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Review

Advances in Research on Desalination Technology for High-Sodium Wastewater

by
Zhucheng Li
1,
Chunchun Mao
2,
Jingwen Zhang
2,
Tianbao Hou
1,
Zixuan Zhang
1,
Keqiang Zhang
1,
Peng Yang
1,3,* and
Zengjun Yang
1,*
1
Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300191, China
2
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region Animal Husbandry Workstation, Yinchuan 750000, China
3
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(1), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010333
Submission received: 23 October 2024 / Revised: 19 December 2024 / Accepted: 2 January 2025 / Published: 4 January 2025
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Abstract

:
Amidst escalating global water scarcity challenges, addressing industrial and agricultural wastewater treatment has emerged as a critical concern within environmental conservation efforts. Wastewater desalination technology not only mitigates salt pollution’s impact on ecosystems but also facilitates sustainable water resource management with significant economic and ecological advantages. This study delves into fundamental principles, methodologies, and application prospects in wastewater desalination technology by conducting a comprehensive assessment encompassing physical, chemical, and biological treatment approaches while scrutinizing their practical applicability through analysis of respective merits and drawbacks. Furthermore, this study illuminates specific operational impacts associated with diverse desalinization techniques employed in industrial or agricultural contexts based on prior research findings. The findings underscore that judicious selection of suitable desalinization methods along with optimization of operational parameters are pivotal factors influencing improved rates of sustainable wastewater desalinization. Finally, this paper proposes future directions and research focuses for wastewater desalination technology to provide a reference for related fields.

1. Introduction

As a global industrial and agricultural powerhouse, wastewater treatment is a problem that should not be underestimated. Wastewater containing elevated concentrations of sodium salts presents numerous significant challenges, including large volumes, widespread distribution, and complex treatment processes, posing a substantial threat to water environments and agricultural ecosystems. For instance, various industrial processes such as the chemical coal industry, agricultural product processing, pharmaceuticals, and papermaking generate substantial quantities of intricate wastewater with high levels of recalcitrant pollutants. These include organic solvents, surfactants, mixed hydrocarbons, sugars, proteins, and organophosphate pesticides as the primary organic constituents, while inorganic salts mainly comprise NaCl, NaHCO3, Na2CO3, NaCN, and Na2SO4 [1]. Wastewater attaining salt concentrations between 0.5% to 3.4% is classified as “high-salt wastewater” [2]. Discharging these wastewaters directly would result in squandering the considerable potential salt resources within them; moreover, wastewater discharge could lead to water mineralization, soil salinization, and eutrophication of water bodies [3].
In recent years, there has been increasing attention towards research efforts aimed at addressing agricultural wastewater as a prominent source of pollutants within agricultural production practices. This form of effluent stems from a broad spectrum of activities such as irrigation methods alongside pesticide application or fertilizer usage within livestock farming operations [4]. Owing to the varied nature inherent within these practices, significant volumes of untreated agricultural runoff find their way into riverine or lacustrine ecosystems leading not only to severe aquatic contamination but also impacting both ecological equilibrium and human habitation areas adversely [5]. The enduring influence exerted by pesticides, fertilizers, and heavy metals—particularly salts—within this effluent poses formidable challenges for effective remediation across water bodies, soil profiles, and biological diversity. Therefore, the immediate task at hand is to design cost-effective methods for desalting livestock or aquaculture wastewater collected in sump ponds. The desalted freshwater can be used for agricultural irrigation and aquaculture reuse, which helps to alleviate the shortage of water resources and achieve sustainable utilization of resources.

2. Physical Desalination Technology

The concept underlying physical desalination technology is to employ physical methods to separate salt from water in a cost-effective and efficient manner. Presently, physical desalination technology is primarily categorized into thermal separation and membrane separation.

2.1. Thermal Separation Technology

The thermal separation technologies utilize heat to concentrate ions in high-salinity wastewater, which are well-suited for treating high-salinity wastewater with total dissolved solids (TDS) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels reaching several hundred grams per liter. Commonly employed thermal concentration processes include Multi-Stage Flash Technology (MSF), Multi-Effect Evaporation Technology (MEV), and Mechanical Vapor Recompression Technology (MVR), each leveraging thermal energy to achieve effective desalination [6].

