Progress and Challenges of Circular Economy in Selected EU Countries

Abstract

Circular economy (CE) is a model that is gaining significance in the context of sustainable development and environmental protection, focusing on minimizing waste generation and maximizing the use of available resources through recycling and extending product life cycles. The implementation of CE in various European Union countries demonstrates diverse approaches to resource management, waste production, and energy efficiency improvement. These differences primarily stem from varying strategies, national policies, levels of social awareness, and technological advancements. The article identifies the key challenges and barriers associated with CE implementation in selected countries—Poland, the Netherlands, and Romania—and highlights specific areas requiring improvement and adaptation. It emphasizes the critical role of aligning national policies with the EU guidelines, promoting ecological education, and investing in innovative technologies and solutions that support sustainable development. Additionally, it points to the need for developing appropriate waste management infrastructure and encouraging businesses and consumers to change habits and engage in pro-environmental actions.

1. Introduction

In the face of significant fluctuations in the economic landscape, which is constantly evolving both in Poland and globally, businesses must take swift and flexible actions to maintain or gain market position. The diversity of challenges posed by the modern business environment compels companies to adapt and restructure their strategies to meet dynamic market conditions [1,2]. Currently, businesses face the task of transforming their economic models. A key aspect of this process is striving for more sustainable and efficient use of natural resources. In an era of growing environmental awareness within society, a company that operates effectively in the market must consider not only economic aspects but also social and environmental ones [3]. Operating in line with the concept of circular economy involves creating systems in which waste is minimized, and resources are used efficiently in the production process. This sustainable practice not only contributes to environmental protection but also plays a role in building a lasting company image and positively impacts relationships with partners. In the face of a changing environment, modern businesses not only adapt to the current challenges but also actively shape the future by implementing sustainable business practices. This approach not only helps companies maintain their market position but also aligns with the broader trend of socio-economic development [4].

In the context of dynamic changes, analyzing the opportunities and threats associated with introducing an eco-innovative approach in enterprises becomes a crucial element for ensuring their effective functioning. The complexity of the business environment requires a detailed understanding of how circular economy impacts companies’ operations and outcomes. The primary goal of this analysis is not only to examine the essence of circular economy but also to explore how the implementation of its solutions can influence business strategies and the results they achieve.

In the face of growing challenges related to limited natural resources and increasing environmental awareness in society, studying this topic gains particular importance. This analysis is key to identifying opportunities for optimizing economic processes, taking into account the multifaceted nature of the subject. Introducing an ecological approach not only addresses the current challenges but also serves as a strategic tool that enables companies to adapt effectively to a changing business context. A long-term perspective on this topic allows us to identify opportunities that will contribute to sustainable economic development based on efficient resource management [5].

In recent years, there has been significant progress in both the theoretical research and practical applications of circular economy within businesses. The increasing number of practical examples highlights how theoretical concepts are being effectively implemented, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the model’s potential.

The response to this challenge lies in conducting a thorough analysis that not only considers scientific findings but also draws conclusions from practical applications, utilizing diverse examples from various sectors of the economy. It is worth noting that significant work has already been conducted in this area, including modeling based on secondary data analysis, such as the study by Boshkoska, Rončević, and Džajić Uršič (2018), which evaluates the possibilities of forming regional industrial symbiosis networks [6]. Similarly, Fraccascia et al. (2017) analyzed the impact of industrial symbiosis networks on environmental efficiency, while Kalmykova et al. (2018) presented specific implementations of circular economy in the construction sector and waste management, demonstrating their effectiveness in reducing emissions and improving resource efficiency [7,8].

As businesses begin to recognize the potential benefits of circular economy, new aspects emerge for exploration. By including social elements, such as the impact on employment and the integration of local communities, we expand the analytical scope of this model. Moreover, in light of global challenges such as climate change and environmental degradation, circular economy gains even greater significance as a potential factor in reducing negative environmental impacts. Expanding the knowledge of circular economy requires a balance between theory and practice, and the additional consideration of social aspects and global challenges is a crucial step toward fully understanding and effectively implementing this innovative economic model [9,10].

The purpose of this article was to conduct an analysis of the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing circular economy (CE) in selected European Union countries, such as Poland, the Netherlands, and Romania. We aim to present the current state of knowledge on CE, clarify controversies, and discuss the goals and methods for implementing this economic model. Our intention is also to illustrate the benefits and challenges through practical examples that will help demonstrate the potential of CE as a key tool for sustainable development. It is emphasized that implementing CE requires a holistic approach that considers various aspects of the economy’s functioning in the context of long-term development.

The content of the article is structured as follows: Introduction (1), Origins and Essence of Circular Economy (2), Materials and Methods (3), CE Solutions in Selected European Economies (4), Benefits and Barriers in Implementing Circular Economy Solutions (5), and, in the final chapter, a summary (6).

2. The Origins and Essence of Circular Economy

2.1. Definitions of Circular Economy

Circular economy is an extremely popular concept in contemporary times. There are many definitions of this term, and several are presented in

Table 1. Definitions of circular economy.

Definitions of Circular Economy
Source	Definition
The definition published on the European Parliament’s website	Circular Economy is defined as a model of production and consumption that focuses on sharing, borrowing, as well as reusing, repairing, refurbishing, and recycling existing materials and products for as long as possible to extend their life cycle. In practice, this means minimizing waste. When a product reaches the end of its life cycle, the resources and waste it generates should stay within the economy, undergoing recycling. They can be successfully reused, creating additional value in the process [11].
European Commission Towards a Circular Economy	“optimizing the consumption of resources and patterns and redesigns industrial system at the system level” [12].
Ministry of Climate and Environment in Poland	CE aims at the sustainable use of resources and minimizing the negative environmental impact of produced goods. Products, along with materials and resources, should remain in the economy for as long as possible, considering waste minimization [13].
Liu 2012 [14]	“An economic system characterized by the principles of sustainable development and less dependent on depleting natural resources than traditional economies, through the mechanism of recycling waste exiting the system” [14].
Bocken et al. 2021 [15]	“The circular economy is a potential avenue for change which has received significant business interes, which has translated into company commitments to the circular economy transition” [15].

. However, it should be noted that there is no single, universal, and formally documented definition of this concept.

2.2. The Genesis of Circular Economy

The development of the concept of circular economy (CE) worldwide is a result of various ongoing socio-economic transformations and responses to the growing challenges associated with the excessive consumption of natural resources and waste generation. Figure 1 provides an overview of the key events and processes influencing the shaping of issues related to circular economy.

The following stages have been identified:

1. In the 1970s and 1980s, energy crises, related in part to limited access to oil, made society aware of its dependence on natural resources. This prompted the search for alternative, sustainable solutions and minimizing environmental impact. Public debates emerged about the need to change lifestyles and economic models to maintain a balance between comfort and protecting the planet. During this period, environmental movements gained popularity, and the 1970s and 1980s became the foundation of sustainable development thinking [16].

2. In the 1990s, a conference was held in Rio de Janeiro where leaders, experts, and representatives of civil society sought global solutions for sustainable development. The conference addressed concerns about environmental degradation, climate change, and social inequality. It focused on three key aspects: economic, social, and environmental, recognizing the need to balance economic progress with environmental protection and social justice. The importance of economic models that consider long-term impacts on society and the planet was emphasized [17,18].

3. In the 1990s and at the turn of the 21st century, interest grew in issues related to waste and efficient resource management. Society began to recognize the negative environmental impact of the “produce, use, dispose” model. International organizations, including the United Nations, played a key role in promoting the concept of circular economy, supporting waste minimization and the shift toward a more circular economic model [19,20].

4. After the 1990s, the concept of sustainable development began to permeate the mainstream of national and international policies. Countries started incorporating economic, social, and environmental aspects into their development strategies, treating sustainable development as a key element of planning. Increased public awareness of the impact of economic activities, along with global challenges related to natural resources, contributed to this shift in approach [21].

5. The 2012 Ellen MacArthur Foundation report was groundbreaking in recognizing circular economy10 (CE) as a key economic strategy. It raised social, business, and governmental awareness of the benefits of the circular model, which focuses on minimizing waste through reuse, repair, recycling, and efficient resource management. The report contributed to an increase in initiatives and regulations promoting CE at both national and international levels [22].

6. The endorsement of the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2015 strengthened circular economy (CE) as a key component in achieving global sustainable development goals. The 2030 Agenda, endorsed by 193 countries, represents a comprehensive action plan encompassing three dimensions of sustainable development: economic, social, and environmental, with CE included as a tool to help achieve these goals [23].

7. A pivotal moment in the development of circular economy was the introduction of the European Green Deal in 2019. This plan set ambitious targets for circular transformation and climate neutrality by 2050 for EU countries. Focused on changing the approach to economic growth, industrial activities, and natural resource management, the Green Deal promoted reducing resource consumption, minimizing waste, and efficient resource use, with circular transformation as a key element of the strategy [24].

