How Minimalism Drives Green Purchase Intention in Collectivist Cultures

Abstract

This study investigates the mediating role of pro-environmental behaviours (PEBs) in the relationship between minimalism, collectivist culture, environmental concern, and green purchase intention (GPI) in emerging economies. This study aims to fill a gap in our understanding of how lifestyle choices, cultural values, and environmental consciousness influence sustainable consumption in collectivist settings. The study presents a new viewpoint on minimalism as an antecedent of pro-environmental behaviours, addressing deficiencies in the current literature regarding sustainability and consumer behaviour. The study utilises data from 385 participants across emerging economies and employs Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) to examine the links between components. Moreover, stringent validation methods, such as the heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT), guarantee the trustworthiness and validity of the results. The findings indicate that minimalism, collectivist culture, and environmental concern favourably affect pro-environmental behaviours, which considerably mediate their influence on green purchase intention. Private PEBs exert a more significant impact on GPI than public PEBs, underscoring the significance of individual-level sustainable behaviours. These findings enhance the theoretical discussion on sustainability in emerging economies and provide practical insights for fostering sustainable consumer behaviours through culturally adapted techniques.

1. Introduction

Climate change is seen as one of the world’s most pressing issues. This is largely due to the rapid rise in carbon emissions from human activities in recent years [1,2]. The private and public spheres are the two domains into which [3] have divided pro-environmental behaviours (PEBs). In this context, private-sphere pro-environmental behaviours include recycling, water and electricity conservation, waste sorting, and other activities people engage in during their daily lives and at their workplaces. Consequently, private-sector PEBs have a direct impact on environmental conservation. In contrast, public-sphere PEBs involve deliberate efforts to advocate for environmental laws, policies, and programs with the aim of exerting influence on social or political organisations. Thus, public-sphere PEBs indirectly promote environmental conservation.

Stern et al. [4] expand the sequential process of the original norm activation framework by including values and ecological worldviews in the pro-environmental context, resulting in the development of a Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) framework. The theory’s applicability in different environmental contexts and the sequential procedure of study variables within the VBN theory have been supported by substantial evidence. An ecological worldview encourages individuals to perceive environmental risks, leading to a sense of responsibility and motivation to engage in pro-environmental behaviours, ultimately forming behavioural intentions for sustainable practices [5,6,7]. Pro-environmental behaviours are influenced by factors like perceived control, effectiveness, and emotions (positive or negative). Other key drivers include environmental attitudes, awareness, self-identity, social norms, and values such as biospheric, egoistic, and altruistic [8]. However, there is a limited number of studies that discuss the influence of minimalism and environmental concern on pro-environmental behaviours in collectivist cultures in emerging economy countries [9,10,11,12]. Thus, within the field of environmental psychology, minimalism has gained greater importance as a determinant of pro-environmental behaviours.

Kang et al. [13] note that minimalism, a significant lifestyle movement, first became popular in Asian countries, particularly Japan. Minimalism calls for re-evaluating life priorities, moving away from the accumulation of goods, and deriving satisfaction from relationships and activities that bring more substance to life [14]. However, according to Druică et al. [12], not many academics have investigated minimalism and the adoption of a minimalist lifestyle in collectivist cultures. Furthermore, minimalism is a global trend, but its definition may vary across national cultures. It is crucial to explore how simplicity is interpreted differently, especially in collectivist cultures [15]. In addition, minimalism promotes a simplified lifestyle, reducing possessions and avoiding overconsumption, with environmental benefits [13,15].

Environmental concern refers to the overall attitude of consumers towards the preservation of the environment [16,17]. Specifically, it is well-recognised as a powerful factor that shapes consumers’ motivations to embrace a sustainable way of life [17,18]. Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez [19] established a clear connection between individuals’ environmental concern and their likelihood to buy green energy brands. The study conducted by De Canio et al. [10] investigates how environmental concern acts as a moderator in the relationship between external factors and consumers’ intentions to make pro-environmental purchases. The research findings indicate that environmental concern has a beneficial influence on consumers’ purchase intentions. In contrast, prior research has examined environmental concerns in developed countries with individualistic cultures, such as Italy [10] and the Republic of Korea [20]. There has been limited study on the relationship between environmental concern and green purchasing intention in collectivist cultures [10,21].

Green purchasing, as defined by Chan [22], refers to the procurement of services and items that have minimal negative impact on the environment. Green buying intention refers to customers’ desire to acquire and pay for environmentally friendly items [23]. This intention is commonly associated with the colour green. Research on green purchase intention has been conducted in developed countries such as Korea [24,25] and Taiwan [26]. However, there is a lack of studies on green purchase intention in emerging economy countries [27]. In addition, there is academic evidence suggesting that pro-environmental behaviour has an impact on green buying intention, as indicated by studies conducted by Barbarossa and Pelsmacker [28] and Mostafa [29,30].

Pro-environmental behaviours refer to any activity that has a beneficial effect on the environment or minimises harm to the environment [31,32,33,34]. Individuals who engage in these behaviours will promote product use in a manner that minimises the use of resources, lowers waste, and conserves materials and energy to have a lesser negative impact on our world [26]. The studies conducted by Casaló et al. [31], Irawan et al. [35], Kronrod et al. [36], and Kong and Jia [37] identified pro-environmental behaviours as outcomes in their research models. However, there is research suggesting that pro-environmental behaviours can be seen as antecedents, as demonstrated by Composto et al. [38]. Although much research examines the impact of various factors, they do not consider the mediating effect of pro-environmental behaviours [39]. This study aims to enhance the existing literature by examining the mediating role of pro-environmental behaviours, both in public and private contexts.