2.1.1. Multi-Stage Flashing Technology (MSF)

The Multi-Stage Flashing (MSF) process is a thermal desalination method where heated high-salinity wastewater is introduced into a series of flash chambers operating at progressively lower pressures. The rapid pressure drop causes part of the water to flash into vapor, leaving salts behind, and the vapor is subsequently condensed into desalinated water [7]. This process demonstrates high desalination efficiency and operational stability, making it particularly suitable for reducing the salinity of aquaculture wastewater (Figure 1).
A study by Mohamed A. et al. evaluated the performance of MSF equipment by introducing 65 g/L of highly concentrated seawater, revealing that maintaining the flash brine concentration below 50 g/L ensures optimal efficiency with minimal cost, which confirmed the feasibility of MSF technology for desalting high-salt wastewater. Additionally, it was noted that the pH value decreases inversely with the number of stages in the device, which creates the risk of corrosion of the device [8]. Therefore, in actual operation, it is important to consider the corrosion resistance of the equipment. One key challenge in MSF systems is fouling, as highlighted by Lokk R. et al., who developed a fouling model to explore how seawater temperatures influence fouling mechanisms and removal efficiency. Their findings indicated that constant elevated temperatures exacerbate foulant formation, thereby reducing system efficiency [9]. Similarly, Thabit Q. et al.’s research demonstrated that freshwater yield positively correlates with heating steam temperatures but negatively correlates with feedwater temperatures. This suggests that adopting low-temperature feed conditions can enhance freshwater production while mitigating fouling and conserving energy [10]. Although MSF technology has been put into use in many areas, its energy consumption in the heating and flash process and the equipment are easy to scale, and corrosion, resulting in high operating costs, is still an important challenge. Alshamaileh D. et al. utilized a solar collector cycle (RSCC) to combine MSF technology with solar energy [11]. Kitayama S. et al. used 3D numerical simulation to numerically optimize the preformed shape and process parameters of 3D multi-stage hot forging to minimize flash memory and save equipment costs [12].
At present, MSF technology is mainly used in seawater desalination, especially in the Middle East, North Africa, India, the United States, and other regions. Especially in Gulf states and areas rich in marine resources, MSF desalination plants are often an important part of national water supply systems [13]. In the future, MSF systems can automatically optimize processes under changing environmental conditions through machine learning and model simulation control techniques. For example, key parameters such as evaporation temperature and flow rate are automatically adjusted according to fluctuations in water quality to achieve optimal desalination efficiency while reducing energy consumption. At the same time, energy consumption and carbon emissions in the MSF process are further reduced through the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, combined with waste heat recovery. In addition, MSF technology can also be combined with RO technology or MED technology to form a composite seawater desalination system to make up for their respective shortcomings and improve the overall energy efficiency and water quality.

2.1.2. Multi-Effect Evaporation Technology (MEV)

Multi-Effect Evaporation (MEV) is a highly efficient thermal desalination technology based on the principles of evaporation and condensation. It operates by channeling steam through a series of evaporators, each at progressively lower pressures and temperatures, thereby allowing efficient utilization of thermal energy [14]. The feedwater is heated, causing evaporation in one stage, and the resulting vapor is used as a heat source for the next stage. This cascading process maximizes energy efficiency while ensuring effective desalination. A condenser at the final stage collects the vapor, converting it into desalinated water, while a vacuum system facilitates the continuous circulation of steam and condensate [15] (Figure 2).
Chen Q. et al. proposed a zero-liquid discharge system consisting of multi-effect distillation and evaporative crystallization for the treatment of brine with a salinity of 70 g/L. The results show that the desalting rate is up to 90%, which confirms the feasibility of MEV technology for desalting high-salt wastewater. In addition, their findings highlight the importance of controlling feed composition and maintaining feed pH at a slightly alkaline level to optimize desalting performance [16]. Zhao D. F. et al. explored reverse MEV for high-salinity wastewater, noting a direct relationship between the number of evaporation stages and desalination efficiency, while emphasizing the need for economically viable operational conditions [17]. Zayed M. E. et al., as calculated by thermodynamic model simulation, showed that heat consumption can be effectively reduced by increasing MED series, and the higher the heat source temperature, the more the specific heat transfer area decreases significantly [18]. Therefore, the final cost can be reduced by increasing the number of MED stages to reduce heat consumption. Although MSF technology has been put into use in many areas, its instability in operation and the high cost of heating energy consumption remain important challenges. Bibi W. et al. combined MEV technology with solar energy in a solar multi-effect seawater desalination system and used an injector to maintain the vacuum pressure in MEV at 100 mbar, greatly reducing energy consumption and saving costs [19].
At present, MEV technology is widely used in the field of seawater desalination and occupies an important position in areas where water resources are scarce and energy costs are relatively low. Especially in the Gulf countries such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, the region’s high-temperature climate and abundant oil resources allow multi-effect distillation systems to use low-cost energy for large-scale seawater treatment [20]. In the future, MEV technology can improve desalination efficiency and reduce energy consumption by integrating intelligent control systems to monitor and adjust process parameters in real time and optimize key factors such as evaporation temperature, flow rate, and heat exchange efficiency. In addition to the existing solar and wind energy, more green energy sources such as tidal energy and geothermal energy can be used in the future to drive the evaporation process and further reduce the dependence on traditional fossil energy. MEV technology can also be combined with other technologies. By combining with RO technology, it provides preheating water for RO, reduces scaling of RO film, prolongs service life, and reduces energy consumption; by combining with MVR technology, this achieves more efficient energy recovery and utilization.

