Drivers of Student Social Entrepreneurial Intention Amid the Economic Crisis in Lebanon: A Mediation Model

Abstract

Entrepreneurship, once a choice, has now evolved into a critical lifeline for the youth in Lebanon amid a prolonged and extensive economic crisis, now entering its fourth year. This crisis has triggered a shift in the mindset of Lebanese youth, driven by the high unemployment rate, acting as a catalyst for a transition towards entrepreneurship as a viable career choice. This study underscores the necessity of comprehending the determinants shaping social entrepreneurial intentions among Lebanese students. The goal is to identify these determinants, allowing for the implementation of necessary measures to not only enhance these intentions but also facilitate their transformation into tangible actions, thereby propelling economic growth and fostering sustainable development. The research investigates the intricate interplay of entrepreneurial education, entrepreneurial passion, and moral obligation, with entrepreneurial self-efficacy serving as a mediating factor. Conducting a survey among 265 participants from four universities in Lebanon using convenience sampling, this research employs Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) for analysis. The results reveal that entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial passion significantly boost students’ belief in their entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Simultaneously, entrepreneurial self-efficacy intensifies students’ entrepreneurial intention. Furthermore, a positive correlation is observed between moral obligation and social entrepreneurial intention. These findings hold significant implications for educators and policymakers, offering insights to guide initiatives aimed at enhancing entrepreneurial education and fostering an environment conducive to socially impactful ventures, in light of the economic and political crisis that Lebanon is currently facing. Likewise, researchers can gain insights from the theoretical foundations of the present study and discover possible pathways for future analyses. Moreover, integrating sustainability principles into entrepreneurial education could further amplify the social and economic impact of ventures in Lebanon’s challenging context.

1. Introduction

Entrepreneurship plays a pivotal role in strengthening the economies of countries worldwide [1]. This dynamic field not only enhances job creation but also fosters innovation, positive societal advancements, and economic progress [2,3]. Additionally, it contributes significantly to the enhancement of essential managerial competencies crucial for excelling in the business world, as highlighted by Wilson et al. [4]. In addition, scholars like Neneh [5] and Li et al. [6] emphasize how entrepreneurship significantly enhances both the economic and social dimensions of a nation, underlining its impact on national growth and development.

In the past few years, researchers have increasingly focused on entrepreneurship, reflecting a growing interest in the subject [7]. This attention extends to both developed and developing countries, emphasizing its crucial role in enhancing a nation’s economic well-being [8].

In Lebanon, as per Bakhouche [9] the country is facing an extensive economic, political, and social crisis, now entering its fourth year. This crisis has arisen from an unprecedented devaluation of its currency, leading to a high inflation rate. It demands innovative solutions and entrepreneurial initiatives to overcome the challenges posed by economic turmoil and to pave the way towards economic stability and empowerment. Consequently, entrepreneurship, once a choice, has become a lifeline for the Lebanese youths enduring this prolonged crisis.

Traditionally, entrepreneurial endeavors in Lebanon were focused on stability and family-run businesses, sustaining the economy through small and medium-sized enterprises. However, the current situation shifts the perception of entrepreneurship, making it a necessity and a viable career choice due to the high youth unemployment rates and limited opportunities in the traditional job market [10]. Moreover, it urges the need to nurture a new generation of socially conscious entrepreneurs who can contribute meaningfully to society through their sustainable initiatives that represent a beacon of hope amidst the current challenges. Therefore, entrepreneurs are no longer restricted to conventional businesses; they are innovators, problem solvers, and agents of change [11].

In this context, the focus of this research is on understanding the social entrepreneurial intentions among students in Lebanon and the various factors that influence these intentions, including entrepreneurial education, entrepreneurial passion, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and the ethical compass represented by moral obligation. This is because the comprehension of the antecedents that lead to social entrepreneurship is essential for policymakers and educators aiming to inspire greater participation in this phenomenon [12]. Also, the study targets mainly the young population, because according to Petuskiene and Glinskiene [13] they constitute a crucial segment in the initiation of entrepreneurial activities.