Minimalism’s influence on PEBs may be particularly significant in collectivist cultures, where social values emphasise community, harmony, and shared responsibilities. These cultural attributes can enhance the adoption of behaviours aligned with collective well-being, such as sustainability practices. In collectivist culture, personal decisions are often influenced by communal norms, suggesting that the adoption of minimalistic lifestyles might be more naturally integrated due to the cultural emphasis on shared goals and interdependence. Moreover, emerging economies like Vietnam provide a special prism through which one might examine these dynamics. Many of these nations deal with fast urbanisation and environmental issues that inspire a rising consciousness of sustainable living. In individualist cultures, pro-environmental behaviours are often motivated by personal achievements or preferences. In emerging economies, these behaviours may vary due to economic constraints, shared resources, and a focus on collective goals. The cultural focus on communal welfare in these settings could magnify the influence of environmental issues and minimalism, hence producing more common PEBs.

This study provides further evidence for green purchase intention in emerging economy countries. In addition, this paper explores the mediating role of pro-environmental behaviours. Specifically, the paper shows how pro-environmental behaviours mediate between minimalism and green purchase intention. Moreover, this paper seeks to advance the existing literature by examining the mediating role of pro-environmental behaviours in the relationship between collectivist cultures and green purchase intention. Lastly, this paper examines the mediating role of pro-environmental behaviours in the relationship between environmental concerns and green purchase intention.

The research is organised as follows: we start by explaining the theoretical foundations of this investigation and then proceed to formulate our assumptions. Afterwards, we clarify our sample and provide a thorough explanation of our data-gathering methodology. The next part provides an analysis of the data and shows the results. Lastly, we analyse the consequences of our discoveries and propose potential avenues for further research.

2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

2.1. Pro-Environmental Behaviours as Mediator of the Minimalism and Green Purchase Intention Relationship

Minimalism has been defined using several definitions. It may be described as a refined sense of style that is conveyed via minimalistic design, thoughtful longevity, and minimalist aesthetics, such as in the fields of architecture, fashion, and interior decoration [40]. There have been recent studies on minimalism. Several studies indicate that minimalism has a significant influence on consumer happiness and financial well-being [41], as well as contributing to emotional well-being [13]. Furthermore, Chen and Liu [42] discovered that individuals with lower socioeconomic status express less positive assessments of brands that utilise minimalist appeals. This is because these consumers typically prioritise quantity over quality in their daily consumption, which contradicts the principles of minimalism. However, according to a recent study by Druică et al. [12], there has not been much research discussion on minimalism and living a minimalist lifestyle in contexts of collectivist culture to date. The body of research on minimalism that is now available tends to focus primarily on individualistic countries, leaving a gap in our understanding of the perspectives and experiences of those who choose minimalist living within collectivist cultural frameworks. Additionally, even though minimalism has clearly become popular worldwide, it would be beneficial to look into whether different national cultures have different ideas about what a minimalist consumer should be like, as well as whether the level of asceticism and simplicity that characterise minimalist lifestyles varies depending on the cultural context, especially in collectivist cultures [15].

Minimalism encompasses several characteristics, such as personal development and environmental sustainability [43,44]. When consumers experience the negative effects of environmental degradation in their daily lives, individuals who prioritise self-improvement and minimalism are more likely to be concerned about environmental issues [45]. They also tend to engage in pro-environmental behaviours such as recycling, conserving water and electricity, sorting waste, and other similar activities both at home and in their workplaces [3,46]. In addition, individuals with pro-environmental behaviours will purchase and consume green-positioned products, such as eco-friendly tissue paper, biodegradable detergents, and energy-saving light bulbs [28], and eventually, green purchase intentions will form inside them.

Additionally, Dagiliūtė’s [47] study examines the influence of various environmental information sources on pro-environmental behaviours among citizens of the EU. Television, the internet, and newspapers are seen as the main sources, whereas scientific literature is deemed the most substantial predictor of pro-environmental behaviours. Gender, age, and income are all significant sociodemographic characteristics that influence environmental behaviour. Furthermore, Li et al. [48] investigate the effect of environmental rules and green marketing on Chinese consumers’ willingness to purchase eco-friendly items. It shows that both environmental restrictions and green marketing considerably increase customer intentions to buy eco-friendly items, with regional differences in efficacy.

The term “green purchase intention” describes consumers’ propensity to purchase environmentally friendly products because of their favourable health impacts and ability to protect the environment for future generations [49,50]. This study will bring something special and practical to the body of current knowledge (Table S1). Consequently, we recommend the following:

H1. 

Pro-environmental behaviours have a positive mediating relationship between minimalism and green purchase intention.

2.2. Pro-Environmental Behaviours as Mediator of Collectivist Culture and Green Purchase Intention

Collectivism refers to the extent to which individuals in a society are incorporated into various social groupings [21]. In collectivist cultures, individuals are automatically part of close-knit social groupings and frequently have large extended families from the moment they are born. In this type of culture, the in-group provides absolute allegiance and protection to all its members [21]. The notion of collectivist cultures is based on the idea that individual behaviours should be guided by the interests of the community first [3]. Studies on consumers’ intentions to buy green products have been carried out in developed countries like Taiwan and South Korea. For instance, research on South Korean customers’ inclination to make green purchases was carried out by Han [24] and Lee [25]. The study found that factors such as environmental consciousness, perceived efficacy, and social influence can impact the tendency of South Korean consumers to purchase green products. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of research investigating the inclination to make green purchases in developing countries and collectivist cultures. Amin and Tarun [27] observed that prior studies on green purchase intention have predominantly concentrated on developed countries and individualistic cultures, highlighting the necessity for further investigation into green purchasing intention in emerging economy countries and collectivist cultures. In addition, previous studies have shown that those who identify as collectivists show more concern for the environment [51]. Furthermore, collectivist cultures have a favourable impact on pro-environmental behaviours [52], green purchase intentions [53], and green purchasing behaviours [54,55]. On the other hand, there will be some behavioural impact from government groups that promote pro-environmental behaviour patterns. Similarly, a well-known individual’s pro-environmental behaviours may also have a cascading influence on the community under collectivist cultures. In addition, those who embrace collectivist cultures may minimise any personal advantages or individual outcomes that arise from their environmentally conscious purchases. Undoubtedly, individuals are prepared to relinquish their own interests if it leads to advantageous outcomes for the broader population [56].