2.1.3. Mechanical Vapor Recompression Technology (MVR)

Mechanical Vapor Recompression (MVR) is a highly efficient desalination method that operates on the basis of thermodynamic principles. This technology compresses secondary steam through a steam compressor to increase its pressure and temperature, enabling the recycled heating steam to be used as a heat source again, thereby reducing the requirement for external energy and achieving energy savings and efficient utilization [21]. Compared to MEV, MVR demonstrates superior energy efficiency due to its closed-loop energy recycling system and higher thermal energy utilization rate. MVR technology has gained attention for its advantages, including low energy consumption, compact structure, and high desalination efficiency [22] (Figure 3).
Rui et al. conducted pilot experiments on high-concentration wastewater (EC = 5.27 × 104 µs/cm, TDS = 3.46 × 10 4 mg/L) to study the application of MVR technology in the treatment of high-salinity wastewater. The results show that the concentration factor reaches 6.20 under the condition of an 85.10% reuse rate and 99.66% desalting efficiency, which highlights the potential of MVR in efficient desalting and brine concentration [23]. The MVR system designed by Kang et al. can effectively treat the sodium chloride–potassium chloride water system, providing a new solution for the separation of mixed salt wastewater with low energy consumption [24]. Although MVR technology is already in use in many areas, its high dependence on steam compressor performance in operation and the high energy consumption caused by heating remains an important challenge. Shen et al. used Aspen software to simulate the multi-effect MVR system and found that although the increase in system efficiency reduced the compressor power, it increased the consumption of fresh steam. This finding is of great significance for the optimal design of a multi-effect MVR system. Through economic analysis, Shen et al. pointed out that considering the complexity of the system, initial investment, and operating costs, the two-effect MVR system is considered to be a more ideal choice, especially for small- and medium-sized processing facilities [25]. Han D. et al. studied intermittent MVR systems and reduced energy consumption and saved energy by recovering the latent heat of secondary steam. The advantage of this technology is that secondary steam can be used more effectively, which further reduces the energy consumption of the MVR system and makes it more energy efficient in the treatment of high-concentration inorganic salt wastewater [26]. Compared with conventional MVR systems, the advantages of intermittent MVR systems in terms of energy utilization make them potentially useful for large-scale applications.
At present, MVR technology is widely used in the field of seawater desalination, which is suitable for areas lacking traditional energy sources or requiring high energy efficiency. Compared to traditional evaporation and flash technologies, MVR has significant energy efficiency advantages and can reduce energy consumption, and in the Gulf region, India, Southeast Asia, and some island countries, MVR technology is often used to provide regional water supply [27,28]. In the future, MVR technology can improve compression efficiency and further reduce energy consumption by developing new compressor technologies and materials. In addition, exploring how to combine solar, wind, and other renewable energy reduces the dependence on traditional energy. Finally, MVR technology can also be combined with other desalination technologies (MEV or RO) to achieve efficient desalination effects while recycling resources and reducing the operating costs of the system (Table 1).

2.2. Membrane Separation Technology

Membrane separation technology harnesses the selective permeability of membranes driven by pressure, concentration, or electrical potential differences to effectively remove salt from high-salinity wastewater [34]. Due to its minimal reliance on heat energy, this method is well suited for desalinating large, medium, and small volumes of high-salinity wastewater. Predominant desalination membrane technologies employed in industrial settings include nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), and membrane distillation (MD).

2.2.1. Nanofiltration Technology (NF)

Nanofiltration (NF) is a pressure-driven membrane separation technology characterized by exceptional selectivity in effectively separating water molecules and dissolved ions to achieve the separation and removal of diverse solutes. NF membranes are particularly effective in removing divalent and larger monovalent ions, achieving high desalination performance while maintaining environmental friendliness due to the absence of chemical additives. This makes NF ideal for selectively extracting Cl− and SO42− from high-salinity wastewater, promoting resource recovery and reuse [35] (Figure 4).
Chu Z. et al. used a polyether sulfone nanofiltration membrane to conduct desalination experiments on textile wastewater whose main raw material was Congo red. The experimental results show that the membrane has a high NaCl retention rate of 99.9% and can effectively remove high concentrations of organic pollutants [36]. Siew Y. W. et al. conducted an experiment on mining wastewater with a high sulfate content using the NF270 membrane. Studies have shown that at a pH of < 3, the membrane has a removal rate of 95% for polyvalent ions such as Ca2+, Cu2+, Mg2+, and Mn3+. Further studies have shown that when the pH value is adjusted to a higher range (pH > 3), the sulfate removal rate can be increased to 95–97%, and the desulfurization ability of the NF membrane can be effectively improved by adjusting the pH value [37]. The wastewater often contains a variety of ions. By flexibly adjusting the operating conditions (such as pH, pressure, etc.), the selectivity of the membrane can be improved in different treatment processes, and the separation efficiency of the NF membrane for complex inorganic ions can be further enhanced, the operation process can be optimized, and the treatment effect can be improved. Ozbey-Unal B. et al. conducted a pilot scale verification study on acid mine drainage. The results showed that the sulfate removal rate of the NF90 membrane was more than 99%. In addition, NF90 membranes showed excellent univalent ion retention, removing approximately 90% of chloride ions. The resulting NF permeate has a total dissolved solids (TDS) content of less than 50 mg/L, a sulfate content of less than 10 mg/L, and a calcium and magnesium content of less than 1 mg/L and 0.3 mg/L, respectively [38]. The process not only realizes the separation of monovalent salt and divalent salt but also effectively separates the divalent salt. Despite its advantages, NF membrane technology faces several limitations. For instance, membranes are prone to fouling by organic contaminants, and high-salinity wastewater can corrode the membranes, thereby reducing their performance and lifespan.
NF technology is widely used in the treatment of drinking water, industrial water, and agricultural water. In some areas of Europe and the United States, NF technology is often used in drinking water treatment to remove hardness components such as calcium and magnesium ions in water and reduce scale formation; Middle Eastern countries such as the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia have adopted NF technology for water softening and desalting in places with relatively rich freshwater resources. Countries such as the Netherlands and Israel have applied NF technology to the recycling and purification of agricultural irrigation water, reducing dependence on groundwater and freshwater resources [39]. In the future, the selectivity and pollution resistance of NF membranes can be improved by developing more advanced membrane materials. The new high-performance membrane can effectively increase the water flux and reduce the frequency of membrane contamination, thereby improving the stability and economy of the system. It is also possible to study how to reduce membrane contamination, improve membrane resistance to pollution, optimize membrane cleaning and regeneration technologies, and thus reduce long-term operating costs. In addition, NF technology can be used in combination with other membrane technologies (RO or MD) to optimize the overall water treatment process. NF technology has lower investment and operating costs compared to RO technology. Due to the strong stain resistance of the NF membrane and the low operating pressure of the membrane, its equipment investment and membrane replacement cost are usually lower than RO systems. Therefore, NF technology and RO technology can be used together to form a two-stage membrane filtration system. In this combined mode, NF acts as a pretreatment stage to remove most of the macromolecular organics and divalent ions from the water, thereby reducing the burden on the RO membrane, extending the service life of the RO membrane, and reducing energy consumption.

