Comparative Analysis of Sustainable Electrification in Mediterranean Public Transportation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Electric Mobility
3. Mediterranean Good Practices
- North Mediterranean: Barcelona and Marseille;
- South Mediterranean: Tunis and Algiers;
- East Mediterranean: Izmir and Athens.
3.1. North Mediterranean
3.1.1. Bus
- Horizontal: where the roads are parallel to the seashore (H4–H8–H12–H16);
- Vertical: where the routes are perpendicular to the seashore (V7–V11–V15);
- Diagonal: where the trails take a diagonal path between horizontal and vertical (D20–D40).
3.1.2. Tram
3.2. South Mediterranean
3.2.1. Bus
3.2.2. Tram
3.3. East Mediterranean
3.3.1. Bus
3.3.2. Tram
4. Results and Analysis
4.1. Energy Consumption Analysis
4.2. Air Pollution Analysis
4.3. Cost Analysis
5. Discussion
- Public transportation providers continue to express concerns about the limited driving range of electric buses and the time required to recharge them [64]. To ensure that operations remain efficient, it is essential that electric buses have the capacity to complete their trips without the need for recharging. The regularity and dependability of public transportation services may be affected by the time required to recharge electric vehicles, which is longer than the time needed to refuel traditional vehicles with fossil fuels.
- The technology of batteries is a crucial component in the electrification of public transportation [65]. Currently, the range and capacity of electric buses are limited by the energy density of their batteries. To overcome these limitations, it is imperative to develop new technologies that offer higher energy density and are also lighter, thus increasing the effectiveness, affordability, and durability of electric buses.
- Adapting existing infrastructure to support electric vehicles can be a challenging task [66]. Retrofitting public transportation infrastructure for electric buses requires making necessary changes to accommodate their unique requirements. Many cities have built bus depots and repair facilities for conventional vehicles, which need to be modified to support electric cars. This approach requires additional funding and changes in infrastructure and may cause delays to regular business operations.
- The complete electrification of public transportation systems, encompassing BRT systems, introduces a heightened demand for additional electricity to support daily operations. The transition towards full electrification of transportation poses a unique challenge to the existing power systems, which must be examined closely to determine their capacity to accommodate the increased energy requirements [67]. This shift in urban mobility marks a new era and calls for reevaluating power infrastructure to ensure it can cope with the growing demands of sustainable transportation. It is essential to address this surge in electricity demand to foster the successful integration of eco-friendly public transit solutions while simultaneously reinforcing the resilience and adaptability of regional power grids.
- Additionally, concurrent charging of a substantial fleet of high capacity can introduce challenges related to power quality within the existing system. This highlights the importance of assessing and addressing potential issues that may arise from the combined charging demands of a large fleet. It emphasizes the need for effective power quality management strategies to ensure a stable and reliable electrical infrastructure.
- Our findings suggest that switching to electric buses can significantly reduce CO2 emissions and support the larger goal of decarbonizing the transportation industry. Areas that have adopted electric buses and powered them with clean energy sources have seen a significant decrease in their public transit system’s carbon footprint. These findings highlight the potential for positive environmental impact through the electrification of public transportation in Mediterranean cities. Moreover, it demonstrates the crucial role that these initiatives can play in shaping a more sustainable and resilient urban future.
- Authorities consider various factors when considering a new strategy, including financial benefits. Our paper shows that while electric buses are environmentally friendly, they may only sometimes be the best investment. The same is true for diesel buses, which are only sometimes the worst option. This is because the purchase price of electric buses is higher than that of diesel buses, sometimes even double. Despite the higher operating costs of diesel buses, their lower purchase price makes them a profitable long-term investment. The high cost of electric buses is a significant obstacle to achieving SDG 11, which aims to provide affordable and sustainable public transportation. Reducing the purchase price of electric buses would increase their long-term net benefit, especially in developing countries with high inflation.
- Despite the effectiveness of NPV and CBA analyses, it is shown that not many countries utilize these outputs while considering investment choices [68]. In Mediterranean areas that suffer from high pollution emissions and investment budget is limited, findings of this type of study can prove to be vital when it comes to selecting the most beneficial option.
- The electrification of public transportation offers a significant reduction in CO2 emissions; however, it poses challenges for governments, particularly in underdeveloped countries in the Mediterranean region. Heavy reliance on electric systems may limit investment capacity. For instance, our findings reveal that, despite their environmental benefits, electric buses are costlier than their diesel counterparts, primarily due to higher initial expenses [16]. This financial barrier may hinder the adoption of electric versions, compounded by the substantial energy requirements, posing challenges in providing electricity and upgrading infrastructure, especially in underdeveloped countries. Addressing these barriers is crucial for aligning with SDG targets.
- Governments can efficiently lower overall adaptation expenses and reduce carbon emissions by providing incentives and subsidies [69], along with decreasing the initial purchase costs of electric buses [16]. Furthermore, enhancing the use of renewable energy sources for electricity proves to be an effective strategy in diminishing carbon emissions [70]. The strategic deployment of electric buses, especially when combined with renewable energy sources, is a significant approach for cities aiming to address local air quality issues and global climate change challenges simultaneously.
- The potential for electricity production, urban planning, and city topology (including street types, driving style, and environmental conditions), as well as the specific types of buses used in each city, pose constraints on the analysis presented in this study. Since these data were not available and were not within the scope of this study, we investigated the case studies from a general point of view. This study can be adapted and analyzed for each city if specific datasets were available for each city. Access to more data would also enhance the precision of the output.