This study holds significant implications. It is, to the best of our knowledge, the first of its kind in Lebanon. With the country facing economic challenges, guiding young individuals toward social entrepreneurship, and comprehending the factors that influence their intentions, emerges as a compelling avenue to address societal challenges and drive economic development [14]. Moreover, the model represented in this research is derived from gaps in previous studies that recommend analyzing additional factors that may influence a student’s intentions towards entrepreneurship, and this will expand our understanding of wider array of factors that may affect these intentions. Moreover, the findings of this research could assist educational institutions in adjusting their curricula to align with market needs, equipping students with the necessary skills to initiate their own businesses and alleviating their concerns about this phenomenon. Policymakers could use these insights to develop strategies that nurture entrepreneurship, thereby fostering economic growth. Entrepreneurs may benefit by improving their ventures while minimizing harm to society, environment, and economy. Additionally, fellow researchers are encouraged to build upon this work, establishing a robust foundation for future studies in this critical area. This paves the way for a new era of socially impactful entrepreneurship in Lebanon.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. Entrepreneurial Education and Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy

Entrepreneurial education (EE) is a type of education that focuses on equipping individuals with the essential skills, understanding, and ethical principles required to become successful entrepreneurs [15]. There are three types of EE: education about entrepreneurship, which emphasizes the theoretical aspects of establishing and managing a business [16]; education for entrepreneurship, aligning with the experiential teaching approach and prioritizing the pragmatic facets of initiating and overseeing a business [17]; and education in entrepreneurship, which pertains to specialized training for entrepreneurs with expertise in various areas aimed at fostering business expansion [16]. After completing entrepreneurship courses, students can gain insight into fundamental teaching methods by engaging in practical experiences such as participating in business simulations, visiting companies, or conducting interviews with successful entrepreneurs [18]. Therefore, the use of contextual and experiential learning approaches, as opposed to theoretical approaches, is the most effective method in improving students’ entrepreneurial skills [19,20].

Due to the rising social issues across the globe, there has been a growing need for programs that promote social entrepreneurship, as noted by various sources [21,22,23]. Jemari et al. [24] advocate that universities need to implement additional measures to enhance the innate abilities, knowledge, and comprehension of social entrepreneurship among students, as existing efforts are insufficient.

To distinguish the education provided to conventional entrepreneurs from that provided to social entrepreneurs, Tracey and Phillips [25] assert that social entrepreneurs must obtain the same competencies and knowledge as conventional entrepreneurs regarding opportunity identification, resource allocation, and organizational development. Nevertheless, they contend that social entrepreneurship education should go beyond this and also familiarize students with the unique obstacles related to ensuring accountability, managing the dual goals of social and financial impact, and maintaining a distinct social entrepreneurial identity encountered by entrepreneurs who seek to achieve a social impact.

Lucas and Cooper [26] suggest that in order to enhance individuals’ motivation for entrepreneurship, it is crucial for entrepreneurial education to impact their sense of self-efficacy, thereby encouraging them to acquire knowledge and persevere in their pursuit of entrepreneurial goals. Moreover, numerous research studies suggest that teaching entrepreneurship has a favorable impact on an individual’s belief in their own ability to succeed as an entrepreneur [27,28,29] which consequently leads to an improvement in their personal intentions to pursue entrepreneurship [27]. Simultaneously, several research studies demonstrate that an individual’s belief in their own ability to succeed as an entrepreneur, also known as entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE), serves as a beneficial mediator between EE and their personal intentions to pursue entrepreneurship [29,30,31].