2.2.2. Reverse Osmosis Technology (RO)

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a high-efficiency membrane separation technology driven by pressure differentials to separate solutes from solutions. The separation mechanism relies on the selective permeability of the semi-permeable membrane, allowing water molecules to pass while rejecting most dissolved salts and impurities [40]. RO membranes are recognized for their high salt rejection rates, substantial water flux, and strong retention of organic matter, which have established their versatility in high-salinity wastewater treatment [41] (Figure 5).
Elgharbi S. et al. predicted the RO desalting process of brackish water using the RSM model. The results show that the desalting effect is best when the feed concentration is 5000 mg/L, the control inlet flow rate is 258.02 L/h, and the ratio of concentrated freshwater is 1.39 [42]. Yao Y. J. et al. evaluated the properties of two reverse osmosis membranes, PIP-DHBA-DHBA and SW30, under high-salt conditions. The results show that the PIP-DHBA-DHBA obtained a water permeance of 2.97 ± 0.13 l m−2 h−1 bar−1 and an observed salt rejection of 99.1 ± 0.2%, compared to 2.24 ± 0.16 l m−2 h−1 bar−1 and 99.4 ± 0.3% for SW30. In the model seawater test, it was found that the water flux of PIP-DHBA-DHBA was 1.4 times higher than that of SW30, and the retention rate of all bivalent ions was more than 99%. These results highlight the trade-off between water flux and retention in reverse osmosis membranes, underscoring the importance of selecting membranes suitable for specific applications [43]. In addition, RO technology is also affected by pressure and temperature. Chae S. et al. conducted a desalting test on the deep-treated mine through the RO process. The results show that when the operating pressure is 1.4~2.0 MPa and the operating temperature is 14~24 °C, the removal rate of Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42−, and other bivalent ions of the RO system is above 98%, and the removal rate of Cl− is above 96% [44]. Despite its advantages, RO membrane technology faces several limitations. For instance, the membrane is easily contaminated by colloidal substances, and the membrane will degrade under high-pressure conditions, thereby reducing its performance and lifespan.
At present, RO desalination is widely used in seawater desalination, saltwater treatment, and industrial water treatment in Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Israel, and other countries; in the United States, Australia, India, and other countries, large-scale water resource purification and water supply for brackish water or groundwater is achieved through RO technology; and the electronics industry and chemical industry in Japan, South Korea, and other countries often use RO technology for water treatment and reuse it to reduce water treatment costs and improve production efficiency [45,46]. In the future, the performance and economy of RO can be further improved by developing more efficient and pollution-resistant membrane materials. It is also possible to develop more intelligent RO systems to improve the degree of automation and reduce operating costs. In addition, RO technology can also be combined with other desalination technologies to achieve better desalination results and reduce consumption.
In the treatment of high-salinity wastewater, the primary objective of membrane concentration technology is to continually enhance the desalination rate. A principal limiting factor for the desalination rate in NF and RO is osmotic pressure, which is positively correlated with salt concentration. Under constant inlet pressure, the transmembrane pressure (TMP) will gradually decrease along the length of the membrane towards the reject stream outlet. This decrease in TMP leads to a reduction in membrane flux. Simultaneously, an increase in dissolved salt concentration in the feedwater will result in a higher concentration gradient and greater salt penetration rate, consequently decreasing the desalination rate [47]. Thus, in the application of membrane concentration technology for treating high-salinity wastewater, inadequate treatment efficacy may result from excessively high salt content. When the electrical conductivity of high-salinity wastewater exceeds 25,000 μs/cm, there is a significant reduction in membrane flux and a particularly severe occurrence of membrane scaling. To mitigate membrane fouling and enhance desalination efficiency, pretreatment of wastewater is often necessary prior to membrane concentration treatment [48].