Increasing environmental pollution and resource pressures have prompted the international community to develop standards regulating circular economy. In response to the challenges of excessive resource use and waste production, sustainable management has become a global priority. International organizations have established platforms for cooperation, and shared regulatory frameworks have enabled countries, companies, and social organizations to collaborate in promoting more circular economic practices, laying the foundations for a global agreement on environmental protection and resource management [25,26].

2.3. The Importance of Circular Economy in the European Union

The European Union has played a crucial role in promoting and implementing the principles of circular economy, acting as a pioneer and catalyst for this economic model. Through the introduction of regulations and legislation, the EU has consistently supported and shaped the development of circular economy at both national and international levels. The EU’s first step toward promoting circular economy was to set ambitious environmental and sustainable development goals. The adoption of the Europe 2020 strategy and the subsequent inclusion of circular economy in the European Commission’s work programs signaled a clear commitment by the EU to transform the economy into a more sustainable and circular model [27].

The introduction of a series of legal acts, such as the European Plastics Strategy, the Climate Package for a Sustainable Europe, and the Waste Directive, has been a key instrument in creating a legal framework that supports circular economy. These regulations aim not only to minimize waste but also to promote recycling, repair, and the efficient management of natural resources [28]. Additionally, the EU has been actively engaged in international dialog, collaborating with partners worldwide to promote the principles of circular economy. This global commitment has influenced the development of international standards and joint sustainable development initiatives. As a result of these efforts, the EU has become a key catalyst for change in economic approaches both across the continent and beyond its borders. Its activities in promoting and implementing circular economy have made this model an integral part of the European approach to sustainable development and encouraged other regions of the world to undertake similar actions [29,30].

It should be noted, however, that approaches to circular economy (CE) vary significantly in other major economies, such as the United States and China, which follow distinct paths in implementing CE principles. In the United States, the transition to a circular economy is primarily driven by decentralized initiatives at the state and local levels, as well as innovations by the private sector. Companies play a key role in promoting recycling and sustainable product design. However, the lack of a unified national policy on CE leads to uneven progress across different regions. In contrast, China has integrated circular economy into its national strategy, making it a key element of its Five-Year Plans for sustainable development. The Chinese approach emphasizes resource efficiency and waste minimization in industrial and urban sectors, often through large-scale government-driven initiatives. The establishment of “Circular Economy Industrial Parks” exemplifies China’s systemic approach to closing resource loops and fostering innovation within the CE framework [31].

Considering these differences, the analysis of EU member states appears particularly justified due to the unique model of the harmonization and implementation of CE principles within the EU. Unlike the United States, where efforts are dispersed, and China, which adopts a strongly centralized approach, the EU represents an example of a comprehensive and multi-sectoral transformation that encompasses legal initiatives as well as social and economic actions. Furthermore, EU member states, despite sharing a common legal framework, differ in their implementation of CE principles, allowing for a comparison of various strategies within the same legal system. Such an analysis enables the identification of best practices and challenges associated with implementing circular economy in a diverse yet coherent regulatory context.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Scope of the Study

The study focuses on analyzing the implementation of circular economy (CE) principles in three selected countries: Romania, Poland, and the Netherlands. The choice of these countries is driven by their geographical, economic, and cultural diversity on the one hand, and their membership in the European Union on the other, which allows for a comparison of their approaches to implementing CE principles within the context of EU regulations and strategy.

The key selection criterion was circularity indicators, which reflect the level of efficiency in resource management and recycling. In 2022, the circularity rate was 1.4% for Romania, 8.4% for Poland, and 27.5% for the Netherlands (Figure 2). The study chose the Netherlands as a country with a very high circularity rate, Poland as a country with a medium level of circularity, and Romania as a country with the lowest rate. This selection enables the examination of both the benefits and challenges associated with implementing circular economy in these countries.

There are numerous reasons for the differences in circular economy indicators between Poland, the Netherlands, and Romania, taking into account factors such as infrastructural, economic, technological, and social differences. Smaller countries, such as the Netherlands, can more easily implement circular policies due to better-developed infrastructure and shorter supply chains, whereas larger countries like Poland face difficulties related to regional differences in resource availability and recycling infrastructure development. The Netherlands, as a highly developed economy, has more resources to invest in technologies and infrastructure that support circularity [33]. Poland, despite its development, faces challenges in modernizing its infrastructure, while Romania, being a developing country, struggles with the lack of adequate investments. The Netherlands, with its advanced waste management and recycling technologies, achieves higher circularity rates. Poland has access to modern technologies, but their implementation may be slower, especially in less developed regions, while Romania struggles with limited access to such technologies. In the Netherlands, high environmental awareness among the public translates into greater citizen participation in recycling and the implementation of circular economy principles. Poland shows an increase in environmental awareness but still faces difficulties in mobilizing citizens to fully engage in circular economy activities. Romania, despite growing awareness, faces lower public involvement in pro-environmental actions. The Netherlands has been implementing comprehensive sustainable development and circular economy policies for years, supporting the effectiveness of government actions in this area. Poland, despite compliance with EU regulations, may face challenges in fully implementing circular policies due to delays in adapting the regulations. Romania, although aligning with EU regulations, faces difficulties in fully implementing circular policies due to limited infrastructure and resources [34,35].

3.2. Data Sources

The study utilized various secondary data sources, including the following:

• National reports and statistical data, such as GUS (Poland), the National Institute of Statistics (Romania), and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA);
• International databases, such as Eurostat and FAO, to obtain circular economy indicators for agriculture, production, and services;
• Scientific literature from accessible databases, including Google Scholar, MDPI, and Scopus, covering topics such as recycling efficiency, resource management, and circular business models in the context of CE;
• National strategies, such as “Circular Economy plans”.

3.3. Methods of Analysis

The study was based on an analysis of secondary data obtained from publicly available reports, scientific literature, and statistical databases. The main goal of the analysis was to compare the selected countries in terms of the implementation of circular economy (CE) principles, using existing indicators and data published by recognized sources.

The indicators included in the study are as follows:

• The amount of waste generated in industrial and agricultural sectors;
• Recycling rates in industrial and service sectors;
• Energy consumption in agriculture and the service sector;
• The share of organic farming in the total agricultural land area.

The collected data were compiled and analyzed in relation to the specific socio-economic and climatic conditions of each analyzed country. The analysis focused on the interpretation and comparison of data available from secondary sources, which allowed for the identification of key differences and similarities between the countries. This approach enabled a description of CE implementation based on widely recognized and accessible information.

3.4. Limitations of the Study

The study’s limitations stem from data availability and differences in statistical data collection methods across countries. Additionally, cultural and economic differences may affect the interpretation of results. To minimize these limitations, data from comparable time periods (2015 and 2022) were analyzed, allowing for the uniformity and comparability of the indicators examined. This period was selected based on data availability and the stability of CE policies, enabling a more accurate analysis of changes in CE implementation. Furthermore, different databases may provide varying but similar results, necessitating caution in interpretation and comparison.

4. Circular Economy Solutions in Selected European Economies

Circular economy is an extremely complex and multifaceted topic. It can encompass many different aspects of operation depending on the type and size of a given economy. Analyzing the economies of individual countries reveals many similarities in the functioning of circular economy, yet also identifies numerous differences arising from specific national divergences. It is also worth noting that some sections or subsections may vary in text length—this is primarily due to the varying potential for implementing circular economy across industries in different countries.

As previously mentioned, three countries—Poland, Romania, and the Netherlands—were analyzed. The purpose of this article is to analyze the changes that have occurred as a result of the implementation of circular economy (CE) principles in the selected European Union countries over the years based on the available secondary data. The study involves collecting, organizing, and comparing indicators across the studied years, and describing data related to CE implementation in the selected countries.

4.1. Poland

Poland is a country in Central Europe, covering an area of 322,575 km² and with a population of 37.6 million as of 2023. Poland has a mixed economy, with key sectors including services (62.3%), industry (34.2%), and agriculture (3.5%). Until 2019, Poland experienced uninterrupted economic growth for 28 years, setting a record within the European Union [36,37,38].

In the context of circular economy (CE), Poland is implementing measures aimed at reducing pollution and improving resource efficiency. The introduction of the Green Deal in December 2019 initiated a series of actions focused on waste reduction, recycling, and promoting innovative business models. CE in Poland contributes to environmental protection, resource conservation, increased economic competitiveness, and the creation of new jobs [39,40].

4.1.1. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in Industry in Poland

In Poland, the most developed industrial sectors include automotive, food, energy, metallurgy, machinery, and electromechanical industries, encompassing the precision, electronic, and electrotechnical sectors, as well as transportation manufacturing, textile, and clothing industries. Mineral extraction and processing also play an important role in the economy [41,42].