Bandura and Walters’ social cognitive theory [32] states that self-efficacy arises from four types of factors: (1) individual accomplishments and successes; (2) learning from the experiences of others; (3) encouragement and feedback from others; and (4) physical and emotional states. Entrepreneurship education can contribute to the development of these sources of self-efficacy, as suggested by Zhao, Seibert, and Hills [33] and Nowinski et al. [16]. In other words, entrepreneurship education can help individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, and experiences needed to achieve success, learn from others, receive support and encouragement, and regulate their emotions and physiology in the face of challenges. More precisely, by taking part in entrepreneurship programs, prospective entrepreneurs can engage in practical projects that enhance their self-efficacy by providing them with concrete results and achievements, as well as learning from their own mistakes [34,35]. With regard to the experience of others, entrepreneurship learners can enhance their belief in their ability to start a business by discussing the successful stories of entrepreneurs who have a strong presence and reputation in the market, as it provides them with a positive example to follow [36]. Likewise, Laviolette, Lefebvre, and Brunel [37] emphasize that the educational programs and collaborative engagements in universities can instill in students the belief that pursuing entrepreneurial activities is feasible and achievable within their capabilities. Lastly, educators who teach entrepreneurship can also offer guidance to their learners, helping them to manage their feelings and cultivate positive emotional states [38]. In addition, the same authors argue that entrepreneurship education enhances learners’ understanding, increases their confidence, and reinforces their self-efficacy. Consequently, this leads to a greater belief in their ability to pursue entrepreneurial activities and solidifies their intention to do so. In this regard, Zhao et al. [33] suggest that the relationship between EE and entrepreneurial intentions (EI) is underpinned by the construct of self-efficacy. Along the same lines, Gist and Mitchell [39] state that self-efficacy can be cultivated through the training and observation of role models, and this is what differentiates it from innate personality characteristics. Consequently, the subsequent hypothesis is formulated:

H1: 

There is a positive correlation between EE and ESE among students in Lebanon.

2.2. Entrepreneurial Passion and Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy

Entrepreneurial passion (EP) is considered a driving force for entrepreneurs, which fuels their motivation to face challenges, overcome obstacles, launch, and grow new business ventures [40,41]. Cardon et al. [42] define it as a crucial personal trait that inspires individuals to start a business venture. Consistently, the same authors view EP as a complex concept with three distinct facets linked to different aspects related to the entrepreneurial journey, including the inventor, founder, and developer. The first type is enthusiastic about identifying novel opportunities and exploring innovative ideas. The second type is highly motivated to establish a venture and capitalize on these opportunities, and the third type is enthusiastic about engaging in activities that focus on growing the business once established; these passions and identities impact an individual’s goal-oriented thoughts and actions, leading to specific results in entrepreneurship. Furthermore, there are two types of passion, the harmonious and the obsessive passion, which are differentiated by Vallerand et al. [43], depending on whether an individual can actively regulate their urge to participate in an activity or not.

Research indicates that passion can enhance both confidence and proficiency in individual pursuits and aspirations [44]. Individuals who have a strong passion for entrepreneurship may also possess a higher belief in their own ability to succeed in that field [45]. This belief in one’s own abilities is known as self-efficacy and is defined by Stroe et al. [46] as an individual’s capacity to initiate a new business based on their personal competencies and abilities. It is considered an essential principle in social cognitive theory (SCT), which motivates individuals to fulfill their obligations and attain their aspirations. Additionally, Drnovšek et al. [47] suggest that self-efficacy is a highly context-specific attribute and that tailoring it to a particular activity context can enhance an individual’s ability to forecast outcomes with greater accuracy.

According to Dalborg and Wincent [48], despite the benefits of entrepreneurship, establishing a business comes with a multitude of challenges. While some individuals may view these challenges as obstacles, others may be inspired to overcome them by generating creative and unconventional ideas. Therefore, entrepreneurs must have faith in their abilities and rely on their expertise to attain their full potential [49]. Similarly, Bagheri and Yazdanpanah [50] emphasize that new ideas often compel individuals to reassess their capacity for innovative thinking when it comes to launching a new business fueled by entrepreneurial passion. As a result, possessing a strong passion is a crucial factor in initiating a new business venture. This is because individuals who have entrepreneurial passion tend to view themselves as capable of successfully becoming entrepreneurs. Moreover, Baum and Locke [51] and Cardon et al. [42] find that entrepreneurial passion stimulates an individual’s inclination to participate in entrepreneurial activities. Consequently, individuals who possess a strong passion towards initiating a new venture are motivated to learn and increase their knowledge associated with entrepreneurship, thereby enhancing their capacity to perform entrepreneurial tasks and boosting their self-efficacy beliefs (ESE). As a result, the subsequent hypothesis is established:

H2: 

There is a positive correlation between EP and ESE among students in Lebanon.