Customers in individualist cultures tend to directly purchase green products, as they believe purchasing green products is a good idea and have a favourable attitude towards purchasing a green version of a product [57]. On the other hand, customers in collectivist cultures are inspired by their society and prefer to engage in pro-environmental behaviours. In addition, the study of Mi et al. [3] suggests that people who adhere to collectivist cultures are more likely to engage in public-sphere pro-environmental behaviours, such as participating in signing petitions to support pro-environmental policies or regulations, participating in environmental complaints, proactively reporting pollution incidents, and participating in green donation activities organised by the community. This, in turn, leads to a desire to make green purchases because of the shared aims of the community [21]. Standardisation is a crucial technique for promoting pro-environmental behaviours since the political beliefs of individuals have an impact on their attitudes towards consumption [58]. Pandey and Yadav’s [58] research demonstrated a favourable correlation between political concern and green purchase intention.

In addition, the study by Sova et al. [59] examines disparities in green innovation across nations with individualistic and collectivist cultural orientations. It concludes that individualistic nations, on average, excel in green innovation, propelled by superior socioeconomic growth and more R&D spending. Collectivist nations, although more focused on group dynamics, often have lower green innovation scores owing to a lack of support for innovation within their cultural paradigms. The research highlights the relevance of socioeconomic success in promoting green innovation in a range of cultural situations. Furthermore, Riaz et al. [60] investigated the influence of individual cultural value discrepancies on pro-environmental behaviour (PEB) among international students attending Korean colleges. Collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation all have a positive effect on both private and public-sphere pro-environmental activity, but masculinity has a negative impact on public-sphere pro-environmental behaviour. Power distance has no significant impact on any kind of pro-environmental behaviour (PEB).

On the other hand, the impact of collectivist cultures on green purchase intention has been the subject of conflicting findings in the context of emerging markets in earlier research. Varshneya et al. [61] proposed that collectivist cultures have no effect on green purchase behaviour or intention for products that are not yet widely available. However, a different study on emerging markets [62] demonstrates that communities with collectivist cultures have a strong green purchase intention.

Moreover, Confucian philosophy is fundamentally based on the concept of harmony between people and their surroundings. This point of view aligns with the studies carried out by Zhang et al. [63], which show that Confucian culture helps people to develop their environmental identity and pro-environmental attitudes, therefore generating increased pro-environmental behaviours. The research indicates that environmental identity mediates the relationship between cultural values and actual behaviours, underscoring the notion that cultural frameworks influence environmental activities. The research reveals a U-shaped moderating influence of Confucian culture, indicating that as individuals’ environmental identities and views intensify, their pro-environmental behaviours also dramatically increase. Moreover, including Confucian values in educational settings has shown promise in encouraging pro-environmental practices. For instance, Li et al. [64] discuss a course of teaching combining Confucian ecological ethics to raise students’ awareness of ecologically friendly attitudes and behaviours. The results of this study show that emphasising Confucian values can help to properly support sustainable development education, hence producing a generation more sensitive to environmental concerns. This research will make a distinct and valuable contribution to the current body of knowledge (Table S1). Thus, we propose the following:

H2. 

Pro-environmental behaviours have a positive mediating relationship between collectivist culture and green purchase intention.

2.3. Pro-Environmental Behaviours as Mediator of Environmental Concern and Green Purchase Intention

Environmental concerns indicate a community’s “attitudes about environmental issues or perceptions that such issues are important” [65], such as worries over anthropogenic climate change [66]. For example, environmental concerns might heighten social pressure regarding limiting the use of pesticides and reducing waste [67]. Moreover, environmental concerns may strengthen community cohesion and collaboration [68]. Environmental concern has explicit components that include energy conservation, clean energy and alternative energy source awareness, sensitivity to climate change challenges [69], engaging in environmentally conscious actions, and endorsing environmental advocacy [70,71,72]. Overall, environmental concerns in a community are likely to be positively related to environmentally friendly consumption. Residents in communities with stronger environmental concerns are more aware of sustainability issues and believe to a greater degree that protecting the environment is the right thing to do, thus exhibiting a greater tendency to purchase green products [73]. On the other hand, the research of Maduku [74] shows that environmental concerns, which are largely self-serving, reflect a person’s concern about the environment because of the effects that environmental degradation may have on them. In addition, according to scholars like Alzubaidi et al. [70], Polonsky et al. [71], and Yadav and Pathak [72], environmental concerns have a direct and indirect influence on promoting pro-environmental behaviours, such as purchasing environmentally friendly products, embracing low-carbon lifestyles, and making sustainable purchases. For over 30 years, much social research has explored the roots of direct and indirect environmental behaviour, specifically looking at the relationship between concern for the environment and pro-environmental behaviour. As mentioned in the previous section, pro-environmental behaviour is often defined as behaviour that minimises an individual’s negative impact on the natural world [75]. Furthermore, conformance standards stemming from environmental concerns among consumers with pro-environmental behaviours may promote green purchase intentions [76,77].

Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez [19] established a clear and direct relationship between the extent of customers’ environmental concern and their inclination to purchase brands associated with green energy. Their study unveiled that customers’ heightened environmental awareness and concern directly led to a greater propensity to choose energy products that are environmentally beneficial. Expanding on previous research, De Canio et al. [10] performed a study that further examined the influence of environmental concern on the connection between external conditions and consumers’ propensity to make environmentally friendly choices. Research indicates that environmental concern positively influences customers’ propensity to participate in sustainable purchasing activities. Previous studies on this subject have mostly concentrated on developed countries with individualistic cultures, such as Italy [10] and the Republic of Korea [20].