As shown in

Table 2. Main production indicators in Poland related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicators	2015	2022	Change	Source
Industrial Waste Production	131.00 million tons	115.00 million tons	−12.20%	Główny Urząd Statystyczny (GUS) [43]—in Polish
Packaging Waste Recycling	1.70 million tons	3.60 million tons	+111.76%	Instytut Ochrony Środowiska [44]—in Polish
Use of Recycled Materials	16.60 million tons	21.30 million tons	+28.30%	Główny Urząd Statystyczny (GUS) [45]—in Polish

, approximately 131 million tons of industrial waste were generated in Poland in 2015. The primary sectors responsible for generating this waste were mining and extraction (e.g., minerals and ashes), energy, and industrial processing (including chemical, metallurgical, and construction production). By 2022, industrial waste production had decreased to 115 million tons, marking a reduction compared to 2015. This decrease can be attributed to improvements in waste management as well as a gradual reduction in certain mining sectors. In 2022, the trend of using waste for reclamation and material recovery continued, although a portion still ended up in landfills. This comparison highlights an overall decline in waste generation and an increase in activities supporting sustainable waste management, while challenges related to production and storage remain.

As further shown in Table 2, around 1.7 million tons of packaging waste were recycled in Poland in 2015, which accounted for approximately 40% of the total mass of packaging waste generated in the country. This was significantly below the EU standards, which required a recycling rate of at least 50%. At that time, paper and cardboard packaging, as well as plastics and glass, dominated. Over the years, however, Poland has made significant progress in managing packaging waste. By 2022, the recycling of packaging waste in Poland had reached 3.6 million tons, representing 53% of all the packaging introduced to the market. Among materials, paper and cardboard packaging dominated, making up 56% of the recycled packaging waste (around 2 million tons). Other major categories included glass packaging (17.5%, or 635,000 tons) and plastics (16%, or 565,000 tons). Compared to 2015, when recycling amounted to about 1.4 million tons (47.5% of total packaging waste), the 2022 data indicate a substantial increase both in absolute numbers and in the percentage recycling rate.

The final indicator analyzed in the context of circular economy is the use of secondary raw materials, measured by the material reuse rate. As shown in Table 2, in 2015 this rate was approximately 9.9%, corresponding to the use of around 16.6 million tons of secondary materials. By 2022, this level had risen to 12.2%, equating to about 21.3 million tons of recycled and reintroduced raw materials. These data refer to materials that underwent recycling, such as plastics, metals, glass, paper, and organic waste, which are utilized across various industrial sectors. This increase may result from efforts promoting circular economy, including improvements in the recycling system, heightened environmental awareness, and the introduction of regulations supporting resource recovery and waste minimization.

We must not overlook the direct actions of companies in Poland, which have the greatest impact on the functioning of circular economy.

The first example of a company operating in line with circular economy principles is Schoeller Allibert, based in Zabrze, which has specialized in designing and producing returnable plastic packaging for over 60 years. Throughout its history, the company has undergone many changes, from introducing its first packaging products to merging with other key players in the market, ultimately becoming a global leader in the returnable transit packaging (RTP) segment. Schoeller Allibert’s product range includes a variety of solutions such as large container bins, foldable large containers (FLCs), small foldable containers (FSCs), beverage crates, stackable and nestable containers, foldable IBC containers for liquid transport, plastic pallets, and transport trolleys. The Circuline product line is particularly innovative, as it uses recycled plastic, significantly reducing the demand for new raw materials and promoting the efficient use of natural resources. These products, despite containing recycled materials, meet the same durability and quality standards as their counterparts made entirely from virgin resources. This sustainable approach not only supports environmental protection but also opens up new opportunities for efficient resource management [46].

Another company operating in line with circular economy principles is EcoBean, which focuses on extending the life cycle of coffee. It offers innovative solutions that allow coffee grounds to be processed into a variety of products. The company implements a used coffee grounds collection service, transforming them into raw materials such as coffee oil, feed additives, briquettes, and biodegradable pots. This business model illustrates how waste can be reduced through the creative processing of materials that would otherwise end up in landfills. EcoBean not only contributes to reducing environmental impact but also promotes sustainable waste management practices, exemplifying efficient resource use and an innovative approach to recycling [46].

PGE—Polska Grupa Energetyczna has launched a recycling center for photovoltaic panels and wind turbines in Bełchatów, focusing on utilizing industrial waste from the energy sector and recovering valuable materials from decommissioned renewable energy installations. As part of its efforts, the company plans to reuse materials such as slag and gypsum, which can serve as alternatives to natural resources, contributing to sustainable development and environmental protection. Through this initiative, PGE is committed to circular economy, supporting recycling and waste reduction in the energy industry [46,47].

Another example is Granit-Pol, based in Nowy Wiśnicz, which has introduced modern technology for producing decorative sound-absorbing granite panels, installed in public spaces exposed to noise. With a perforated surface, these panels effectively absorb sound, combining high aesthetics with durability. The production process utilizes post-production waste from the plant, allowing for the recycling of 332 tons of material annually. The project involved constructing a new production hall, acquiring modern machinery, and conducting research and development to improve panel performance. This strategy not only reduced waste and carbon emissions but also optimized costs and improved the quality of the products [46,48].

The furniture manufacturer Drewdon has implemented an innovative technological process that enabled the production of alder wood furniture using an automated production line. This has reduced wood waste by 30%, saving 1725 tons annually. All waste is repurposed into wood chips used for mulching and cellulose production. As part of the project, the company eliminated the use of gas-powered saws, enhancing the environmental friendliness of the entire process. Drewdon invested in modern equipment to establish the new production line and installed a 50 kW photovoltaic system. Additionally, research services were commissioned to advance the technology. As a result, the company has reduced energy consumption and carbon emissions [46,48].

The final example is Antex, which introduced an innovative recycling method directly at railway construction sites. Through research and the application of modern technologies, it is now possible to reuse track infrastructure components sourced from quarries. The company invested in specialized equipment that enables the track disassembly, screening, and crushing of materials, allowing for the on-site sorting of raw materials. This innovative method has significantly shortened project timelines and reduced waste disposal costs, saving 774.9 tons annually. Additionally, this solution has decreased fuel consumption and carbon emissions by 27.4 tons. These actions have enhanced the company’s competitiveness in the railway line modernization market [46,48].

We must also acknowledge the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP), which plays a key role in supporting Polish businesses in transitioning to a circular economy (CE) model. The agency runs various support programs aimed at stimulating innovation and investment in sustainable development and resource efficiency. Through these initiatives, companies can implement new technologies and practices that promote ecological transformation and production process efficiency. One of the core activities of PARP is supporting research and development projects that lead to the introduction of innovative technologies in line with circular economy principles. Businesses have the opportunity to apply for European Union funds to develop innovative products, services, and production processes that reduce resource waste and facilitate recycling. With this support, companies can undertake actions related to sustainable development and efficient material use, which are essential for building a more environmentally friendly economy [49,50,51].

In summary, Poland faces a number of challenges in fully implementing the Green Deal’s principles. Actions taken so far by companies toward its realization have brought significant environmental improvements in Poland; however, the country still requires numerous changes to achieve the Green Deal’s objectives comprehensively.

4.1.2. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in Agriculture in Poland

Poland ranks third in the European Union in terms of agricultural land area. Since 2004, Polish farmers have benefited from the Common Agricultural Policy, including direct subsidies. The agricultural sector employs 14.8% of the total workforce in the country, although its contribution to Poland’s GDP is only 4%. By comparison, the average employment in agriculture in the EU is 4.5% [52,53].

In Poland, there are around 2 million private farms, which occupy 90% of the agricultural land area. The country is also a European leader in the production of potatoes and sugar beets, highlighting the importance of Polish agriculture in the European market [54].

In Poland, organic farming is defined by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development as a food production system that focuses on sustainable development, environmental protection, and the health of humans and animals. Unlike conventional methods, organic farming avoids the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, relying instead on natural methods of plant protection and fertilization, such as compost and manure. These systems promote the preservation of ecosystems and biodiversity through practices like crop rotation and diversification, which help maintain soil health and prevent diseases and pests [55].

The first CE indicator is the area of organic farming in Poland (

Table 3. Key agricultural indicators in Poland related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicators	2015	2022	Change	Source
Organic Farming Area	552.40 thousand ha	636.10 thousand ha	+15.20%	GOV PL [55]—in Polish
Water Usage in Agriculture	991.80 million m3	801.60 million m3	−19.10%	EUROSTAT [56]
Agricultural Waste Production	7.50 million tones	8.00 million tones	+6.67%	Główny Urząd Statystyczny (GUS) [57]—in Polish

). It increased from 552.4 thousand hectares in 2015 to 636.1 thousand hectares in 2022, representing a 15.2% growth. This growth is primarily due to increasing ecological awareness among consumers and demand for food produced without chemical pesticides and artificial fertilizers. The increase also reflects financial support for the farmers engaged in organic farming, which is subsidized under the European Union’s agricultural policy to encourage the adoption of organic methods. Other contributing factors include rising interest in sustainable agriculture and resource management, aligning with circular economy (CE) principles that promote practices reducing agriculture’s environmental impact.