2.3. Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Social Entrepreneurial Intentions

Krueger et al. [34] state that self-efficacy plays a crucial role in determining one’s intention to become an entrepreneur. People who possess high levels of self-efficacy demonstrate greater natural interest in entrepreneurial activities and are more inclined to exert themselves and preserve themselves in the face of challenges and obstacles [52]. When an individual is confident in their ability to accomplish a challenging task, they are more likely to take action towards it, as they perceive the attainment of success as an achievable outcome, based on their belief in their own capabilities. Indeed, self-efficacy is closely linked to perceptions of feasibility, as individuals’ beliefs in their ability to successfully execute a task influence their perception of its attainability. Moreover, self-efficacy serves as a mediator for entrepreneurial intentions [33], which are shaped by individuals’ perceptions of both the feasibility and desirability of their goals.

In essence, according to Chen et al. [53], individuals who possess high levels of entrepreneurial self-efficacy are likely to perceive the environment as offering more opportunities than risks, have faith in their capacity to influence the attainment of their goals, and perceive the chances of failure as being minimal. This means that they are more confident in their ability to succeed and have a positive outlook towards entrepreneurship.

Various research has demonstrated that self-efficacy is a crucial cognitive factor in the field of social entrepreneurship and an essential element in the development of intentions towards social entrepreneurship [54,55,56,57]. According to Wang et al. [58], the concept of entrepreneurial self-efficacy plays a crucial role in explaining an individual’s active involvement in the decision-making process to establish and manage their own business, rather than adopting a passive role. On top of that, the degree of belief or confidence an individual has in their ability to create a successful enterprise has been recognized as a crucial factor in predicting an individual’s intention to become an entrepreneur [59,60,61].

Social ESE, which pertains to an individual’s assurance and conviction in their ability to make a meaningful contribution towards addressing social issues [12], significantly impacts people’s decision-making and plays a crucial role in shaping their intention to engage in entrepreneurial endeavors, especially in situations involving complex social problems, as emphasized by Wu et al. [62]. This sense of self-assurance is regarded as a predictor of their social entrepreneurship intention (SEI), as highlighted by Hockerts [12]. Additionally, when individuals who aspire to be social entrepreneurs are not assured about their potential in establishing new social ventures, their belief in the social value of their actions may not be enough to motivate them to pursue social entrepreneurship. However, if aspiring entrepreneurs have a high degree of self-efficacy, they are more likely to feel confident in their capacity to undertake social entrepreneurship activities and contribute to the welfare of others. In line with this, the subsequent hypothesis is developed:

H3: 

There is a positive correlation between ESE and SEI among students in Lebanon.

2.4. Moral Obligation and Social Entrepreneurial Intentions

Social entrepreneurship is based on the idea that creating societal benefits is the primary objective of entrepreneurial activities, while financial gains are viewed as a necessary but secondary goal [63]. Moreover, the concept of social entrepreneurial intentions was first introduced by Mair and Noboa [64], which draws from Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior [65]. It can be viewed as a mindset that motivates individuals to gain expertise, generate innovative concepts, and execute social entrepreneurial approaches and tactics for managing a social enterprise [66,67]. It consists primarily of two components: the perceived desirability, which includes affective empathy and cognitive moral obligation; and perceived feasibility, which includes social backing and self-efficacy [34,64] Despite its significance, the moral aspect of social entrepreneurial intention has not been fully investigated in the study of intentions that lead to social entrepreneurial behavior [54].