Kosic et al. [78] investigate how social anxiety, self-efficacy, comprehension of global warming, and environmental concern impact public-sector pro-environmental behaviours. According to the study, social anxiety harms PBS-PEBs, but knowledge of global warming enhances them. Self-efficacy and traditional environmental concern had minimal direct impact, emphasising the need for reducing social anxiety and increasing awareness of global warming in order to increase PBS-PEBs. In addition, Cui et al. [79] investigate the association between green buying intention, compensating spending, and pro-environmental behaviour. They discovered that customers with stronger green buying intents may engage in compensatory spending to alleviate guilt about environmental damage. Pro-environmental behaviour modifies this link, emphasising the psychological and social variables that drive green consumption.

However, there has been a lack of academic focus on investigating the relationship between environmental concerns and the desire for green purchase intention in emerging economy countries [10,21,80]. Numerous studies attest to the fact that consumers’ concerns about the environment affect their decisions to buy ecologically friendly items [81,82]. This research will make a distinct and valuable contribution to the current body of knowledge (Table S1). Thus, we propose the following:

H3. 

Pro-environmental behaviours have a positive mediating relationship between environmental concern and green purchase intention.

Through three research hypotheses, the authors proposes the research model presented in Figure 1.

3. Method

3.1. Research Scheme

This research begins by establishing the research background and conducting a literature review, which aims to identify existing knowledge and any research gaps. Following this, we develop research hypotheses and proceed with data collection and analysis to test them. After presenting the results, we engage in a discussion and draw conclusions that explain the findings and their significance. Finally, the research finishes with a review of limitations and suggestions for future research directions. The entire research process is illustrated in Figure 2.

3.2. Sample and Data Collection

In accordance with Yamane Taro’s methodology [83], when the population size is unknown, the sample size (n) can be determined using Equation (1):

$$n=Z^2\times {\displaystyle \frac{p\times (1-p)}{e^2}}$$

(1)

where:

Z is the critical value obtained from the Z-distribution table, typically chosen to correspond to a 95% confidence level, denoted as Z = 1.96.

$p$ represents the estimated success rate. A common practice is to set $p=0.5$ to maximise the product $p\times (1-p)$, ensuring prudence in sample size estimation.

$e$ is the margin of error, often expressed as a percentage, with popular choices being ±0.01 (1%), ±0.05 (5%), or ±0.1 (10%).

Hence, the minimum required sample size $n={1.96}^2\times {\displaystyle \frac{0.5\times (1-0.5)}{{0.05}^2}}=384.16$.

The study sample was mostly drawn from Vietnam’s cities of Hanoi, Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh. The three cities selected are representative of the northern, central, and southern regions of Vietnam, and therefore the sample will be broadly representative of the entire country of Vietnam.

The sample carried out in these cities is considered comprehensive and indicative of the many demographic groupings in the country. The convenience sample approach was employed for those aged twenty years and above. The survey locations were strategically chosen to prioritise significant industrial zones, popular tourist destinations, large commercial centres, and heavily inhabited residential regions.

A strong dataset for the investigation was ensured by the collection of 385 genuine questionnaires for processing. This method makes it easier to grasp the thoughts and actions of the participants in connection to their surroundings while also offering a clearer knowledge of the larger context of these significant Vietnamese cities.

Vietnam was chosen as the case study for this research because of its unique cultural and economic context, which fits the study’s focus on minimalism, collectivist culture, and PEBs. As a rising economy, Vietnam faces fast urbanisation, economic development, and significant environmental challenges. These variables render Vietnam an ideal context for examining the impact of minimalism and collective culture on PEBs and green purchase intentions. The nation’s robust collectivist culture prioritises community, social connections, and shared obligations, fostering an atmosphere that facilitates the examination of the interplay between cultural norms and minimalist lifestyles in shaping sustainable behaviours.

A total of 385 authentic questionnaires were obtained by convenience sampling. To ensure data quality, the following steps were implemented: pre-testing, completeness screening, and data integrity verification. The survey was initially pre-tested with a pilot group to ensure clarity and relevancy. Subsequently, questionnaires were assessed for completeness, and those with absent or inconsistent responses were omitted from the analysis. Finally, double-entry verifications were performed to guarantee precision during data input, hence reducing the likelihood of entry errors. All 385 surveys were valid and suitable for data analysis.

3.3. Scale Operationalisation and Questionnaire Design

In order to assess the components under investigation, it was imperative to make suitable adjustments to pre-existing measuring scales. The three antecedents, namely environmental concern, minimalism, and collective culture, were assessed utilising an instrument called the five-point Likert scale. We derived these scales from three study articles: Le et al. [56] (five-item scale), Ju and Hun Kim [20] (three-item scale), and Kang et al. [13] (six-item scale) (Table S2).

The mediator of the study, pro-environmental behaviours, was divided into two distinct dimensions: pro-environmental behaviours (private) and pro-environmental behaviours (public). The dimensions under consideration were assessed utilising a five-point Likert scale, in accordance with the methodology devised by Mi et al. [3], wherein each dimension comprises four to five items. In addition, the outcome variable, green purchase intention, was also assessed using a three-item scale derived from the work of Pandey and Yadav [58].

Considering that the data collection was conducted in Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi, and Da Nang, a locale where English is not the native language, a systematic translation process was implemented to accurately translate the scale items into Vietnamese.

4. Results

This research predominantly utilised Partial Least Squares (PLS) structural equation modelling, specifically employing SmartPLS 4.0 software, for the analysis of the collected data.