2.2.3. Membrane Distillation Technology (MD)

Membrane distillation (MD) is a thermally driven separation process that utilizes hydrophobic microporous membranes to separate volatile components from non-volatile solutes. The hydrophobic membrane acts as a selective barrier, allowing only water vapor to pass through its pores while preventing liquid water from permeating. The process relies on a temperature gradient between the hot feed side and the cold permeate side, which induces vapor pressure differences across the membrane [49]. The vapor passes through the membrane pores and condenses on the cold side, enabling effective separation and desalination [50] (Figure 6).
Alftessi S. et al. used a fully silicophobic sand ceramic hollow fiber membrane to treat a mixture of NaCl and humic acid with a salt concentration of 35 g/L, and the feed temperature and penetration temperature were maintained at 80 °C and 10 °C, respectively. When the permeate vapor flux is 49.41 kg/m2∙h, the desalting rate can reach 100% [51]. Li J. et al. used a fully hydrophobic membrane (FZnO-PVDF) to treat a NaCl solution with an SDS concentration of <0.05 mM and 35 g/L, and the feed temperature and penetration temperature were 60 °C and 20 °C, respectively. When the permeate vapor flux is 12 kg/m2∙h, the desalting rate can reach 99.9%. At a higher temperature difference, the fully hydrophobic membrane can not only maintain the stability of the membrane but also show its efficient desalination performance in the treatment of high salt concentrations and complex organic systems [52]. In addition, membrane flux is closely related to desalination efficiency. A higher membrane flux generally means that more water is processed per unit of time, thereby improving overall desalination efficiency [53]. Sampaio et al. investigated vacuum membrane distillation (VMD) for desalinating saline–alkali water, revealing that the vacuum level on the cold side significantly influenced membrane flux, followed by the temperature gradient. Higher vacuum levels and feedwater temperatures were positively correlated with increased flux. Notably, the concentration of saline–alkali water had a less pronounced effect on flux compared to vacuum and temperature levels [54]. Despite its advantages, MD membrane technology faces several limitations. Challenges such as membrane fouling, thermal efficiency, and the need for durable materials that can withstand aggressive operating environments are critical areas needing further development.
Compared to traditional NF or RO technologies, MD technology enables efficient desalination at lower operating temperatures and is particularly suitable for desalination using low-grade thermal energy (waste heat or solar energy). The UAE, Saudi Arabia, Spain, India, South Africa, and other countries have begun to research and apply MD technology, especially in the field of small- and medium-sized desalination projects and industrial wastewater treatment; MD technology, because of its low energy consumption, can be combined with renewable energy sources, becoming an environmentally friendly and economical option [55]. In the future, membrane materials with high hydrophilicity, strong pollution resistance, high-temperature resistance, and corrosion resistance can be developed to improve the selectivity of the membrane and reduce the occurrence of membrane pollution, thus extending the service life of the membrane and reducing operating costs. In addition, the development of a membrane with a self-cleaning function, using the flow of water or air to automatically remove pollutants on the surface of the membrane, helps to reduce maintenance costs and improve system stability. In addition, MD technology is combined with traditional technologies such as RO, MED, or MSF to form a composite seawater desalination system, giving full play to their respective advantages, which helps reduce energy consumption, increase freshwater production efficiency, and optimize system operation (Table 2).

3. Electrochemical Desalination Technology

The electrochemical desalination technology leverages the high conductivity of high-salinity wastewater to facilitate ion migration between the anode and cathode, where oxidation–reduction reactions take place and impurities are subsequently eliminated. The primary electrochemical technologies employed for treating high-salinity wastewater include Electrodialysis (ED) and Electrosorption (EST).

