversity and for the sector itself in the medium-short term.

Such a shift in the mindset of the fishers themselves and of the key stakeholders involved in fisheries and MPA management is progressively evident in various initiatives throughout European waters, including the Aegean Sea, such as the “Amorgorama Initiative”, in Amorgos island (Aegean Sea)—https://amorgorama.com/, accessed on 16 February 2024. A characteristic example is the recently implemented Mediterranean-wide project, led by the WWF Mediterranean Marine Initiative, which aimed to make fishing more sustainable. In the framework of this Initiative, titled “Transforming Small-Scale Fisheries” project (2017–2023; https://www.wwfmmi.org/what_we_do/fisheries/transforming_small_scale_fisheries//, accessed on 16 February 2024), which was implemented in Greece and coordinated by WWF Greece, and in other Mediterranean countries (e.g., Italy, Turkey, Croatia), a group of open-minded local small-scale fishers, from the islands of Kythnos and Andros, neighboring to the Gyaros MPA, in collaboration with other stakeholders, have adopted sustainable fishing practices at a voluntary basis. Following a participatory approach to fisheries management, the so-called “Small-scale fishing co-management Committee of Northern Cyclades” was formed, involving fishers, fishery administrative authorities, scientists, entrepreneurs and NGOs, and a set of voluntary sustainable fishing measures have been decided and implemented locally which, among others, include: (i) establishing No-Take Zones, (ii) implementing spatiotemporal closures, (iii) using of more selective fishing gears and techniques, (iv) releasing sensitive species, (v) reporting catches and (vi) establishing a system for centralized communal distribution of catches in the supply chain. Although the participation and adherence to the measures were voluntary, this pilot initiative has already been proven effective in bringing a change in local fishing practices in the case of the Northern Cyclades, progressively attracting more and more fishers to sign on to the initiative as they realized that there is more to gain when marine biodiversity is respected, and marine resources exploitation is regulated and sustainably managed.

On the wider policy front, a major aspiration of the European Union is to improve the effectiveness of the existing EU MPA network and, in parallel, increase the EU’s network of MPAs and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) to 30% and to designate 10% of this network, which is of very high biodiversity value, to a strictly protected status by 2030 [7]. This “30 by 30” target calls for designating a series of new MPAs, taking into account regions of particular importance for biodiversity and their ecosystem services and benefits to people. It is evident that the future will call for more MPAs and for truly effective management of our oceans. Policymakers will need to tackle the “30 by 30” challenge with ecosystem-based management principles and a science-based approach; taking advantage of the benefits of participatory processes, there is hope that conflicts and barriers could be overcome. It remains to be seen if they will make the right choices.

The major lesson learned was that establishing an MPA and, moreover, ensuring its effectiveness needs the following: (i) multi-lateral collaboration based on a clearly defined co-decision process, (ii) sincere dialogue among stakeholders, (iii) setting the common good above personal interests, and (iv) seek compromises. On a second note, pressure exerted by self-interested groups (more often than not behind closed doors) and the power of media to shape public opinion can alter political decisions, disregarding mutual official agreements among MPA stakeholders.

With regards to the future of the Gyaros MPA, based on the lessons learned from the recent challenges, it has become evident that the following seminal issues must be resolved in order to secure the effective long-term conservation of the area, namely:

(a)

The legislative status of the MPA must be finalized through the issuance of a definitive Presidential Decree and a science-based, regularly updated Management Plan,

(b)

The effective surveillance and guarding of the MPA and fishing activities within it must be secured by providing the necessary administrative framework as well as adequate means to the Hellenic Coast Guard and to the newly established MPA Management Agency (NECCA/Management Unit of the Central Aegean Protected Areas), to be able to effectively operate in situ, utilizing all available technologies, such as the existing remote monitoring and surveillance system,

(c)

Ensure the continuation of the necessary scientific monitoring of the status of the marine environment within the MPA and the surrounding area to assess the effectiveness of the conservation measures and be able to adaptively manage the Gyaros MPA and

(d)

Ensure the involvement of the local communities, through substantial participatory processes, in the MPA’s management and to promote the notion and value of the “commons” among key users, including fishers.

The experience gained from the case study of the Gyaros MPA, at a scientific, administrative, and policy level, may be directly useful in the design, establishment, and management of existing and new MPAs in Greece and at the regional and global levels.