4.1. Demographics Scale

The demographic analysis of this study (

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents: Frequency and percentage distribution. Source: Authors.

Variable	Frequency	Percent
Gender
Male	196	50.9
Female	189	49.1
Total	385	100
Education Background
Junior high or below	80	20.8
Senior high	106	27.5
Undergraduate	142	36.9
Graduate and above	57	14.8
Total	385	100
Age
20–29	34	8.8
30–39	183	47.5
40–49	137	35.6
$\ge$50	31	8.1
Total	385	100
Monthly income (Million VNĐ)
$\le$10	34	8.8
$<$10–20$\le$	152	39.5
$<$20–30$\le$	104	27
$>$30	95	24.7
Total	100	385

) indicates a nearly equal distribution of genders, with both males and females being represented in roughly equal amounts. The majority of the sample is made up of individuals who have completed an undergraduate degree, which accounts for 36.9% of the total. The age group between 30 and 39 comprises the largest proportion, accounting for 47.5% of the respondents in the sample. Furthermore, the people who were polled own a mean monthly wage ranging from VND 10 to 20 million (equivalent to around USD 390 to USD 785).

4.2. Structural Model Assessment and Direct Effects Examination

Harman’s single-factor test reveals that no one factor predominates the covariance among the measurements, as the first extracted factor explained merely 43.301% of the variance, falling short of the 50% threshold. Consequently, there is no indication of significant common method bias [84]. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to assess potential common method bias concerns. The unrotated factor analysis indicated that the sole component identified explained less than 50% of the variation [84], suggesting that common method bias was negligible.

In “A Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM)”, Hair et al. [85] described a framework for evaluating the reflective scale quality of observed variables. The outer loading coefficients were computed using the PLS-SEM technique in order to ascertain the relevance of these observable factors. A benchmark of 0.7 or above was proposed by Hair et al. as a good significance measure for the variables that were observed. In addition, the study’s observed variables for the following constructs showed outer loadings between 0.806 and 0.891, 0.902 and 0.965, 0.749 and 0.886, 0.742 and 0.947, 0.830 and 0.894, and 0.917 and 0.924, respectively: collectivist culture; green purchase intention; minimalism; pro-environmental behaviours (public); pro-environmental behaviours (private); and environmental concern (

Table 2. Outer loadings of observed variables for construct measurement. Source: Authors.

	Collectivist Culture	Green Purchase Intention	Minimalism	PEBs (Public)	PEBs (Private)	Environmental Concern
CC1	0.806
CC2	0.891
CC3	0.810
CC4	0.832
CC5	0.842
GP1		0.902
GP2		0.929
GP3		0.965
MN1			0.810
MN2			0.837
MN3			0.831
MN4			0.886
MN5			0.786
MN6			0.749
PB1				0.860
PB2				0.931
PB3				0.947
PB4				0.834
PB5				0.742
PP1					0.894
PP2					0.830
PP3					0.844
PP4					0.844
RE1						0.924
RE2						0.917
RE3						0.921

). These results show that every observed variable in the study model met Hair et al.’s proposed criterion for strong significance.

The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, which ranges from 0 to 1, measures the internal consistency or dependability of a set of observable variables within a construct. A value of 1 indicates complete correlation between the observed variables, while 0 indicates no correlation at all. Values at these extremes are not often seen in data analysis. According to Nunnally’s [86] theory, a scale must have a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.7 or above in order to be deemed credible. Similarly, a unidimensional and trustworthy scale should fulfil or exceed a 0.7 criterion, according to Hair et al. [87]. Nonetheless, 0.6 is sometimes considered enough for Cronbach’s Alpha in the context of an exploratory study. In addition, within this investigation, the constructs of minimalism, green purchase intention, environmental concern, collectivist culture, pro-environmental behaviours (PEBs) (private), and PEBs (public) have Cronbach’s Alpha values ranging from 0.875 to 0.924 (

Table 3. Construct reliability and validity results of construct measurement. Source: Authors.

	Cronbach’s Alpha	Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
Collectivist Culture	0.893	0.700
Environmental Concern	0.910	0.847
Green Purchase Intention	0.924	0.869
Minimalism	0.900	0.668
PEB (Private)	0.875	0.728
PEB (Public)	0.915	0.750

). The scales connected to these variables have a high degree of dependability, as shown by these values.

Convergent validity is achieved when the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) of a scale reaches or exceeds 0.5, as stated by Hock and Ringle [88]. According to this standard, it is suggested that the underlying concept should, on average, explain at least 50% of the differences in its measurable factors. For the constructs of collectivist culture, environmental concern, green purchase intention, minimalism, pro-environmental behaviours (private), and pro-environmental behaviours (public) in the present research, the AVE values are 0.7, 0.847, 0.869, 0.668, 0.728, and 0.750, in that order. Since all of these results are significantly above the 0.5 threshold, all of the measurement scales used in this study are shown to have convergent validity.

The heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) index is a technique introduced by Henseler et al. [89] to evaluate the extent to which different traits are distinct from each other. The underlying idea of this technique is that the average correlations inside a concept have greater significance than the average cross-correlations across various notions. A greater mean correlation within the construct indicates a stronger degree of shared variance across the latent variables of a concept, indicating its robustness in terms of internal consistency. Smaller average cross-correlations, on the other hand, show less shared variance with other latent variables, which is indicative of discriminant validity. In addition, a breach of discriminant validity is indicated, according to Henseler et al. [89], if the HTMT index for a pair of constructs is more than 0.9. The opposite is also true: a low HTMT score (less than 0.85) indicates strong discriminant validity. For the purpose of guaranteeing discriminant validity, a range of 0.85 to 0.9 is thus deemed suitable (

Table 4. Discriminant validity assessment of construct measurement using heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT). Source: Authors.