Regarding water usage in Polish agriculture (Table 3), it decreased from 991.8 million m³ in 2015 to 801.6 million m³ in 2022, a reduction of 19.1%. This decline is primarily due to efforts aimed at improving water resource management efficiency, such as implementing modern irrigation techniques (e.g., drip irrigation) and better water management practices at the farm level. The reduction in water usage in agriculture is also a part of the national sustainable development policy, which supports actions that limit water resource exploitation and encourages farmers to adopt water-saving practices. In the context of circular economy, water is recognized as a valuable resource that should be used efficiently and in accordance with environmental protection principles.

In the studies conducted by Jętkowska et al. [54], it was found that in 2020, the total area of organic agricultural land in Poland amounted to 509.3 thousand hectares, which represented 3.47% of the country’s total agricultural area of 14.7 million hectares. Increased interest in organic farming is a phenomenon noticeable worldwide. Between 2004 and 2018, the share of agricultural land globally allocated to this type of farming increased from approximately 30 million to 71.5 million hectares, and the total area of organic agricultural land has grown by 69% over the past decade [58].

Michalak and Rydz-Żbikowska [59] undertook an analysis of actions that could be implemented to make the goals of the Green Deal a reality for Polish agriculture. They note that between 2009 and 2019, a decrease in water usage in agriculture and forestry was observed in Poland, with water consumption in 2019 being 36.8% lower compared to 2009. They highlight positive trends in these changes. According to the new Water Law in Poland, the use of water for irrigation or agricultural activities (Article 2, paragraph 2 of the Act of 15 November 1984, on agricultural taxes (Journal of Laws 2019, items 1256 and 1309)) requires a water permit if the amount exceeds an average of 5 m³ per day. However, it is important to note that users themselves declare the amount of water used, and the lack of water meters and other devices to monitor actual consumption leads to the underestimation of water withdrawal. This situation encourages the inefficient exploitation of water resources in agriculture. These findings suggest that while changes are moving in the right direction, further actions are necessary in the areas of monitoring and managing water resources [60].

Poland plans to implement actions supporting the development of organic farming within the framework of the European Green Deal strategy “Farm to Fork”. To this end, the Framework Action Plan for Organic Food and Agriculture for the years 2021–2027 has been developed, which aims to introduce a series of significant changes. Key actions include maximizing the potential of the Polish organic farming sector, which involves increasing the efficiency of organic production, raising awareness among consumers and producers, transferring knowledge, introducing innovations, providing support for organic farmers, and building trust in the organic farming system [55].

These initiatives aim not only to develop organic farming but also to increase its competitiveness in the market and contribute to sustainable development in the food sector.

In summary, for Poland to achieve a 25% share of organic farming by 2030, additional financial instruments need to be introduced. This includes increasing farmers’ access to capital, introducing new agri-environmental programs, and making additional investments in rural infrastructure. It is also important to develop national goals and trade policies that will consider not only food security but also ecosystem security. Knowledge-based actions will be necessary, engaging farmers in scientific research and striving to enhance their skills. Increasing transparency across the entire food chain is also crucial, as is the role of higher education institutions and agricultural advisory centers in educating about organic farming. These initiatives will contribute to agroecological sustainability, which is one of the goals of the European Green Deal strategy [61,62,63].

4.1.3. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in the Service Sector in Poland

Services are one of the three key sectors of the national economy, alongside agriculture and industry. From the beginning of 2021 to April 2024, production in the business service sector in Poland grew by a real 32%, accounting for the impact of inflation. In comparison, during the same period, production in the manufacturing industry, excluding the mining and energy sectors, increased by nearly 15%. It is worth noting that 2021 was particularly dynamic, as there was a recovery following the decline in production caused by the pandemic in 2020 [64,65,66].

These results indicate the growing position of the service sector in Poland, which has the potential to become a key driver of economic growth in the coming years. Increased activity in this area could significantly impact the further development of the country’s economy and enhance its competitiveness in the European market. It is important to note that the service sector often adapts to changing market conditions, making it flexible and innovative. Its continued development is expected to be crucial for sustainable economic growth in the future.

In Poland, the amount of recycled packaging waste (

Table 4. Main service sector indicators in Poland related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicator	2015	2022	Change	Source
Packaging Waste Recycling	1.85 million tons	4.27 million tons	+130.80%	Główny Urząd Statystyczny (GUS) [67]—in Polish
Energy Consumption in the Service Sector	91.2 TWh	94.8 TWh	+3.95%	Główny Urząd Statystyczny (GUS) [68]—in Polish
Share of Energy from Renewable Sources	11.8%	16.8%	+42.37%	EUROSTAT [69]

) increased from 1.85 million tons in 2015 to 4.27 million tons in 2022, representing a growth of 130.8%. This surge is mainly due to the introduction of more stringent environmental regulations and the progressive implementation of circular economy (CE) principles, which emphasize increasing recovery and recycling rates. These changes are supported by EU policy, which imposes recycling obligations on member states. Requirements such as the source separation of waste have been introduced, allowing for more efficient processing, as well as deposit return systems for selected packaging. The increasing involvement of the service sector in recycling is also driven by requirements placed on packaging producers and companies involved in trade and distribution, who are responsible for the waste generated from their products.

Energy consumption in the Polish service sector (Table 4) increased from 91.2 TWh in 2015 to 94.8 TWh in 2022, representing a growth of 3.95%. The increased demand for energy is mainly due to the expansion of service activities and digitization, associated with the intensive use of power-hungry technologies such as servers and data centers. This growth places pressure on the service sector to implement circular economy (CE) principles, which promote sustainable energy management. As part of CE, the service sector aims to minimize its carbon footprint by optimizing energy consumption, implementing energy-efficient technologies; using automation to regulate lighting, heating, and air conditioning; investing in renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic panels; and monitoring energy usage, which helps reduce energy demand without compromising service quality. These actions support CE goals and reduce the environmental impact of the service sector.

Waste production in the Polish service sector increased from 3.10 million tons in 2015 to 4.00 million tons in 2022, representing a growth of 29.03%. This increase in waste generation may be a result of the intensification of service activities, which are growing with economic development and changing social needs. The increased use of products and materials in the service sector leads to the generation of more waste, posing challenges for waste management in this sector. The rise in waste production in services fits within the context of circular economy (CE), which promotes a responsible approach to material management. As a part of CE, the service sector should aim to reduce the amount of waste generated by implementing strategies such as minimizing the use of disposable products, efficient resource management, and promoting recycling. At the same time, businesses can invest in technologies that enable better waste processing and the development of sustainable practices, which will help reduce environmental impact and support sustainable development goals.

An example of the application of circular economy in services is presented by Radlo et al. The article highlights that the leasing sector promotes a business model based on sharing and offering products as services (Product-as-a-Service). These transformations align with EU policies aimed at reducing the negative environmental impact of the economy and enhancing product durability, which encourages repair, modernization, and regeneration [70]. Many circular economy strategies, such as servitization, pooling, or leasing, create new opportunities for leasing companies to enter new areas of business by combining services with products. These trends include shifting from ownership of goods to their use, financing mobility instead of just vehicles, and collaborating with manufacturers within the value chain. These changes influence how leasing companies provide sustainable mobility by engaging in the financing of modern transport means such as bicycles, scooters, and e-scooters, as well as developing mobility hubs that allow users to access various modes of transport. The transformation of the leasing industry in line with CE also results in a sustainable approach to mobility, which enables companies to adapt their offerings to the growing demands of the market and customers.

Another example is the wastewater treatment plant at the Kasina Ski and Bike Park in Kasina Wielka, located in the Małopolska region. Implemented by Schwander Polska, the plant allows for the reuse of water recovered from treated wastewater, which is crucial in the context of sustainable water resource management, particularly in tourist areas. The installation was integrated into the landscape, making it almost invisible to tourists, while also solving the problem of wastewater disposal in a region where such infrastructure was previously unavailable. The recovered water is used for snowmaking on the ski slope in winter and for irrigating green areas in the summer, demonstrating the practical application of the principles of waste reduction and resource efficiency in line with circular economy. Additionally, Schwander Polska plans further work on utilizing treated wastewater for economic purposes, which may include the irrigation of agricultural land and the use of process water [71].

Another example is the research conducted by Piotrowska and Przygodzki [72] on sustainable public procurement in Poland. The market for sustainable public procurement in Poland is developing, but its progress in the context of circular economy (CE) is insufficient. In 2020, over 12% of public procurement was socially responsible, but green and innovative procurement accounted for only about 1% of all procurement. The analysis indicates that while green public procurement is a key element of support for CE, it plays a limited role in the country’s circular transformation. The analysis of barriers to implementing green procurement reveals that beliefs about higher costs, the optional nature of these procurement practices, and the lack of alignment between local strategies and sustainable development goals are key obstacles. Additionally, the complexity of standards and uncertainty regarding the interpretation of eco-friendly criteria hinder the development of the green procurement market. Despite the availability of guidelines from the European Commission, which define ten priority sectors, their effectiveness remains limited. Therefore, the development of sustainable public procurement in Poland requires decisive actions to increase its role in circular economy and minimize its negative environmental impact.

