Optimization of Coagulation to Remove Turbidity from Surface Water Using Novel Nature-Based Plant Coagulant and Response Surface Methodology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Collection and Characterization
2.2. Preparation of Coagulants
2.2.1. Preparation of Stock Solution for Sorghum Coagulant
2.2.2. Preparation of Coagulant Aid
2.3. Design of Experiment Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
2.4. Jar Test
2.5. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) of Coagulant, Coagulant Aid, and Suspended Solids
2.6. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of Coagulant, Coagulant Aid, and Sludge
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Turbidity Removal by Sorghum (Great Millet)
3.1.1. Fitting of Statistical Models on Experimental Data for Sorghum
3.1.2. 3D Response Surface Plot for Sorghum Performance
3.1.3. Optimization of pH and Dose for Sorghum
3.1.4. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
3.2. Identification of Functional Groups through FTIR Analysis
3.2.1. FTIR Analysis of Sorghum Powder
3.2.2. FTIR Analysis of Aloe Vera Gel
3.2.3. SEM Analysis
3.3. Turbidity Removal by Sorghum with Coagulant Aid (Aloe Vera)
3.3.1. Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data (Sorghum with Coagulant Aid)
3.3.2. 3D Response Surface Plot for Sorghum with Aloe Vera
3.3.3. Optimization of pH and Dose for Sorghum with Aloe Vera
3.3.4. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
3.3.5. SEM Analysis
3.4. Cost of Treatment
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | Units | Values |
---|---|---|
pH | - | 7.7 ± 1 |
Turbidity | NTU | 452 ± 45 |
Conductivity | µS/cm | 230 ± 2 |
Total alkalinity | mg/L as CaCO3 | 57.3 ± 7 |
Total hardness | mg/L as CaCO3 | 221 ± 10 |
Calcium (Ca2+) | mg/L | 49 ± 2 |
Magnesium (Mg2+) | mg/L | 24.3 ± 3 |
Chlorides (Cl1−) | mg/L | 41.7 ± 1 |
Sulfates (SO42−) | mg/L | 33.2 ± 4 |
Phosphates (PO43−) | mg/L | 7.89 ± 1 |
Nitrates (NO31−) | mg/L | 11.3 ± 6 |
Factor | Name | Unit | Type | Coded Low | Coded High | Factors Level | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st Trial | A | pH | unit less | Numeric | −1 ↔ 2.00 | +1 ↔ 10.00 | 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 |
B | Sorghum Dose | mg/L | Numeric | −1 ↔ 10.00 | +1 ↔ 80.00 | 10, 20, 40, 60, 80 | |
2nd Trail | A | pH | unit less | Numeric | −1 ↔ 2.00 | +1 ↔ 10.00 | 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 |
B | Sorghum Dose | mg/L | Numeric | −1 ↔ 10.00 | +1 ↔ 80.00 | 10, 20, 40, 60, 80 | |
C | Aloe Vera Dose | % | Numeric | −1 ↔ 0.20 | +1 ↔ 1.00 | 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 |
Experimental Run | Factors | Initial Turbidity T-1 | Response | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A pH | B Dose | Residual Turbidity T-2 | Turbidity Removal | ||
Units | - | mg/L | NTU | NTU | NTU (%) |
1 | 10 | 40 | 500 | 208.9 | 58.2 |
2 | 2 | 60 | 359 | 82.5 | 77.0 |
3 | 2 | 20 | 368 | 70.6 | 80.8 |
4 | 10 | 10 | 440 | 272.3 | 38.1 |
5 | 6 | 10 | 435 | 260 | 40.2 |
6 | 10 | 20 | 488 | 274 | 43.9 |
7 | 4 | 60 | 450 | 52.6 | 88.3 |
8 | 6 | 60 | 420 | 252 | 40.0 |
9 | 8 | 40 | 610 | 286.7 | 53.0 |
10 | 4 | 10 | 476 | 164.4 | 65.5 |
11 | 8 | 10 | 540 | 374 | 30.7 |
12 | 6 | 40 | 426 | 250 | 41.3 |
13 | 4 | 40 | 420 | 76.8 | 81.7 |
14 | 8 | 60 | 474 | 222 | 53.2 |
15 | 2 | 80 | 298 | 84.9 | 71.5 |
16 | 2 | 10 | 395 | 72.3 | 81.7 |
17 | 4 | 80 | 485 | 130 | 73.2 |
18 | 6 | 80 | 432 | 204.6 | 52.6 |
19 | 6 | 20 | 420 | 210 | 50.0 |
20 | 4 | 20 | 470 | 138.7 | 70.5 |
21 | 10 | 60 | 540 | 278 | 48.5 |
22 | 10 | 80 | 523 | 282 | 46.1 |
23 | 2 | 40 | 352 | 37.9 | 89.2 |
24 | 8 | 80 | 474 | 209 | 55.9 |
25 | 8 | 20 | 434 | 246.4 | 43.2 |
Model | Std. Dev. | R2 | Adjusted R2 | Predicted R2 | PRESS | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Linear | 11.11 | 0.6307 | 0.5971 | 0.5437 | 3355.37 | |