	Collectivist Culture	Environmental Concern	Green Purchase Intention	Minimalism	PEB (Private)	PEB (Public)
Collectivist Culture
Environmental Concern	0.510
Green Purchase Intention	0.530	0.636
Minimalism	0.259	0.421	0.403
PEB (Private)	0.663	0.699	0.803	0.484
PEB (Public)	0.492	0.643	0.616	0.516	0.708

). Additionally, the current investigation shows that all of the construct average correlation coefficients are below the 0.9 cut-off. According to this finding, the constructs used in this study provide sufficient evidence of their discriminant validity (

Table 5. Discriminant validity assessment of construct measurement using Fornell–Larcker criterion. Source: Authors.

	Collectivist Culture	Environmental Concern	Green Purchase Intention	Minimalism	PEB (Private)	PEB (Public)
Collectivist Culture	0.837
Environmental Concern	0.464	0.920
Green Purchase Intention	0.484	0.585	0.932
Minimalism	0.236	0.386	0.369	0.818
PEB (Private)	0.587	0.627	0.725	0.435	0.853
PEB (Public)	0.451	0.592	0.572	0.467	0.639	0.866

).

Due to variations in complexity among models, Hair et al. [85] argue that it is challenging to define a universal criterion for accepting R-squared values. This complexity can be attributed to several factors that impact the dependent variable, the presence of mediating relationships, and changes in study domains. Due to this, it is not feasible to create a universally applicable criterion that can conclusively determine if R-squared values are sufficient. In addition, the R-squared value, ranging from 0 to 1, indicates the extent to which the variance in the dependent variable is accounted for. Values nearing 1 imply greater levels of explained variation, whereas values nearing 0 indicate lower levels of explained variance. Furthermore, SMARTPLS 4 provides both the corrected R-squared coefficient and the R-squared (R²) value. Typically, the adjusted coefficient is favoured over the unadjusted R-squared as it provides a more accurate evaluation of the explanatory capability of the independent variables. To illustrate, in this empirical investigation, the adjusted R-squared values for green purchase intention, pro-environmental behaviours (private), and pro-environmental behaviours (public) were found to be 0.543, 0.537, and 0.446, respectively (

Table 6. R-Square and adjusted R-Square values for the Structural Model. Source: Authors.

	R-Square	R-Square Adjusted
Green Purchase Intention	0.545	0.543
Pro-Environmental Behaviors (Private)	0.540	0.537
Pro-Environmental Behaviors (Public)	0.450	0.446

). Based on this data, environmental concern, minimalism, and collectivist culture explain 44.6% and 53.7% of the differences in pro-environmental behaviours in the public and private domains, respectively. Furthermore, the combination of both public and private pro-environmental behaviours accounts for 54.3% of the variation in green purchase intention.

The f-square coefficient, which measures the impact of an independent variable on a dependent variable, can be calculated using a formula created by Chin [90]. Lachenbruch and Cohen [91] presented a method for computing f-square values to determine the significance of the effects of independent variables. The subsequent instructions are applicable. A number below 0.02 indicates an exceedingly modest or insignificant impact. An f-square value ranging from 0.02 to 0.15 signifies a small effect. A f-square score between 0.15 and 0.35 indicates a moderate effect. A f-square value of 0.35 or above indicates a substantial effect. All factor pairs in this investigation exhibit f-square coefficients that exceed 0.02. The f-square coefficient between pro-environmental behaviours (private) and green purchase intention is remarkably strong, measuring 0.479 (

Table 7. Effect size (f-square) for Structural Model relationships. Source: Authors.

	Collectivist Culture	Environmental Concern	Green Purchase Intention	Minimalism	PEB (Private)	PEB (Public)
Collectivist Culture					0.224	0.060
Environmental Concern					0.222	0.198
Green Purchase Intention
Minimalism					0.076	0.110
PEB (Private)			0.479
PEB (Public)			0.044

). The substantial magnitude of this figure suggests that engaging in pro-environmental behaviours (private) has a noteworthy influence on the inclination to engage in green purchase intentions.

The path coefficients’ standard errors—obtained via bootstrapping in SMARTPLS 4—are used to determine the route coefficients’ relevance in structural models. Finding t and p-values for each route coefficient is made easier using this strategy. By default, SMARTPLS 4 also uses the well-recognised significance threshold of 5% (p = 0.05). A p-value of less than 0.05 indicates that a route coefficient is statistically significant. An absence of statistical significance is shown by a p-value larger than 0.05. p-values for the following components are used in this study: environmental concern, minimalism, green purchase intention, collectivist culture, and public and private pro-environmental behaviour. All of these values are below 0.05. Thus, these variables’ effects seem to be statistically significant. Also, every original sample coefficient is positive, indicating that connections in the model are positive directionalities: environmental concern (0.381) and collectivist culture (0.363) had the strongest effects on the pro-environmental behaviours (private) component, while minimalism (0.203) had the weakest effect. The impact on the pro-environmental behaviours (public) component is ranked as follows: collectivist culture (0.205), environmental concern (0.393), and minimalism (0.267). Pro-environmental behaviours (private) (0.607) had a higher effect on green purchase intention than pro-environmental behaviours (public) (0.185) (Figure 3).

The results strongly validate the study’s hypotheses, demonstrating that pro-environmental behaviours serve as a key mediating variable between the identified antecedents—minimalism, collectivist culture, environmental concern, and green purchase intention. This mediation underscores the interconnectedness of individual attitudes and broader societal values in influencing sustainable consumer behaviours. Among the many aspects of PEBs investigated, private pro-environmental behaviours show special importance. This implies that converting minimalism and collectivist culture into green purchasing intention depends much on private PEBs, including waste reduction, resource conservation, and environmentally conscientious buying behaviour. The predominance of private PEBs emphasises the need for raising knowledge and involvement at the personal level to properly encourage environmentally friendly buying choices.