In this regard, Hockerts [12] argues that the moral dimension is a critical component that enhances participation in social entrepreneurial activities. Moreover, in the study conducted by Ko and Kim [68], they demonstrate that individuals who feel a sense of moral obligation towards their community are more inclined to initiate social entrepreneurship. Rest [69] argues that having a sense of moral awareness is crucial for individuals when engaging in moral reasoning and ethical thinking, while Mair and Noboa [64] assert that moral judgment is what sets social entrepreneurs apart from commercial entrepreneurs. When entrepreneurs attempt to secure resources and navigate high pressure and an uncertain environment, there are often competing values and conflicting priorities that play a significant role in their decision-making [70,71]. Therefore, they frequently face ethical dilemmas where they have to make decisions about whether to prioritize their own interests over the well-being of others and whether to follow or violate established behavioral standards, especially in the dynamic environment in which they operate [72,73] Moral obligation, defined as the belief individuals have in their moral duty to address the issues faced by socially marginalized communities according to societal moral standards and values [74], is a precursor to forming intentions for entrepreneurship aimed at social impact, as proposed by Dion [75]. Moreover, ethical considerations and a sense of responsibility towards society are crucial for the success of entrepreneurial ventures with a positive impact [76]. However, Mair and Marti [77] suggest that personal fulfillment and motives beyond ethics may also motivate entrepreneurship. This broader perspective might explain why Hockerts’ study [12] did not find a significant relationship between moral obligation and intentions for social entrepreneurship, as moral obligation may not be the sole driving force. According to Koe Hwee Nga and Shamuganathan [78], social entrepreneurs are motivated by a deep sense of responsibility to address fundamental human needs and typically exhibit keen moral awareness. In accordance with this, the subsequent hypothesis is devised:

H4: 

There is a positive correlation between MO and SEI among students in Lebanon.

2.5. Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study is illustrated in Figure 1. This framework provides a theoretical foundation and structure for understanding the relationships between variables and the concepts under investigation in this research paper.

3. Research Design

3.1. Sampling and Data Collection

In this research, a quantitative methodology is employed utilizing a convenience sampling technique. To determine the necessary sample size, G∗power software (3.1.9.3) was utilized, incorporating a statistical power of 80% and an effect size of 0.01, as suggested by Faul et al. [79]. This approach was complemented with recommendations from Hair et al. [80], setting the minimum R² at 0.10 and α at 0.01. The resultant range was determined to be between 142 and 191. Consequently, a sample size exceeding 191 is considered appropriate for the current analyses to ensure the derivation of statistically significant results from the collected data. The collection of quantitative cross-sectional data was carried out through online surveys sent to business students across four different universities in Lebanon. Data were collected during the period between September and October 2023. A total of 350 questionnaires were sent, of which students returned 265 (75.7% response rate).

The participant profile consisted of 26.4% males and 73.6% females, with the majority falling in the age range of 21 to 30 years (81.5%) and pursuing either a bachelor’s or a master’s degree in business administration. Collinearity was assessed using a VIF threshold of less than 3.3, eliminating worries related to method bias [81,82,83]. Engagement was entirely voluntary, and the collected data did not contain any sensitive information. External factors such as age, gender, and educational level were controlled in the study.

3.2. Measurement

The questionnaire (See Appendix A) items are presented on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 representing “strongly disagree” and 5 representing “Strongly agree”, consisting of five statements adapted from a study by Jiatong et al. [84] to measure entrepreneurial education, five statements selected from the work of Li et al. [6] to assess entrepreneurial passion, four statements adapted from Hockert’s [12] study to gauge moral obligation, seven items derived from research conducted by Samsudin et al. [85] to measure entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and three items from the scale developed by Hockerts [12] to evaluate social entrepreneurial intentions.

4. Analysis

In examining the proposed model of this study, Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed due to the presence of latent variables, making the normal distribution irrelevant [80]. PLS-SEM is a statistical technique used for analyzing the relationships between variables in a structural equation model. It is particularly useful in research fields where the focus is on the prediction or exploration of complex relationships among latent variables and observed indicators [86].

4.1. Results

Measurements were assessed for both reliability and validity before proceeding with further analysis. As indicated in

Table 1. Measurement model.