Finally, it is important to mention that in Poland, it is popular to introduce programs subsidizing the installation of photovoltaic panels for households, which represents a step towards utilizing renewable energy sources, with both climate and economic implications. Interestingly, since around 2000, the rate of new photovoltaic installations worldwide has started to accelerate rapidly, and by 2015, the total installed capacity in this technology was estimated at 220 GW. According to data provided by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), this number could exceed 4500 GW by 2050. Moreover, in recent years, Poland has seen a dynamic increase in installed photovoltaic capacity. In 2020, the installed capacity reached 887 MW, marking a 42-fold increase compared to 2014. As of 30 September 2021, according to the Polish Power System (PSE), the installed capacity in photovoltaics in the National Power System reached 6126 MW. According to the data from the Energy Market Agency, by the end of September 2021, the total installed capacity in all the power generation sources in Poland amounted to 53,274.6 MW [73].

In summary, circular economy (CE) in services is gaining importance by transforming traditional business models through the promotion of resource efficiency and waste minimization. Within the framework of CE, services such as leasing, rental, and sharing become key, enabling the long-term use of products without the need for ownership. The application of CE in services contributes to reducing environmental impact and supports sustainable development, aligning with EU policies. However, the implementation of CE in the service sector in Poland faces challenges, such as the lack of appropriate regulations, limited awareness of the benefits of circular practices, and concerns about higher costs.

4.1.4. Educational Programs in the Field of Circular Economy in Poland

In Poland, with the growing environmental awareness, circular economy (CE) is becoming a key element of environmental, economic, and social policies. The goal of educational programs in this area is not only to increase knowledge about sustainable resource management but also to promote practical solutions that can be implemented in daily life. Various initiatives are being introduced in Poland to support the transition towards more efficient resource management. From modern waste collection systems to innovative solutions in industry, CE brings benefits not only for the environment but also for the economy and local communities.

According to the latest research presented in the international report “Circular Voice” [74], which is based on an analysis of consumer preferences in five European countries, 80% of Poles prefer products made from recycled materials. Moreover, 38% of the respondents admitted that in the past year, they had refrained from using products or services that did not meet sustainability criteria. Practices such as giving items a second life, reintroducing products made from secondary raw materials, and implementing innovative solutions that transform waste into biomass are becoming increasingly common in the Polish market. These are no longer just concepts for the future but concrete actions being implemented across various sectors of the economy. It is worth noting the growing environmental awareness among consumers and their willingness to support sustainable production.

An important aspect distinguishing the functioning of the Polish economy in the context of sustainable development is the growing popularity of Repair and Reuse Initiatives. In Poland, activities related to these initiatives are being increasingly observed, such as repair workshops, events promoting reuse, and the development of platforms for exchanging unnecessary items. Companies are increasingly offering repair services, contributing to the reduction in various types of waste [75,76].

Furthermore, Poland is focusing on the development of efficient packaging-recycling systems. Educational programs raise awareness about the importance of waste sorting, and the development of infrastructure facilitates the proper disposal and recycling of packaging materials by citizens. It is worth mentioning an important solution that aligns with the principles of circular economy—Selective Waste Collection Points. These are collection sites for residents to dispose of hazardous, bulky, and sorted waste. This eliminates the dumping of waste in illegal locations, such as illegal landfills. Additionally, in many Polish cities, penalties or restrictions are being introduced related to the disposal of waste that has not been properly sorted [77,78].

When discussing the state of circular economy (CE) in the Polish economy, it is also important to mention the environmental protection educational programs being implemented in both schools and businesses. Notably, Poles are becoming increasingly aware of the risks associated with the production of various types of waste, including packaging waste. For example, in research conducted in 2020, environmental protection was recognized as the most important issue facing Poland, with 52% of respondents highlighting it. This was followed by health protection at 48%, and the economy, understood as economic development, at 20% [79,80]. Compared to the data from 2014, a significant change is evident—at that time, environmental protection was ranked only twelfth, with just 8%. During that period, health protection (59%) and issues related to employment, as well as social and family policy (53%), were the highest-rated concerns [81]. These data show that six years ago, environmental protection was not seen as an area requiring urgent action, with only sports and culture and national heritage being mentioned even less frequently [79].

Waste prevention includes all measures aimed at reducing the amount of waste and the harmful substances contained within it. Poland’s strategy for minimizing waste generation is outlined in the “National Waste Prevention Program” from 2014. Preparing waste for reuse and recycling applies to products whose life cycle has ended and have been classified as waste. In light of the EU’s proposal to amend waste directives and establish mandatory shares of waste for reuse and recycling, Poland should prepare to meet future requirements. Polish regulations (Regulation of the Minister of the Environment from 14 December 2016, on recycling levels, preparation for reuse, and recovery by other methods for certain fractions of municipal waste) have already introduced mandatory levels for municipal waste: the amount of waste from paper, metal, plastics, and glass should be reduced to 50% by 2020, while the amount of construction and demolition waste, excluding hazardous waste, should be reduced to 70% by 2020 [82,83,84].

The principles of circular economy (CE) can be successfully implemented in households, which is why it is so important to raise public awareness about the existence and principles of this concept and encourage individuals to take action on their own. Environmental education for both children and adults should be continued across various platforms (in schools, media, and the internet) using a variety of modern solutions (interactive websites, mobile apps, and conferences). An innovative way to promote the circular economy idea is to create a trend for environmental care. Practices like Zero Waste (waste minimization and upcycling) are a step toward popularizing the CE concept in Poland and encouraging citizens to participate in its implementation. Additionally, all initiatives in support of CE are needed, such as creating platforms for exchanging goods or introducing bottle deposits for PET bottles [85,86].

In summary, education in circular economy is becoming an essential element in shaping pro-environmental attitudes and conscious consumerism. Participants in these programs will be encouraged to reflect on their own impact on the environment and to take action toward sustainable development in their homes, schools, and workplaces. Through collaboration with educational institutions, non-governmental organizations, and local governments, these programs have the potential to serve as a catalyst for change in the approach to resource management in Poland, which is crucial for future generations.

4.2. The Netherlands

The Netherlands has an area of 41,543 km² and a population of approximately 17.8 million. As part of its commitment to the European Green Deal, the country aims for climate neutrality by 2050 and a 55% reduction in emissions by 2030. This is supported by renewable energy development, particularly wind and solar power, and the integration of circular economy (CE) principles into climate policies through initiatives like the Green Deal program. These initiatives promote public–private cooperation and local stakeholder involvement in planning renewable energy infrastructure, ensuring alignment with societal and environmental needs [87,88,89].

4.2.1. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in Industry in the Netherlands

As part of the implementation of circular economy (CE) in the production sector, the Netherlands has made significant progress. The goal of the “Nederland Circulair 2050” strategy is to achieve a fully circular economy by 2050 by reducing dependence on primary raw materials and maximizing the use of recycled materials [90].

The

Table 5. Key industry indicators in the Netherlands related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicator	2015	2022	Change	Source
Industrial Waste Production	132 million tones	122 million tones	−7.58%	Eurostat [92]
Packaging Waste Recycling	71.2%	75.6%	+6.18%	Eurostat [93]
Use of Recycled Materials	5500 million tones	6800 million tones	+23.6%	Eurostat [94]

presents the key indicators related to circular economy (CE) in the Dutch production sector from 2015 to 2022. These changes result from intensive efforts to efficiently manage resources and investments in closed-loop technologies that enable the reuse of raw materials [91].

The data show that the material circularity rate in the Netherlands increased from 26.6% in 2015 to 27.5% in 2022. This progress is due to significant investments in closed-loop technologies and the increased use of recycled materials, which support efficient resource management and the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. As Lieder and Rashid [95] emphasize, the implementation of these technologies reduces dependence on primary raw materials while simultaneously increasing resource efficiency, benefiting both environmentally and economically.

In the Netherlands’ manufacturing sector, particularly in industries such as automotive and construction, solutions have been implemented that allow for the reuse of materials like aluminum and steel. Additionally, the recycling rate of packaging waste increased from 71.2% to 75.6% between 2015 and 2022, as presented in the table above. This improvement is attributed to the adoption of modern waste sorting and processing technologies and developed cooperation between the public and private sectors [91,96]. These efforts are crucial for achieving the goals of the “Nederland Circulair 2050” strategy, which aims to reduce the consumption of primary resources and maximize material efficiency in the manufacturing sector [97].

Despite these achievements, the implementation of a circular economy in the Netherlands faces some challenges. High investment costs and the need to adapt the existing business models pose significant barriers. Kirchherr et al. [90] highlight that the full implementation of CE requires intensive cooperation between the public and private sectors, as well as regulatory and financial support, which are essential for the further development of circular economy in the manufacturing sector [98].