Hypothesis 1 proposed that pro-environmental behaviours have a positive mediating relationship between minimalism and green purchase intention. Pro-environmental behaviours can be categorised into two dimensions: private and public. When pro-environmental behaviours serve as a positive mediator between minimalism and green purchase intention, it indicates that minimalism influences both private and public pro-environmental behaviours. In turn, both dimensions contribute to shaping green purchase intention. The results in

Table 8. Path coefficients of pro-environmental behaviours, green purchase intention, and hypothesis testing result. Source: Authors.

	Original Sample (O)	Sample Mean (M)	Standard Deviation (STDEV)	T Statistics (|O/STDEV|)	p Values	Hypothesis Testing
Collectivist Culture -> PEB (Private)	0.363	0.363	0.048	7.593	0.000	Accepted
Collectivist Culture -> PEB (Public)	0.205	0.206	0.047	4.330	0.000	Accepted
Environmental Concern -> PEB (Private)	0.381	0.378	0.045	8.506	0.000	Accepted
Environmental Concern -> PEB (Public)	0.393	0.391	0.044	8.945	0.000	Accepted
Minimalism -> PEB (Private)	0.203	0.203	0.036	5.590	0.000	Accepted
Minimalism -> PEB (Public)	0.267	0.267	0.038	7.099	0.000	Accepted
PEB (Private) -> Green Purchase Intention	0.607	0.606	0.050	12.215	0.000	Accepted
PEB (Public) -> Green Purchase Intention	0.185	0.184	0.056	3.309	0.001	Accepted

support Hypothesis 1. In addition, Hypothesis 2 proposed that pro-environmental behaviours have a positive mediating relationship between collectivist culture and green purchase intention. When pro-environmental behaviours serve as a positive mediator between collectivist culture and green purchase intention, it indicates that collectivist culture influences both private and public pro-environmental behaviours. In turn, both dimensions contribute to shaping green purchase intention. The results in Table 8 support Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 3 proposed that pro-environmental behaviours have a positive mediating relationship between environmental concern and green purchase intention. When pro-environmental behaviours serve as a positive mediator between environmental concern and green purchase intention, it indicates that environmental concern influences both private and public pro-environmental behaviours. In turn, both dimensions contribute to shaping green purchase intention. The results in Table 8 support Hypothesis 3.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

5.1. Theoretical Implications

Prior studies have frequently neglected to look at developing countries, particularly when it comes to understanding how people in countries like Vietnam that have collectivist cultures and emerging economies see pro-environmental behaviours. Our work aims to address this deficiency by offering insightful information about these processes. Our research shows that engaging in pro-environmental behaviours plays a positive role in mediating the relationship between minimalism and green purchase intention in collectivist cultures. These findings indicate that people who embrace minimalism in collectivist cultures are more inclined to take part in activities that benefit the environment. As a result, they are more likely to opt for eco-friendly products. The role of pro-environmental behaviours in mediating the relationship between environmental concern and green purchase intention in collectivist cultures is explored. A strong interest in environmental concerns makes people more likely to do pro-environmental behaviours, which increases their green purchase intention.

The amount of literature already in existence is greatly increased by this research. Using pro-environmental behaviours as a lens, it first presents an alternate perspective on the desire to make green purchases. There have been studies on environmentally friendly conduct, but little emphasis has been placed on how minimalism influences these habits. Gao et al. [92] conducted studies on the impact of minimalism on customers’ behaviour in adopting low-carbon innovation. The notion of “mastery”, characterised by a feeling of competence and control over one’s actions, enhances the comprehension of how individuals participate in sustainable behaviours. In this context, mastery denotes the fulfilment obtained by effectively incorporating minimalistic and environmentally sustainable practices into everyday life. This sensation of mastery augments self-efficacy, which is essential for enduring behavioural change. Mastering minimalistic practices—such as consistently selecting sustainable products or minimising waste—enhances the likelihood that individuals would perceive these activities as fundamental to their identity, hence promoting sustained participation in pro-environmental behaviours. Moreover, the study offers a valuable understanding of how the notion of mastery is applied in the field of consumer behaviour, specifically in the context of green marketing. Consumer behaviour research has not given as much focus to the idea of mastery when compared to social and clinical psychology. This study builds upon the concepts of public pro-environmental behaviours and private pro-environmental behaviours, contributing to the existing body of research. Significant antecedents such as minimalism are also included since they influence pro-environmental actions directly and the desire to buy environmentally friendly products indirectly. This enhancement deepens our understanding of the ways in which the mastery concept—which embodies a person’s feeling of competence and control—may influence the choices and behaviours of environmentally aware customers. Moreover, the study’s results correspond with Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory [93], which posits that collectivist cultures emphasise group objectives over individual aspirations. This cultural orientation fosters behaviours that enhance communal welfare, including sustainable practices.

The incorporation of minimalism into consumer identity is especially significant in collectivist cultures. In these cultures, group rituals and social contacts often shape identity. Incorporating minimalism into daily life shows a commitment to shared welfare and helps one to establish their position in the community. This shared identity could motivate people to participate in additional pro-environmental activities, therefore forming a loop whereby social standards and personal values interact to mutually reinforce each other.

5.2. Managerial Implications

Both public and private consumer pro-environmental behaviours have been shown to influence green buying intentions. Environmental concern, minimalism, and group culture are three areas where marketers may focus their efforts to encourage customers to be more environmentally conscious. Environmental concern appears to be the most successful method of motivating pro-environmental behaviours in both the public and private sectors. Instead of focusing solely on the benefits of buying green products, marketers should try to raise customer awareness of their environmental responsibilities. Their objective should be to enlighten clients regarding the impact of their purchases on future generations, as well as the present condition of the environment. It is crucial to inform consumers that they have a responsibility not just to improve the environment but also to preserve endangered ecosystems. This strategy facilitates a more significant and conscientious relationship between customers and their environmental impact.