Statements/Indicators	Standardized Loadings	CR	α	Rho A	AVE
Entrepreneurial Education (EE)
EE1	0.729	0.933	0.801	0.827	0.584
EE2	0.905
EE3	0.811
EE4	0.732
EE5	0.575
Entrepreneurial Passion (EP)
EP1	0.827	0.836	0.749	0.751	0.625
EP2	0.752
EP3	0.869
EP4	0.755
EP5	0.804
Moral Obligation (MO)
MO1	0.835	0.935	0.789	0.831	0.755
MO2	0.945
MO3	0.768
MO4	0.773
Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (ESE)
ESE1	0.874	0.921	0.735	0.742	0.707
ESE2	0.655
ESE3	0.928
ESE4	0.939
ESE5	0.804
ESE6	0.807
ESE7	0.760
Social Entrepreneurial Intention (SEI)
SEI1	0.754	0.906	0.862	0.884	0.678
SEI2	0.793
SEI3	0.878

, the standardized loadings in the measurement model exceed 0.5. Both Cronbach’s Alpha values and the composite reliability (CR) coefficient meet the acceptable thresholds, being above 0.6 for Cronbach’s Alpha values, as recommended by Vaske [87] and above 0.7 for CR values according to Hair et al. [80]. Furthermore, the average variance extracted is greater than 0.5, indicating satisfactory convergent validity. The HTMT measure in

Table 2. Heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT).

	EE	EP	MO	ESE
EE
EP	0.523
MO	0.422	0.377
ESE	0.459	0.319	0.217
SEI	0.512	0.485	0.538	0.506

is used to assess discriminant validity by comparing the correlations between indicators of different constructs with the correlations between indicators of the same construct. The heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) values are all below 0.85, indicating satisfactory discriminant validity, as advised by Hair et al. [80]. These values ensure that the constructs in this model are distinct and not measuring the same underlying concept. Hence, based on Table 1 and Table 2, we can confirm the adequacy of the measurement model.

Apart from validating the measurement model, the analysis of the structural model was conducted and verified in a similar manner. In this context, indicators such as Normal Fit (NFI = 0.921) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR = 0.021) were identified to be below 3, indicating the absence of multicollinearity issues. Furthermore, both R-square and Q-square values demonstrated empirically robust results for in-sample predictive power and relevance, as per the findings of Hair et al. [86]. These results are illustrated in the statistical model displayed in

Table 3. Structural model assessment and hypothesis testing.

Effects	Relations	β	t-Statistics	Ƒ2	Decision
H1	EE → ESE	0.216	4.678 ***	0.128	Supported
H2	EP → ESE	0.374	5.731 ***	0.143	Supported
H3	ESE → SEI	0.212	2.742 **	0.077	Supported
H4	MO → SEI	0.318	5.695 ***	0.145	Supported

R²ESE = 0.31/Q²ESE = 0.16; R²SEI = 0.42/Q²SEI = 0.25; SRMR: 0.021; NFI: 0.921; ** 0.01, *** 0.001.

, affirming a good fit.

4.2. Discussion

In line with the research objective to investigate the influence of entrepreneurial education on entrepreneurial self-efficacy, Hypothesis 1 was confirmed, consistent with prior literature [27,28,29]. This finding is grounded in social-cognitive theory, which suggests that entrepreneurial education significantly enhances individuals’ confidence in their ability to succeed as entrepreneurs. Consequently, individuals who have undergone entrepreneurial education are more likely to exhibit stronger confidence in their entrepreneurial skills and abilities.

Similarly, Hypothesis 2 was validated, indicating that entrepreneurial passion significantly boosts students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy. This finding aligns with social cognitive theory, which posits that passion motivates individuals to acquire and expand their entrepreneurial knowledge, thereby enhancing their ability to engage in entrepreneurial tasks and reinforcing their self-efficacy beliefs. This consistency is supported by various scholars [45,49,50].

Furthermore, ESE has a positive impact on students’ inclination toward social entrepreneurship, as hypothesized in Hypothesis 3. The current findings align with the existing literature on these effects [12,53,88], indicating that individuals with heightened beliefs in their entrepreneurial abilities are more empowered to identify opportunities and perceive risks as manageable. This confidence enables the effective initiation and sustainability of social ventures, fostering greater involvement in socially impactful entrepreneurial activities.

Additionally, the current findings indicate that a sense of moral obligation positively influences intentions toward social entrepreneurship among students in Lebanon, supporting the acceptance of Hypothesis 4. This underscores the significance of ethical considerations in entrepreneurial endeavors, demonstrating that individuals who feel a duty or responsibility toward societal issues possess intrinsic motivation that drives their entrepreneurial aspirations to address social problems, as supported by the existing literature [12,64,68,75].