3.1. Electrodialysis Technology (ED)

The principle of Electrodialysis (ED) relies on the selective permeability of ion exchange membranes to cations and anions. Upon entering the ED stack, the feed solution undergoes reduction reactions at the cathode due to the applied electric potential, generating hydroxide ions in the cation chamber. The removal of salt from the feed solution to the concentrate chamber results in diluted and concentrated effluent [60]. By adjusting parameters such as applied voltage, current density, and ion selectivity membrane performance, ED can regulate ion removal efficiency and water quality with greater controllability compared to thermal separation methods while reducing energy consumption [61] (Figure 7).
Shi J. et al. conducted ED concentration experiments on a Na2SO4 brine solution with a salinity of 35 g/L. The experimental results show that the desalting efficiency reaches the maximum when the voltage is 24 V and the flow rate is 15 L/h. By increasing the voltage gradient, increasing the concentration of seawater and electrolyte, and decreasing the flux of membrane surface, the performance of seawater desalination can be significantly improved [62]. Zhao et al. employed an ED device to process coal chemical wastewater, achieving a concentration of 20% salt content when the voltage is 17 V and the flow rate is 20 mL/h, thereby significantly enhancing resource recovery rates [63]. Alkhadra M. et al. used a mixed solution of NaCl, Na2SO4·10H2O, MgCl2·6H2O, CaCl2·2H2O, and K2SO4 to simulate artificial seawater and conduct a small-scale ED experiment. Through the experiment, the seawater with a salt concentration of 35 g/L can be desalinated to 67.8 mg/L, and the desalting rate can reach 99.8%. In addition, ED technology can be combined with other desalination methods [64]. Hao Y. C. et al. conducted a study on the treatment of high-salinity wastewater using ED coupled with RO technology. The results show that when the voltage is 50 V and the flow rate is 2500 L/h, the treated high-salinity wastewater can obtain concentrated brine with a TDS of 185.32 g/L and fresh water with a TDS of 10 mg/L, and the TOC does not change [65]. This study verifies the advantages of the combination of ED and reverse osmosis, especially in the treatment of high-salinity wastewater, which can effectively achieve salt separation and resource recovery. Despite its advantages, ED technology faces several limitations. For instance, significant challenges such as membrane contamination, ion exchange membrane life, and depletion of electrode batteries still limit their application.
At present, ED technology is widely used in drinking water, industrial water treatment, and wastewater desalination. In the United States, Europe, and India, ED technology is used to treat water sources in some drinking water treatment plants that need to remove ions from water. Using ED technology to remove hardness ions in water can improve water quality; China, Israel, Argentina, and other countries began to adopt ED technology in the development and treatment of salt lakes and inland brackish water resources, especially in the case of relatively low water salinity, due to the fact that ED can effectively remove calcium, magnesium, sulfate, and other dissolved salts in the water, becoming an important solution for water shortage areas [66]. In the future, new, pollution-resistant, and highly selective membrane materials can be developed to improve the desalination efficiency and ion exchange membrane life of ED technology. In addition, the overall performance of the system can be improved by optimizing operating parameters such as current, temperature, and flow rate. In addition, the electrode performance can be improved by optimizing the precursor fluid formulation of the electrode, thereby reducing electrode corrosion, enhancing motor life, and saving costs. Finally, ED technology can also be combined with other desalination technologies (MDC or RO) or with other renewable energy sources (solar or wind) to achieve efficient desalination effects while avoiding resource waste and reducing system operating costs.

3.2. Electrosorption Technology (EST)

Electrosorption (EST) involves the manipulation of charged particles in a solution through the application of a direct current electric field [67]. When subjected to this electric field, these particles migrate towards an electrode with an opposite charge, leading to their adsorption on the electrode surface for effective ion removal from the solution. When the electrode adsorption reaches the saturation state, the absorbed ions can be removed from the electrode by reversing the electrode or removing the applied electric field, so as to achieve electrode regeneration, which has strong sustainability, is reusable, and reduces operating costs [68] (Figure 8).
Chai D. et al. prepared CDI electrodes by combining layered CuAl bimetallic oxides with activated carbon fibers. As the voltage gradually increased from 0.8 V to 1.6 V, the specific adsorption capacity, desalination efficiency, current efficiency, and power consumption of the two electrodes all increased. After 15 cycles, the desalination efficiency of the NaCl solution system reached 96% [69]. By using single crystal FeFe(CN)6 and activated carbon as the anode and cathode, respectively, Guo et al. obtained a high desalting capacity of 101.7 mg/L under appropriate flow rate and current density [70]. Therefore, the desalting ability of the electroadsorption system can be significantly improved through a reasonable selection of electrode materials and optimization of operating conditions. Wang T. et al. conducted a deep desalting test on the effluent from the second treatment of coking wastewater. The results show that electroadsorption has a good effect on the deep treatment of coking wastewater, the desalting rate can reach 75~85%, and the conductivity can be reduced from 3820 μs/cm to 700 μs/cm [71]. This study further verified the feasibility of electroadsorption technology in the advanced treatment of highly polluted water bodies. It is important to note that while EST may not exhibit superior desalination performance, it is better suited for treating water with an electrical conductivity below 5000 µs/cm.
At present, EST is widely used in drinking water treatment, sewage reuse, and wastewater treatment. The United States, India, Mexico, and other countries have begun to use EST for drinking water treatment in some areas where groundwater and surface water are relatively salty. Especially in areas with water pollution or high salt concentrations, EST offers a low-cost, efficient water treatment solution. Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and other European countries have used EST in industrial wastewater treatment and wastewater reuse projects, especially in the chemical, power, and pharmaceutical industries, using EST to remove ions in wastewater, improve wastewater reuse rates, and reduce environmental pollution. In the future, new electrode materials can be developed based on carbon materials, graphene, metal oxides, and other substances. These novel electrode materials can provide a larger specific surface area and higher conductivity, thereby improving the desalination efficiency and long-term stability of EST. In addition, the performance of EST is largely dependent on the efficiency and durability of the electrode under continuous operation, which can be affected by the concentration of highly saline wastewater. Advanced electrode materials that are resistant to dirt and corrosion can be developed, and the electrical configuration of the system can be optimized to improve the efficiency of ion adsorption. Finally, EST can be flexibly combined with other desalination technologies (RO or NF) to meet specific water quality requirements for circulating water. This not only effectively improves the efficiency of seawater desalination, but also significantly reduces the operating cost, achieving a win–win situation of economic and environmental benefits (Table 3).