Secondly, marketers need to inform customers about minimalism’s long-term benefits. Through this approach, they may convince consumers to change their purchase habits in favour of more environmental conservation. Highlighting the advantages of a minimalist lifestyle for the environment and the individual, such as less clutter and a stronger focus on value items, might be useful in influencing consumer behaviour in favour of more environmentally friendly habits.

Thirdly, the study’s results indicate that collective culture has a favourable influence on pro-environmental behaviours. People who are kind, helpful, reliant on one another, and sensitive to others’ needs are usually seen as “good” in collectivist cultures. In contrast, societies that emphasise individuality place a higher importance on character traits such as independence and decisiveness. Japan, China, South Korea, Taiwan, Venezuela, Guatemala, Ecuador, Argentina, Brazil, and India are among the countries commonly associated with collectivist cultures.

Because collectivist societies have distinct traits, marketers should attempt to conjure up their essence in the minds of their target audience. By employing this strategy, they may convince customers to see the significance of collectivist ideas, hence impacting their pro-environmental behaviour. Customers who come from collectivist cultures respond well to marketing methods that emphasise the importance of community welfare, mutual assistance, and collaborative efforts to protect the environment. This might potentially result in an increase in environmentally conscious behaviours and decisions.

Lastly, to ensure that local environmental efforts are in line with broader environmental policies, local communities and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) should set specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) targets. A comprehensive plan outlining the essential steps required to achieve these objectives is a crucial element. This entails the identification of key tasks, stakeholders, accessible resources, and any obstacles. By actively collaborating with stakeholders such as government agencies, business sector companies, and other NGOs, one may enhance the availability of resources and wield influence. Effective communication is crucial, encompassing campaigns, seminars, and educational initiatives to underscore the need for pro-environmental actions. Utilising various communication channels, such as social media, newspapers, radio, and community gatherings, can augment involvement. Consistent reporting on progress promotes openness and accountability. Community involvement may be encouraged by empowering local leaders, providing incentives, and involving community members in decision-making. Optimise resource allocation by providing adequate financing, comprehensive training, and enhancing capacity building. Implementing ongoing reviews, which involve establishing Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and performing assessments, enables the adjustment of strategy. Sharing success stories can serve as a source of inspiration for others and establish a collection of exemplary methods for future initiatives.

In summary, this research experimentally investigates the influence of minimalism on fostering pro-environmental behaviours within a collectivist culture context, specifically in Vietnam, an emerging economy, extending previous research. Pangarkar et al. [15] offer a conceptual framework for minimalistic consumption patterns, while the present research elaborates on practical implementations within a particular cultural context. Kang et al. [13] underscore the extensive impact of minimalism on well-being, focusing on individual behaviour devoid of cultural uniqueness, whereas the present study situates minimalism within collectivist cultures, emphasising its ramifications for green purchase intention. Moreover, Mi et al. [3] and Sreen et al. [21] investigate the correlation between cultural values and pro-environmental behaviours or green purchasing intention in China and India, respectively. This research expands knowledge by including minimalism as a crucial element in a comparable setting, enhancing insights into the alignment of lifestyle choices with cultural and environmental values to promote sustainable consumerism. Furthermore, the present study, with Barbarossa and De Pelsmacker [28], highlights the intricate incentives influencing pro-environmental consumer behaviour, emphasising minimalism and cultural elements in contrast to identification and moral requirements. Ju and Kim [20] use a cross-cultural perspective, examining the impact of environmental concerns and perceived dangers on the adoption of green technology in various countries. This demonstrates that, while cultural and psychological factors are important for sustainable behaviour, their impact varies depending on region and customer characteristics. Overall, these studies demonstrate that minimalism and cultural aspects are important for fostering sustainable practices, with differences depending on locale and customer demographics.

6. Limitations and Further Research

This study has several limitations, which open the path for further research. Demographic circumstances vary among districts, meaning that the present sample may not completely reflect the variety and subtleties across them. Care is needed when applying the results to the full area of Vietnam or other places globally. Future cross-regional/country studies are urged to identify possible differences. Identifying these discrepancies would emphasise the need to conduct comparative research and investigate environmental variables. Understanding the dependent roles of green development, the physical environment, and cultural norms in influencing green-product buying intentions would be much improved.

This study offers useful insights; nevertheless, limitations related to convenience sampling and self-reported data must be addressed. Utilising convenience sampling restricts the capacity to generalise results to the broader Vietnamese population. Furthermore, the dependence on self-reported data may create biases, such as social desirability, wherein respondents may furnish answers they see as more socially acceptable.

An area that focuses on future research is the younger generation, namely those with few financial resources. This particular group is known for being extremely sensitive to pricing, which has a huge impact on their purchasing behaviours, including their acts that support the environment. Due to their limited financial resources, young adults with low incomes tend to prioritise cost as the main element when making purchase decisions. Nevertheless, their responsiveness to cost does not automatically prevent individuals from participating in environmentally friendly actions. Indeed, their economic circumstances might occasionally compel individuals to adopt more sustainable behaviours, such as waste reduction and resource conservation, which are in line with both minimalism and environmental awareness. As a result, it is critical to investigate the role of price sensitivity in this demographic’s pro-environmental behaviour. The goal of research should be to understand the specific factors that motivate or impede people’s environmental activities, as well as how economic constraints influence these behaviours. Furthermore, examining how this specific group manages their financial constraints while adhering to their environmental principles may provide valuable insights for developing effective approaches to encouraging sustainable behaviours among young people with limited resources.