5. Conclusions and Implications

The current findings align with existing literature and recent research, contributing to our understanding of the factors influencing social entrepreneurial intentions among students in Lebanon, especially amidst the ongoing economic crisis. The theories employed in this study aim to yield practical insights. Specifically, social cognitive theory suggests that entrepreneurial education delivered through courses, training, and programs, along with entrepreneurial passion, impacts students’ confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities, known as entrepreneurial self-efficacy. This self-efficacy, representing the perceived feasibility component in Ajzen’s [65] theory of planned behavior, significantly influences students’ intentions toward social entrepreneurship. Additionally, moral obligation, representing the perceived desirability component in the theory of planned behavior, distinguishes social entrepreneurs from commercial entrepreneurs, heightening their sense of responsibility toward societal needs and directing their efforts toward ventures that benefit society.

These findings offer valuable insights for educators and policymakers in order to foster social entrepreneurship among students in Lebanon. We highlight the importance of the Ministry of Education and universities in aligning curricula with market needs by integrating practical skill-building activities along with social responsibility into educational programs. This ensures that students acquire the expertise necessary for the successful creation of ventures that balance profit with societal well-being. Moreover, university deans and directors can collaborate with NGOs to establish hubs focused on equipping students with the practical knowledge and skills essential for entrepreneurship. Additionally, the Ministry of Youth can implement initiatives to facilitate meaningful interactions between successful entrepreneurs and students. These interactions can be achieved through networking events, such as conferences or seminars, which allow entrepreneurs to share their expertise, and continuous learning opportunities, such as simulations and real-world projects guided by role models, which provide hands-on experiences. Such interactions not only cultivate students’ passion for entrepreneurship but also alleviate their fears, ultimately boosting their confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities.

Based on the aforementioned, this research has profound implications for university practices in Lebanon. Educational institutions are supposed to adapt to the evolving entrepreneurial environment amid the unstable economic situation within the Lebanese context. Collaboration among university heads and policymakers is essential to align curricula with market needs and incorporate practical skill-building activities/initiatives. Moreover, incorporating social responsibility into educational programs promotes purpose-driven entrepreneurship. Partnerships with NGOs can essentially bridge the gap between theory and practice, providing students with mentorship, funds, and networking opportunities. Initiatives led by the Ministry of Youth and/or the Ministry of Education, such as networking events and mentorship programs, inspire the next generation of innovators. By fostering a culture of entrepreneurship and social responsibility, universities can empower students to create ventures that address social challenges while driving economic growth.

In the context of fostering entrepreneurship, integrating sustainability principles into educational programs and entrepreneurial ventures emerges as crucial. By incorporating sustainability into the curriculum, students not only develop businesses that address immediate societal needs but also contribute to long-term environmental and social impact. In other words, embracing sustainability not only addresses present challenges within the Lebanese context but also lays the foundation for a more resilient and equitable future for Lebanon and its youth.

6. Limitations and Recommendations

Several factors have constrained the research process. The current model could benefit from the inclusion of additional factors such as creativity, empathy, and social support to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the determinants influencing students’ intentions. Future studies should aim to expand on theoretical and practical implications by utilizing longitudinal data to track changes in students’ intentions over time, particularly in response to educational interventions and curriculum adjustments implemented by universities to enhance the practical knowledge and skills necessary for success in social entrepreneurship. An in-depth understanding of the factors influencing social entrepreneurship can be attained through qualitative interviews with students, which can offer insights into their concerns. Similarly, interviews with real entrepreneurs can illuminate the challenges they face in the real world. Another potential limitation for future studies is the consideration of whether the absence of an economic crisis could influence factors like entrepreneurial passion or moral obligation among students, prompting the need to explore the impact of varying economic contexts on these determinants. Finally, the incorporation of fresh graduates as participants in future studies would yield valuable data on the transformation of intentions into actions and aid in understanding their career choices post-graduation, whether they opt for social entrepreneurship or pursue alternative paths.