In the Netherlands, there are numerous examples of the successful implementation of circular economy (CE) solutions in industry, demonstrating that this approach can be both environmentally sustainable and economically viable. One of the most well-known examples is Fairphone, a company specializing in the production of smartphones designed with durability, repairability, and social responsibility in mind. Fairphone’s smartphones feature a modular design, allowing users to easily replace damaged components such as the battery or screen. This significantly extends the lifecycle of the devices and reduces the amount of electronic waste generated. Additionally, Fairphone is committed to sourcing materials responsibly and ensuring fair working conditions throughout its supply chain, making it a pioneer in sustainable electronics manufacturing [99].

Another example of effective CE implementation is MUD Jeans, a company offering an innovative business model based on leasing jeans. Customers can rent a pair of jeans for a specified period and then return them to exchange for new ones. Returned jeans are refurbished or recycled, with the recovered material used to produce new pairs. This business model enables MUD Jeans to significantly reduce raw material consumption and carbon emissions while promoting a circular approach in the fashion industry. The company is often cited as an example of successfully combining environmental goals with innovation in the fashion sector, further highlighting the potential of CE in building a more sustainable economy [100].

4.2.2. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in Agriculture in the Netherlands

The Netherlands plays a significant role in promoting circular economy (CE) in agriculture. In line with the goals of the “Nederland Circulair 2050” strategy, the country focuses on increasing the area of organic farming, optimizing water usage, and improving energy efficiency. As noted by Batlles-delaFuente et al. [101], the development of CE in agriculture supports biodiversity and enables more sustainable management of natural resources.

As shown in

Table 6. Main agricultural indicators in the Netherlands related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicator	2015	2022	Change	Source
Organic Farming Area	49 thousand ha	80 thousand ha	+63.27%	Eurostat [32]
Water Usage in Agriculture	28.89 million m3	21.20 million m3	−26.62%	Eurostat [56]
Agricultural Waste Production	4.7 million tones	5.7 million tones	+21.28%	Eurostat [92]

, the increase in the area of organic farming from 49,000 hectares in 2015 to 80,000 hectares in 2022, representing a 63.27% growth, is the result of growing consumer interest and government policies promoting sustainable practices in agriculture [102]. These changes contribute to reducing the use of chemicals and improving soil quality.

Water usage in agriculture has decreased by 26.62% over the two years from 2015 to 2022. The application of modern technologies, such as drip irrigation systems, allows for savings and more efficient water management. Research by Olza et al. [103] indicates that water use in agriculture can be reduced through advanced irrigation practices, which is crucial in the face of a changing climate.

Energy consumption in agriculture decreased by 2.7% during the analyzed period, indicating improved energy efficiency and an increasing use of renewable energy sources. According to data from Burg et al. [104], biogas plants in the Netherlands process 900,000 tons of agricultural waste annually, generating 1.2 TWh of energy, which corresponds to the annual electricity consumption of 300,000 households.

The Netherlands has increased the use of organic fertilizers, which has led to a 12% reduction in synthetic fertilizers and a decrease in CO₂ emissions by 14,000 tons annually. This growth reflects the growing interest in more sustainable agricultural practices and their environmental benefits [105].

In the Netherlands, there are numerous examples of agricultural companies successfully implementing circular economy solutions.

One such example is Kipster, an innovative poultry farm that emphasizes sustainable egg production. Kipster uses feed produced from food waste, aligning with CE principles by reducing waste and reusing resources. Additionally, the farm is designed to minimize CO₂ emissions and ensure animal welfare [106].

Another example is Protix, a company specializing in the production of insect-based protein as an alternative source of animal feed. Protix transforms organic waste into high-value protein, closing the loop on materials and contributing to sustainable agriculture [107].

A further example is CIRCO, which collaborates with farmers to implement circular business models in the agricultural sector. CIRCO supports the design of production processes that minimize waste and maximize resource efficiency, thereby promoting CE principles in agriculture [108].

Thanks to the implementation of innovative technologies and the adoption of sustainable practices, the Netherlands has been able to effectively introduce circular economy (CE) principles in agriculture, which not only supports local farmers but also brings benefits to the environment and society. However, the agricultural sector faces challenges, such as high investment costs and the need to adapt traditional practices to CE requirements. Continued investment in innovation and government support will be crucial for the further development of circular practices in agriculture.

4.2.3. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in the Service Sector in the Netherlands

The service sector in the Netherlands plays a key role in implementing the principles of circular economy (CE). As one of the leaders in innovation, the country focuses on sustainable development and promoting practices that reduce negative environmental impacts. The Netherlands emphasizes integrating sustainability across various service sectors, contributing to efficient resource management.

The decrease in energy consumption in the service sector from 79.3 TWh in 2015 to 72.6 TWh in 2022, as indicate in

Table 7. Key indicators of the service sector in the Netherlands related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicator	2015	2022	Change	Source
Packaging Waste Recycling	2.2 million tones	2.1 million tones	−4.55%	Eurostat [93]
Energy Consumption in the Service Sector	79 TWh	72.6 TWh	−8.45%	Eurostat [109]
Share of Energy from Renewable Sources	5.7%	14.1%	+147.37%	Eurostat [110]

may be related to the growing energy efficiency and the introduction of more energy-efficient technologies. Although the service sector, including areas such as tourism, transport, and IT, generates significant energy consumption, a trend towards reducing demand is observed thanks to innovative solutions and improvements in efficiency. According to OECD data, the service sector accounts for approximately 70% of the total energy consumption in the Netherlands, highlighting the importance of continued efforts for sustainable energy management in this sector. As for renewable energy, its consumption increased between 2015 and 2022.

Regarding renewable energy, its consumption increased between 2015 and 2022. Dutch companies in the service sector began investing heavily in renewable energy technologies, contributing to reduced operational costs and improved competitiveness [111].

Eneco, as a leading energy provider in the Netherlands, has consistently increased the share of renewable energy sources (RESs) in its energy mix. Through investments in wind and solar farms, the company has significantly contributed to the growth of green energy production in the country. For example, the offshore wind farm Eneco Luchterduinen supplies energy to approximately 150,000 households, making a substantial contribution to the sustainable energy transition in the Netherlands [112]. Recycling in the service sector saw a decline of 4.55% during the studied period. The Netherlands is implementing advanced recycling programs that support circularity and minimize environmental impact, but the recycling situation remains a challenge. Data show that in 2022, Dutch services were able to recycle approximately 1.5 million tons of waste, highlighting the importance of efficient resource management [113].

Additionally, it was found that digital technology in the service sector resulted in an average annual saving of 15% in energy consumption for companies that implemented such solutions. The use of digitization allows better monitoring of energy and resource consumption, supporting circular goals [114].

Other studies, such as those conducted by Moreau et al. [115] indicate that about 65% of service companies in the Netherlands plan to introduce sustainability measures within the next 5 years, reflecting the growing tendency to adopt CE practices.

The Netherlands, through its innovative approach and promotion of sustainable development practices in the service sector, is becoming an example for other countries. Despite these achievements, the service sector in the Netherlands faces challenges related to the further development of technologies and the need to adapt business models to circular economy principles. Continued government support and collaboration between the public and private sectors will be crucial in achieving circular economy goals.

4.2.4. Educational Programs in the Field of Circular Economy in the Netherlands

The Netherlands has long been a model example of implementing a circular economy, treating education as a key element in ecological transformation. The Dutch education system includes a wide range of programs aimed at increasing environmental awareness and promoting sustainable practices. In primary and secondary schools, initiatives such as Groen onderwijs (Environmental Education) are developed, introducing students to topics related to environmental protection, recycling, and resource management. This program, supported by the Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu, emphasizes active student involvement, such as organizing recycling days, creating school gardens, and energy-saving projects. Research by RIVM shows that participation in such activities leads to a noticeable increase in environmental awareness among youth and their families, which translates into positive changes in local communities [116].

At the academic level, Dutch universities, such as Wageningen University and Research and Delft University of Technology, implement educational programs focused on circular economy, preparing students to work in sectors related to circularity. The Circular Economy and Sustainability program at Wageningen University focuses on developing practical skills required to manage waste, design eco-friendly solutions, and implement innovative circular economy practices. As shown in research by Kirchherr and Piscicella [117], the Towards an Education for the Circular Economy (ECE) course at the university uses active teaching methods, such as simulation exercises, practical workshops, and case studies on circular strategies. In their study, students rated the interactive modules as valuable, and the course contributed to increased interest in careers in sustainable development and environmental protection. According to the authors, this course could serve as a model solution for other institutions looking to develop education on circular economy.

At the industrial level, the Netherlands also implements numerous educational programs supporting businesses in their circular economy efforts. The PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, in cooperation with other organizations, offers training programs such as Circulaire Economie in Bedrijf (Circular Economy in Practice), which provides companies with the knowledge and tools necessary for the effective implementation of circular strategies. These trainings cover topics like resource management, waste reduction, and innovative business modeling approaches. Research by PBL has shown that companies undergoing such training experienced significant operational savings and increased efficiency. These businesses adopted more sustainable practices, improving their competitiveness and enhancing their market image [118].