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Variable | Description | Value |
---|---|---|
Purchase price: diesel bus (thousands of euros) | 300 | |
Purchase price: CNG bus (thousands of euros) | 400 | |
Purchase price: hybrid bus (thousands of euros) | 500 | |
Purchase price: electric bus (thousands of euros) | 600 | |
Maintenance cost: diesel bus (EUR/km) | 0.62 | |
Maintenance cost: CNG bus (EUR/km) | 0.62 | |
Maintenance cost: hybrid bus (EUR/km) | 0.45 | |
Maintenance cost: electric bus (EUR/km) | 0.35 | |
Fuel consumption: diesel bus (liter/km) | 0.64 | |
Fuel consumption: CNG bus (kg/km) | 0.63 | |
Fuel consumption: hybrid bus | ||
Fuel consumption: electric bus (kWh/km) | 1.7 | |
Fuel price: diesel (EUR/L) | 1.7 | |
Fuel price CNG (EUR/kg) | 1.4 | |
Fuel price: electricity (EUR/kWh) | 0.29 | |
External damage: cost diesel (EUR/km) | 0.077 | |
External damage: cost CNG (EUR/km) | 0.06 | |
External damage: cost diesel (EUR/km) | 0.047 | |
External damage: cost electric (EUR/km) | 0.022 | |
Lifetime (year) | 12 | |
Discount rate | {0.01, 0.03, 0.05} | |
Bust type index | {D, CNG, H, E} | |
coefficients | 0.5 |
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Mediterranean Location | City | Average Speed (km/h) | Daily Energy Consumption (MWh) | Annually Energy Consumption (GWh) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Mean | Upper | Lower | Mean | Upper | |||
North | Barcelona | 17.5 | 25.83 | 45.20 | 64.58 | 9.43 | 16.50 | 23.57 |
Marseille | 15 | 25.38 | 44.42 | 63.45 | 9.26 | 16.21 | 23.16 | |
South | Tunis | 11 | 68.51 | 119.89 | 171.27 | 25.01 | 43.76 | 62.51 |
Algiers | 12.8 | 18.89 | 33.06 | 47.23 | 6.90 | 12.07 | 17.24 | |
East | Izmir | 17.15 | 23.46 | 41.057 | 58.65 | 8.56 | 14.99 | 21.41 |
Athens | 17.9 | 38.66 | 67.66 | 96.66 | 14.11 | 24.70 | 35.28 |
Mediterranean Location | City * | Average Distance (Thousand km) | Daily Energy Consumption (MWh) | Annually Energy Consumption (GWh) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Mean | Upper | Lower | Mean | Upper | |||
North | Barcelona | 114.90 | 126.39 | 195.34 | 264.28 | 46.13 | 71.30 | 96.46 |
Marseille | 62.19 | 68.41 | 105.73 | 143.04 | 24.97 | 38.59 | 52.21 | |
East | Izmir | 274.88 | 302.36 | 467.29 | 632.22 | 110.36 | 170.56 | 230.76 |
Athens | 297.81 | 327.58 | 506.27 | 684.96 | 119.57 | 184.79 | 250.01 |
Fuel Type | Emission Factor (g CO2/km) |
---|---|
Conventional Diesel | 1400 |
CNG | 1100 |
Hybrid | 850 |
Full Electric | 400 |
Mediterranean Location | City | Fleet Number | Annual Bus Distance (Thousand km) | Annual Emission (Thousand ton) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S1 | S2 | S3 | S4 | ||||
North | Barcelona | 1135 | 36.95 | 58.71 | 46.13 | 35.65 | 16.78 |
Marseille | 647 | 35.09 | 31.78 | 24.97 | 19.3 | 9.08 | |
East | Izmir | 1766 | 56.81 | 140.46 | 110.36 | 85.28 | 40.13 |
Athens | 1897 | 57.3 | 152.18 | 119.57 | 92.39 | 43.48 |
Mediterranean Location | City | Diesel | CNG | Hybrid | Electric | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Op | XC | Op | XC | Op | XC | Op | XC | ||
North | Barcelona | 63.11 | 2.85 | 55.5 | 2.22 | 45.84 | 1.74 | 31.14 | 0.81 |
Marseille | 59.94 | 2.7 | 52.71 | 2.11 | 43.53 | 1.65 | 29.58 | 0.77 | |
East | Izmir | 97.03 | 4.31 | 85.33 | 3.41 | 70.46 | 2.67 | 47.88 | 1.25 |
Athens | 97.87 | 4.41 | 86.07 | 3.44 | 71.08 | 2.69 | 48.26 | 1.26 |
Mediterranean Location | City | r = 1% | r = 3% | r = 5% | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Best | Worst | Best | Worst | Best | Worst | ||
North | Barcelona | E | CNG | E | CNG | E | H |
Marseille | E | CNG | E | H | D | H | |
East | Izmir | E | D | E | D | E | D |
Athens | E | D | E | D | E | D |
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Miraftabzadeh, S.M.; Ranjgar, B.; Niccolai, A.; Longo, M. Comparative Analysis of Sustainable Electrification in Mediterranean Public Transportation. Sustainability 2024, 16, 2645. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072645
Miraftabzadeh SM, Ranjgar B, Niccolai A, Longo M. Comparative Analysis of Sustainable Electrification in Mediterranean Public Transportation. Sustainability. 2024; 16(7):2645. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072645
Chicago/Turabian StyleMiraftabzadeh, Seyed Mahdi, Babak Ranjgar, Alessandro Niccolai, and Michela Longo. 2024. "Comparative Analysis of Sustainable Electrification in Mediterranean Public Transportation" Sustainability 16, no. 7: 2645. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072645