4. Biological Desalination Technology

Microbial desalination cell (MDC) technology integrates the principles of Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) and ED to form a novel desalination technology. In MDCs, bio-electrochemical reactions facilitated by microbes at the anode generate electricity, which simultaneously drives the desalination process in a separate chamber [73]. The system employs anion and cation exchange membranes to compartmentalize the desalination chamber, selectively allowing ions to pass through while blocking others, thus purifying the saltwater by removing dissolved salts [74] (Figure 9).
Jacobson et al. demonstrated the practical viability of MDC technology by achieving up to 90% desalination efficiency with a laboratory-scale prototype, while concurrently generating 1.8 kWh of energy per cubic meter of treated water [75]. MDC technology stands out for its dual functionality, not only in treating high-salinity wastewater but also in generating renewable energy. Meng et al. built an MDC, a biological catalyst for desalination, power generation, and anodic sludge stabilization. The ideal parameter conditions for maintaining the pH value of the anode between 6.6 and 7.6 are realized. When the initial sodium chloride concentration is 5 g/L and 10 g/L, the achieved desalting rates are 46.37 ± 1.14% and 40.74 ± 0.89%, respectively [76]. Despite its promising advantages, MDC technology faces several challenges. The performance of the system heavily depends on the activity and sustainability of the microbial community, which can be influenced by the wastewater’s composition and environmental factors.
MDCs are mainly used to remove ions, salts, and organic pollutants from low-concentration saltwater or sewage. The United States, Europe (Germany and the Netherlands), Japan, and other countries have made important progress in the research of this technology, especially in the laboratory and small-scale trials. MDCs have shown strong potential in the field of water treatment and desalination. In the future, operating conditions can be optimized to identify robust and efficient microbial communities. Advanced genetic and metabolic engineering can improve the salt tolerance and energy conversion efficiency of MDCs. It is also possible to optimize the electrode materials and system design of MDCs to improve their stability and performance while reducing the construction and maintenance costs of the system. In addition, MDCs can be combined with other desalination technologies (ED or RO) or with other renewable energy sources (solar or wind), which can achieve a more efficient desalination effect and greatly reduce the operating cost of the system.

5. Conclusions

With the development and the improvement of environmental protection requirements, sewage desalination technology will face greater challenges and opportunities. In this paper, the main technologies of high-salinity wastewater treatment, including thermal separation technology, membrane separation technology, electrochemical desalination technology, and microbial desalination cell technology, are summarized, and their problems are pointed out. Future research should focus on the following directions:
(1) The disadvantages of thermal technology are its high energy consumption, ease of corrosion of equipment, ability to be combined with solar energy, wind energy, and other renewable energy to drive the heating process, and ability to be combined with a dynamic thermodynamic optimization algorithm to reduce energy consumption, but further research on new anti-scale materials and self-cleaning equipment technology can be conducted.
(2) The limitation of membrane separation technology is that the membrane is easily prone to corrosion and pollution, but the corrosion resistance and pollution resistance of the membrane can be improved through multifunctional membrane surface modification technology.
(3) The drawback of electrochemical desalination technology is that electricity is extremely susceptible to corrosion, but new electrode materials with high conductivity and corrosion resistance can be developed.
(4) The shortcoming of microbial desalination cell technology is poor stability, so it is necessary to strengthen the development of efficient biocatalysts and optimize the integration efficiency of the MDC system and dynamic simulation technology.

Author Contributions

Z.L.: writing—original draft, investigation, data curation; C.M.: investigation, data curation; J.Z.: investigation, data curation; T.H.: investigation, data curation; Z.Z.: investigation, data curation; K.Z.: writing—review and editing, supervision; P.Y.: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, writing—review and editing, supervision; Z.Y.: writing—review and editing, supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Funding was provided by the Tianjin Agricultural industry–university–research “Reveal list” project (GBTG202305), the Ningxia Agricultural Key Core Technology Research Project (Ningmu Station He [2024]19), and the Tianjin Modern Agricultural Industrial Technology System Project (ITTPRS2021009).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