A number of studies on education for circular economy highlight key principles that can be helpful in shaping such programs. As Kirchherr, Reike, and Hekkert [90] state, circular economy encompasses a broad range of definitions, many of which focus on effective resource use and material loss reduction. In addition to theoretical aspects, circular economy education should be interactive, flexible, and adapted to different audiences. Exercises such as industrial park simulations and design workshops allow students to practically apply circular economy principles and better prepare them for solving environmental problems they may encounter in their future professional work.

In the area of product design for circular economy, the Netherlands is also implementing innovative educational strategies. Bocken, de Pauw, Bakker, and van der Grinten [119], in their study on designing products in accordance with circular economy principles, emphasize that education in this field includes not only theoretical aspects but also practical approaches that help students understand the product life cycle and opportunities for the recycling and reuse of materials. Practical student projects at Dutch universities, such as creating prototypes of products from renewable materials or analyzing products for material efficiency, are key components of such programs.

The Dutch approach to circular economy education is comprehensive and also includes support from non-governmental organizations. An example is The Circular Economy Club, which organizes workshops, training sessions, and events promoting circularity principles in various sectors of the economy. These organizations often collaborate with academic institutions and businesses, fostering the exchange of knowledge and the joint implementation of innovative circular economy solutions. Another initiative with broad international reach, Holland Circular Hotspot, also supports partnerships between businesses, universities, and local authorities, making the Netherlands a leading country in the international circularity arena [120].

4.3. Romania

Romania is a Southeastern European country with an area of 238,397 km² and a population of 19.05 million as of 2022. Despite significant economic growth, Romania primarily operates within a linear economic model, with a recycling rate of only 11.3% in 2020 and a circular material use rate of 1.4% in 2021. Barriers such as limited academic support and insufficient stakeholder engagement hinder progress in implementing circular economy (CE) principles. However, the National Strategy for the Circular Economy and EU climate goals drive Romania’s gradual transition toward CE, with renewable energy and sustainable urbanization identified as key strategies for reducing CO₂ emissions and improving sustainability [121,122,123,124].

4.3.1. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in Industry in Romania

Circular economy (CE) is gaining importance in Romania, becoming a key element of the country’s sustainable development strategy. In recent years, many studies have focused on the challenges and opportunities associated with implementing this model. In the Romanian context, key indicators related to waste production and processing show that the country faces significant challenges.

The

Table 8. Main indicators of the industry in Romania related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicator	2015	2022	Change	Source
Industrial Waste Production	176 million tones	160 million tones	−9.1%	Eurostat [91]
Packaging Waste Recycling	17.3%	24%	+39.1%	Eurostat [92]
Use of Recycled Materials	1.532 million tones	2.014 million tones	+33%	Eurostat [93]

illustrates the main indicators related to waste production and recycling in Romania for the years 2015 and 2022. These data highlight progress toward a circular model while also revealing existing gaps in infrastructure and education that need to be addressed in order to fully implement CE.

Industrial waste production decreased from 176 million tons in 2015 to 160 million tons in 2022, a reduction of 9.1%. According to research by Drăgoi et al. (2018), Romania must implement changes in production processes and adopt more sustainable practices to reduce environmental impact [125].

The recycling of packaging waste increased by 39.1%. Despite this progress, it still remains below the EU average. Studies by Vermeșan, Mangău, and Tiuc (2020) [123] suggest that Romania must invest in recycling infrastructure and develop educational programs for the public to meet circular economy targets.

The increase in secondary raw materials use by 33% between 2015 and 2022 indicates Romania’s growing commitment to circular economy. Research by Topliceanu et al. (2022) highlights that improving operational efficiency through the implementation of innovative technologies enabling better resource use and waste reduction is key [126].

The prospects for developing circular economy in Romania are promising, but face significant challenges. Studies by Barn, Zbuchea, and Stănescu (2023) show that social enterprises can play a crucial role in promoting circular economy by engaging local communities in recycling and reusing materials. Introducing more financial incentives and regulatory support could accelerate the process of implementing circular economy principles in the industrial sector [127].

In Romania, the concept of circular economy (CE) is gaining prominence, with various industrial companies taking steps to implement its principles, contributing to more sustainable development and efficient resource use. In the construction sector, Holcim Romania stands out as a key example, actively promoting sustainable practices such as the use of recycled materials in concrete production. The company also introduces innovative technologies that enable the efficient management of construction waste, significantly reducing the volume of waste sent to landfills. Holcim Romania’s efforts align perfectly with the goals of circular economy, minimizing the environmental impact of the construction industry [128].

Another notable example is Romcarbon, a company specializing in the processing of plastics. Romcarbon invests in modern recycling and material recovery technologies, which allow for the transformation of waste into new products. By doing so, the company not only minimizes waste but also helps reduce the exploitation of primary raw materials, supporting the development of a closed-loop economy. These efforts demonstrate that Romanian companies are increasingly engaging in practices that support CE, transforming traditional business models into more sustainable and innovative approaches [129].

With collaboration between the public and private sectors, as well as environmental education, Romania can successfully implement circular economy principles. This transformation is not possible without the development of recycling infrastructure, modernization of technologies, and the promotion of sustainable practices among entrepreneurs and society.

4.3.2. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in Agriculture in Romania"

Agriculture in Romania plays a crucial role in the country’s economy and has a significant impact on the environment. In recent years, this sector has begun implementing circular economy principles, with an increasing emphasis on sustainable development, resource efficiency, and reducing environmental impact.

The

Table 9. Key agriculture indicators in Romania related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicator	2015	2022	Change	Source
Organic Farming Area	245 thousand ha	644 thousand ha	+62.86%	Eurostat [32]
Water Usage in Agriculture	1255.00 million m3	2872.00 million m3	+128.84%	Eurostat [56]
Agricultural Waste Production	559 thousand tones	637 thousand tones	+13.95%	Eurostat [91]

presents the key indicators of agriculture in Romania related to circular economy for the years 2015 and 2022, illustrating progress toward more sustainable practices.

The data indicates that the area of organic farming increased by 162.86% from 2015 to 2022. Aceleanu (2016) points out that organic agriculture has the potential to enhance the competitiveness of Romanian farms by improving product quality and protecting the environment. The introduction of organic farming practices also contributes to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving biodiversity [130].

However, the growth in organic farming area is associated with a 128.84% increase in water consumption in agriculture. As noted by Robu et al. (2009), water resource management is becoming a critical challenge that must be addressed in the context of climate change. The implementation of efficient irrigation systems and water-saving technologies is essential for the sustainable development of the sector [131].

Energy consumption in agriculture decreased by 5.1%, which may suggest that the sector is adopting more efficient technologies. Smedescu et al. (2023) emphasize that investments in renewable energy sources and innovative technologies can significantly improve energy efficiency in agricultural production, which is crucial for sustainable development [132].

Among the biggest challenges facing Romanian agriculture are difficulties in accessing funds, outdated technology, and fragmented farms. Serban et al. (2017) note that these obstacles may hinder the development of organic practices in agriculture. Government support and EU subsidies are essential for implementing modern solutions [133].

An analysis of crop trends in Romania shows that the agricultural sector has potential for further development, though this requires coordinated efforts toward sustainable development. Drăguleasa et al. (2023) highlight that the use of modern tools, such as geographic information systems, can support efficient crop and resource management [134].

Integrating circular economy principles in Romanian agriculture has the potential to benefit both the environment and local communities. Support for organic farming methods and efficient resource management is key to achieving sustainable development goals.

4.3.3. Solutions in the Field of Circular Economy in the Service Sector in Romania

The service sector in Romania is playing an increasingly important role in the economy, and its sustainable development is crucial for achieving circular economy goals. In recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in both energy consumption and renewable energy use within this sector.

As shown in

Table 10. Key service sector indicators in Romania related to circular economy (2015 and 2022).

Indicator	2015	2022	Change	Source
Packaging Waste Recycling	780 thousand tones	931 thousand tones	+19.36%	Eurostat [93]
Energy Consumption in the Service Sector	20.4 TWh	22.1 TWh	+8.33%	Eurostat [109]
Share of Energy from Renewable Sources	24.7%	24.1%	−2.43%	Eurostat [110]

, between 2015 and 2022, energy consumption in Romania’s service sector increased by 8.33%, reaching 22.1 TWh. This growth is linked to rising demand for services across various industries, such as IT, tourism, and financial services. Mehedintu et al. (2021) emphasize that the sustainable development of the service sector is crucial for implementing EU policies on renewable energy and environmental protection [135].

However, during the same period, the share of renewable energy in the service sector decreased slightly, from 24.7% in 2015 to 24.1% in 2022. Rehman et al. (2022) note that despite efforts toward sustainable development, challenges remain in fully adopting renewable energy sources within the service sector [136,137]. This decline in the renewable energy share may stem from technological limitations and a continued reliance on fossil fuels in certain segments of the sector.

An example is Restart Energy, a Romanian company specializing in the supply of electricity from renewable sources. Restart Energy also provides services for installing photovoltaic systems for both individual and business clients, promoting the decentralization of energy production and the efficient use of resources [137].