2FI | 11.00 | 0.6546 | 0.6052 | 0.5618 | 3222.62 | |
Quadratic | 9.50 | 0.7667 | 0.7053 | 0.6244 | 2762.56 | Suggested |
Cubic | 8.93 | 0.8372 | 0.7395 | 0.6399 | 2648.56 | |
Quartic | 7.06 | 0.9323 | 0.8375 | 0.5972 | 2962.05 | |
Fifth | 7.05 | 0.9595 | 0.8380 | −1.9686 | 21,831.96 | Aliased |
Source | Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F-Value | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model | 5638.51 | 5 | 1127.70 | 12.49 | <0.0001 | significant |
A: pH | 4229.80 | 1 | 4229.80 | 46.84 | <0.0001 | significant |
B: dose | 131.66 | 1 | 131.66 | 1.46 | 0.2421 | |
AB | 175.61 | 1 | 175.61 | 1.94 | 0.1793 | |
A2 | 609.77 | 1 | 609.77 | 6.75 | 0.0176 | significant |
B2 | 214.74 | 1 | 214.74 | 2.38 | 0.1396 | |
Residual | 1715.81 | 19 | 90.31 |
Experimental Run | Factors | Initial Turbidity T-1 | Response | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A pH | B Dose Sorghum | C Dose Aloe Vera | Residual Turbidity T-2 | Turbidity Removal | ||
Units | - | mg/L | ml/100 mL | NTU | NTU | NTU (%) |
1 | 10 | 40 | 0.6 | 400 | 257 | 35.8 |
2 | 2 | 60 | 0.8 | 440 | 247 | 43.9 |
3 | 2 | 40 | 0.6 | 440 | 200 | 54.5 |
4 | 10 | 10 | 0.2 | 400 | 248 | 38.0 |
5 | 6 | 10 | 0.2 | 544 | 289 | 46.9 |
6 | 10 | 20 | 0.4 | 400 | 254 | 36.5 |
7 | 4 | 60 | 0.8 | 424 | 138 | 67.5 |
8 | 6 | 60 | 0.8 | 540 | 234 | 56.7 |
9 | 8 | 40 | 0.6 | 468 | 307 | 34.4 |
10 | 4 | 10 | 0.2 | 424 | 162 | 61.8 |
11 | 8 | 10 | 0.2 | 470 | 304 | 35.3 |
12 | 6 | 40 | 0.6 | 544 | 229 | 57.9 |
13 | 4 | 40 | 0.6 | 428 | 125 | 70.8 |
14 | 8 | 60 | 0.8 | 470 | 323 | 31.3 |
15 | 2 | 80 | 1.0 | 450 | 183 | 59.3 |
16 | 2 | 10 | 0.2 | 444 | 211 | 52.5 |
17 | 4 | 80 | 1.0 | 424 | 150 | 64.6 |
18 | 6 | 80 | 1.0 | 540 | 246 | 54.4 |
19 | 6 | 20 | 0.4 | 540 | 270 | 50.0 |
20 | 4 | 20 | 0.4 | 424 | 146 | 65.6 |
21 | 10 | 60 | 0.8 | 400 | 257 | 35.8 |
22 | 10 | 80 | 1.0 | 400 | 262 | 34.5 |
23 | 2 | 20 | 0.4 | 440 | 168 | 61.8 |
24 | 8 | 80 | 1.0 | 465 | 334 | 28.2 |
25 | 8 | 20 | 0.4 | 465 | 295 | 36.6 |
Model | Std. Dev. | R2 | Adjusted R2 | Predicted R2 | PRESS | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Linear | 8.98 | 0.5919 | 0.5336 | 0.4513 | 2276.07 | Suggested |
2FI | 9.62 | 0.5980 | 0.4640 | 0.3072 | 2873.76 | |
Quadratic | 9.24 | 0.6498 | 0.5057 | 0.3040 | 2887.11 | Aliased |
Source | Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F-Value | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model | 2455.50 | 3 | 818.50 | 10.15 | 0.0002 | Significant |
A: pH | 2416.18 | 1 | 2416.18 | 29.97 | <0.0001 | Significant |
B: Sorghum dose | 39.22 | 1 | 39.22 | 0.4865 | 0.4931 | |
C: Aloe Vera dose | 38.31 | 1 | 38.31 | 0.4753 | 0.4981 | |
Residual | 1692.78 | 21 | 80.61 |
Optimum Doses | Unit Cost * USD/kg | Total Cost ** USD/1000 m3 of Water | |
---|---|---|---|
Trial 1 (Sorghum) | |||
pH-2 | 40 mg/L | 0.70 | 50.89 |
pH-7 | 55 mg/L | 0.70 | 59.89 |
Trial 1 (Sorghum along with Aloe Vera) | |||
pH-2.7 | 17 mg/L, 0.9% | 0.27 | 37.19 |
pH-7 | 10 mg/L, 1.0% | 0.27 | 32.99 |
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Shahzadi, F.; Haydar, S.; Tabraiz, S. Optimization of Coagulation to Remove Turbidity from Surface Water Using Novel Nature-Based Plant Coagulant and Response Surface Methodology. Sustainability 2024, 16, 2941. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072941
Shahzadi F, Haydar S, Tabraiz S. Optimization of Coagulation to Remove Turbidity from Surface Water Using Novel Nature-Based Plant Coagulant and Response Surface Methodology. Sustainability. 2024; 16(7):2941. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072941
Chicago/Turabian StyleShahzadi, Fakhara, Sajjad Haydar, and Shamas Tabraiz. 2024. "Optimization of Coagulation to Remove Turbidity from Surface Water Using Novel Nature-Based Plant Coagulant and Response Surface Methodology" Sustainability 16, no. 7: 2941. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072941