Zhucheng Li would like to thank Peng Yang for his guidance and advice on the paper writing process. Zhucheng Li would also like to thank the Ningxia Agricultural Key Core Technology Research Project (Ningmu Station He [2024]19) and the Tianjin Modern Agricultural Industrial Technology System Project (ITTPRS2021009) for the funding of this research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Multi-Stage Flashing process.
Figure 1. Multi-Stage Flashing process.
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Figure 2. Multi-Effect Evaporation process.
Figure 2. Multi-Effect Evaporation process.
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Figure 3. Mechanical Vapor Recompression process.
Figure 3. Mechanical Vapor Recompression process.
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Figure 4. Nanofiltration process.
Figure 4. Nanofiltration process.
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Figure 5. Reverse osmosis process.
Figure 5. Reverse osmosis process.
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Figure 6. Membrane distillation process.
Figure 6. Membrane distillation process.
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Figure 7. Electrodialysis process.
Figure 7. Electrodialysis process.
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Figure 8. Electrosorption process.
Figure 8. Electrosorption process.
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Figure 9. Microbial desalination cell process.
Figure 9. Microbial desalination cell process.
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Table 1. Thermal separation technology.
Table 1. Thermal separation technology.
Technical
Terminology		Application ContextDesalinization RateAdvantageLimitationEnergy ConsumptionCostReference Literature
MSFDesalination of seawater, industrial wastewater, and mining brine.98%Mature theory;
strong resistance to salinity fluctuations;
long-term stable operation.		High energy consumption; serious scaling; large initial investmentHigh, usually >70 kWh/m3The initial equipment cost is high, suitable for large-scale industrialization.[7,29,30]
MEVDesalination of seawater, chemical wastewater, food processing wastewater, and pharmaceutical wastewater.98%Multi-effect energy saving; high heat energy utilization efficiency; stable operation.Complex equipment and difficult maintenance; the water treatment of high-temperature-sensitive ingredients is not suitable; high dependence on energy sourcesMedium, about 50–70 kWh/m3Low operating cost, suitable for small- and medium-sized industries.[31,32]
MVRDesalination of seawater, industrial wastewater, and mining brine.99.66%High energy efficiency; small footprint; excellent treatment performance of high-concentration brine.Suitable for medium-salinity wastewater and high-salinity water energy consumption increases; large dependence on steam compressor performance; high initial equipment investmentLow, about 4–6 kWh/m3Low operating cost, suitable for small- and medium-sized industries.[28,33]
Table 2. Membrane separation technology.
Table 2. Membrane separation technology.
Technical
Terminology		Application ContextDesalinization RateAdvantageLimitationEnergy ConsumptionCostReference Literature
NFWater treatment for drinking, industrial water treatment, seawater desalination, and wastewater treatment.94%High desalting efficiency; energy saving; high retention rate of organic matter.Significant membrane pollution problem;
limited processing capacity for high brine; high membrane cost.		Low, about 3–5 kWh/m3High membrane material investment, low operating cost, suitable for drinking water treatment.[35,39,56]
ROSeawater desalination, brackish water desalination, industrial wastewater treatment, food and beverage industry, and power industry.97.5%High desalting rate; high maturity; strong removal ability of organic matter.Osmotic pressure limited desalination of high-salt water; membrane pollution and energy consumption; the problem of concentrated brine discharge is prominent.Medium, about 3–7 kWh/m3Medium operating cost, suitable for large-scale applications.[42,57]
MDSeawater desalination, industrial wastewater treatment, solution concentration, and chemical substance recovery.99%High brine adaptability; less membrane pollution; simple process without high pressure. High heat demand; the water flux is relatively low; poor stability of membrane material in long-term operation.Medium, higher than RO, dependent on thermal energyLow initial cost, moderate operating cost, suitable for high value-added processing applications.[52,58,59]
Table 3. Electrochemical desalination technology.
Table 3. Electrochemical desalination technology.
Technical
Terminology		Application ContextDesalinization RateAdvantageLimitationEnergy ConsumptionCostReference Literature
EDDesalination of seawater and brackish water, industrial water treatment, food processing, chemical production, and agricultural irrigation99%Low energy consumption; strong ion selectivity; strong resource recovery ability.Limited processing capacity for high brine; significant membrane pollution; high initial investment.Low, about 2–5 kWh/m3High initial cost, low operating cost, suitable for small- and medium-sized industrial wastewater.[65,72]
ESTSeawater desalination, brackish water desalination, industrial wastewater treatment, drinking water purification, and agricultural irrigation96%Low energy consumption; simple equipment, flexible operation; suitable for removing low-concentration pollutants.Regenerated after reaching saturation; sensitive to water quality fluctuations.Very low, 0.1–0.5 kWh/m3Equipment and operating costs are relatively low, but adsorption material regeneration requires additional energy.[69,71]
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Li, Z.; Mao, C.; Zhang, J.; Hou, T.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, K.; Yang, P.; Yang, Z. Advances in Research on Desalination Technology for High-Sodium Wastewater. Sustainability 2025, 17, 333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010333

AMA Style

Li Z, Mao C, Zhang J, Hou T, Zhang Z, Zhang K, Yang P, Yang Z. Advances in Research on Desalination Technology for High-Sodium Wastewater. Sustainability. 2025; 17(1):333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010333

Chicago/Turabian Style

Li, Zhucheng, Chunchun Mao, Jingwen Zhang, Tianbao Hou, Zixuan Zhang, Keqiang Zhang, Peng Yang, and Zengjun Yang. 2025. "Advances in Research on Desalination Technology for High-Sodium Wastewater" Sustainability 17, no. 1: 333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010333

APA Style

Li, Z., Mao, C., Zhang, J., Hou, T., Zhang, Z., Zhang, K., Yang, P., & Yang, Z. (2025). Advances in Research on Desalination Technology for High-Sodium Wastewater. Sustainability, 17(1), 333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17010333

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