Despite positive trends, the service sector in Romania faces numerous challenges. Hatmanu et al. (2022) highlight that further infrastructure modernization and increased investment in energy-saving technologies are essential for the sector’s sustainable development [138]. Additionally, the growth of smart homes and IoT devices could support energy efficiency within the service sector, as studies by Micu et al. (2021) show [139].

In the context of implementing circular economy (CE) strategies, Nicolau et al. (2024) emphasize that adequate political support and private sector engagement will be key to overcoming the existing barriers and challenges [140]. To fully achieve the goals related to circular economy, Romania must continue advancing sustainable practices in the service sector, which can benefit both the environment and local communities.

4.3.4. Educational Programs in the Field of Circular Economy in Romania

In Romania, education in the field of circular economy (CE) is a growing area supported by both academic institutions and government programs. In recent years, universities such as Babes-Bolyai University and the Polytechnic University of Bucharest have implemented courses and specializations that promote sustainable resource management and circular economy models. These programs emphasize knowledge in recycling, efficient resource management, and waste reduction, aiming to better prepare students for the challenges associated with ecological transformation [124,141].

With support from EU programs like Erasmus+ and Horizon Europe, Romanian universities and research institutions have the opportunity to participate in international educational and research projects related to the CE. These initiatives enable the exchange of knowledge and best practices, contributing to the skill enhancement of students and researchers in sustainable resource management and innovative economic models [141].

Moreover, as research by Mocanu et al. (2024) shows, the CE can become a significant factor in supporting economic growth in Romania by promoting circular business models. The Ministry of Environment and non-governmental organizations organize training for entrepreneurs, helping companies transform towards more sustainable operations. Entrepreneurs can access support for implementing recycling technologies and energy efficiency solutions, contributing to the development of circular economy in Romania [142].

Romania is working to advance CE education through both academic initiatives and support for entrepreneurs. In the long term, these efforts may contribute to the sustainable development of the country and increase environmental awareness within society.

5. Discussion

The analysis of changes in three key economic sectors—industrial, agricultural, and service—in Poland, the Netherlands, and Romania from 2015 to 2022 shows significant progress toward a circular economy (CE). The study focuses on indicators such as waste production, the area of organic farming, energy consumption, and the share of renewable energy. The results indicate clear shifts in resource management and environmental protection within these sectors.

In the industrial sector, Figure 3, which depicts industrial waste production in 2015 and 2022, reveals considerable diversity across different countries. In Poland, waste production decreased by 12.2%, from 131 million tons in 2015 to 115 million tons in 2022, while in Romania, production increased by 9.1%, from 160 million tons in 2015 to 176 million tons in 2022. In the Netherlands, despite an increase in waste production, there is an intensified focus on sustainable waste management and recycling, as seen in the bar chart illustrating these changes. The increase in waste production in this country indicates the need for further development of circular economy strategies and improved recycling efficiency.

Above, in Figure 4, the area of organic farming in Poland, the Netherlands, and Romania in 2015 and 2022 is shown. Romania recorded the most dynamic growth among the analyzed countries, with the organic farming area increasing from around 250,000 hectares in 2015 to nearly 650,000 hectares in 2022, indicating intensified support for this sector. In Poland, the organic farming area grew moderately, from around 550,000 hectares to slightly over 600,000 hectares, suggesting the gradual development of the organic sector. The Netherlands has a relatively small organic farming area compared to the other countries, growing from just under 50,000 hectares in 2015 to around 80,000 hectares in 2022, showing a significant percentage increase despite limited land availability. Overall, the chart illustrates that Romania leads in the growth rate of organic farming areas, while Poland and the Netherlands exhibit more moderate growth in this field.

In the service sector, Figure 5, which illustrates energy consumption in this sector, shows increased energy demand associated with the growing number of digital, transportation, and tourism services. Energy consumption in Poland rose by 3.9%, from 91.2 TWh in 2015 to 94.8 TWh in 2022. In the Netherlands and Romania, energy consumption increased by 4.3% and 8.3%, respectively. Despite this growth, the chart also shows a decrease in the share of renewable energy in Poland, dropping from 24.7% in 2015 to 24.1% in 2022. This shift highlights the need for further action in energy transition and the implementation of energy efficiency solutions in this sector.

6. Benefits and Barriers in Implementing Circular Economy Solutions

In the context of striving for sustainable development and minimizing the negative impact of human activity on the environment, the concept of circular economy (CE) holds particular significance. It is essential to characterize both the benefits and barriers associated with implementing solutions in this field. Analyzing these aspects will provide a better understanding of the complexities involved in implementing CE and highlight the key points essential for effectively shaping the future of an economy aimed at efficient resource management and environmental impact reduction. Finding a balance between benefits and barriers is a crucial step toward building a more sustainable economic model. [142,143,144].

Implementing a circular economy (CE) offers numerous advantages, but it also entails certain challenges. The key benefits include savings of natural resources, as businesses can reuse materials such as metals, plastics, and textiles through recycling. For instance, the electronics sector can recover valuable metals from used devices, reducing the need to source new raw materials. Additionally, long-term recycling practices and product designs focused on reuse significantly reduce waste generation, minimizing environmental footprints related to packaging, textiles, and electronics [138,145,146].

The economic use of materials is another critical advantage, as circular economy emphasizes the repeated use of secondary resources, which can be more cost-effective than procuring new ones. This approach also minimizes environmental impact by reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions during production. Furthermore, circular economy practices contribute to building sustainable business models, enabling companies to become more resilient to market changes while aligning with the growing consumer demand for sustainable practices. Over time, production costs can be reduced due to efficient resource management and material reuse [143,147,148]

Despite these benefits, the transition to a circular economy presents challenges. A significant hurdle is the lack of standardization, as uniform regulations and procedures for waste handling and resource reuse are often absent, leading to inefficiencies. Collaboration within the supply chain is another obstacle, as optimizing product lifecycles requires alignment among partners who may have differing standards or objectives [146,149].

Efficient resource management poses further challenges, requiring advanced tools and technologies for tracking material flows and optimizing processes. Limited consumer awareness about the benefits of circular products can also hinder progress, necessitating educational initiatives. Additionally, shifting to a circular business model requires companies to adapt processes, including designing recyclable and repairable products. High implementation costs, such as investments in recycling technologies, new production methods, logistics, and employee training, add to the complexity of the transition [144,150,151,152].

While adopting a circular economy reflects an innovative and forward-thinking strategy, enhancing a company’s market appeal, it demands a strategic approach to overcome significant challenges. These include rethinking business models, managing high initial costs, addressing the lack of standardization, and increasing consumer awareness. However, the long-term benefits—such as resource efficiency, waste reduction, cost savings, and a sustainable business image—make circular economy a promising endeavor for businesses [153].

In summary, the decision to implement a circular economy (CE) signals an innovative and forward-thinking approach, enhancing a company’s attractiveness in the market. Nevertheless, implementing circular economy presents significant challenges. Key difficulties, such as the need for a business model shift, high implementation costs, lack of standardization, and limited consumer awareness, require a strategic approach, investments, and collaboration at every stage of the supply chain. On the other hand, circular economy offers numerous benefits, including more efficient resource use, waste reduction, long-term operational cost savings, and an improved image for companies as sustainable and socially responsible entities [154].

7. Conclusions

The analysis allowed for a detailed examination of the changes resulting from the implementation of circular economy (CE) principles in the selected European Union countries. Based on a comparison of indicators from 2015 and 2022, significant progress and areas requiring further efforts were identified.

Comparing all three countries, Poland shows the greatest progress in industrial waste reduction and gradual growth in organic farming area. Nevertheless, challenges remain in the energy transition within the service sector, where further investments in renewable energy sources and energy efficiency are necessary. Meanwhile, Spain, with the highest growth in organic farming area, focuses on developing organic agriculture but is simultaneously grappling with rising industrial waste production. The Netherlands is a leader in organic farming, but also faces challenges related to industrial waste. Romania, despite expanding organic farming, struggles with issues related to industrial waste and increased energy consumption.

Countries like Poland show significant progress in organic agriculture, but the service sector remains challenging, requiring further investments in renewable technologies. Although the Netherlands and Romania have seen growth in organic farming areas, they need to focus more on industrial waste management. Further educational efforts, technological innovation, and stronger support from EU funds could contribute to more sustainable development in each of these countries.

In the context of circular economy (CE), there is a need for the continued development of policies and educational programs supporting sustainable production and consumption in each of the discussed countries. Educational programs, such as training for farmers in organic farming practices and training for companies in energy efficiency, are crucial for achieving CE goals. In Poland, the Netherlands, and Romania, numerous educational initiatives promoting energy conservation and recycling have been implemented, contributing to increased environmental awareness among businesses and citizens.

In the future, to fully realize the potential of circular economy, these countries must continue to develop innovative technologies, implement educational programs, and improve energy efficiency. Taking additional steps in energy transition and sustainable agriculture will be crucial to achieving environmental protection and sustainable development goals.