Strategic Insights for Environmental Education in Greece: SWOT and PEST Analyses in the Context of the Climate Change Crisis

Abstract

Research on environmental education in Greece highlights the urgent need to integrate climate change education into school curricula due to the severe impacts of the climate crisis. Despite growing social awareness, implementation is hindered by limited resources resulting from the economic crisis, fragmented content in textbooks, and inadequate legislation. Technological advancements present new opportunities for enhancing environmental education. This article reviews the current state of environmental education and proposes strategic directions to improve its effectiveness. A SWOT analysis identifies internal strengths and weaknesses, along with external opportunities and threats, while a PEST analysis evaluates political, economic, social, and technological influences. Based on these assessments, strategic goals and directions are outlined, focusing on the comprehensive integration of Environmental Education for Climate Change into Greece’s compulsory education system. Key proposals include the development of clear policies, structured guidelines, and curriculum adaptations to address the evolving challenges of climate change. A cohesive national framework is recommended to ensure the consistent implementation of environmental education across all educational levels. These initiatives aim to prepare future generations with the necessary knowledge and skills to mitigate and adapt to climate change, fostering a more sustainable society.

1. Introduction

Climate change is a global environmental crisis that poses urgent and potentially irreversible threats to life on Earth. Defined as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” [1] (p. 4), it is a complex, multidimensional problem that has been characterized as a “super-wicked problem” due to its intricate causes, impacts, and potential solutions [2].

Human activities over the last two centuries, marked by lifestyle changes and increased life expectancy, have led to the over-exploitation of natural resources, significantly contributing to global warming. Despite initial debates on the severity of climate change, it is now universally acknowledged as a significant threat to the planet and humanity [3]. Excessive human intervention in the environment has resulted in the designation of our current era as the “Anthropocene” [4]. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports a current global temperature rise of 1.1 °C, with projections of 1.5–2 °C by the end of the century if no immediate action is taken [5]. Comparatively to the mid-20th century, the situation in Greece is especially alarming; estimates suggest a possible temperature increase of up to 4.3 °C by the end of the century [4]. Since they are too quick for natural adaptation, temperature rises of this kind will have far-reaching effects on ecosystems, human living standards, and economic and social structures.

To address these pressing challenges, educational institutions must adapt by setting goals and ideals that reflect the socio-political environment and prepare young people for the future [6]. Climate change education is ideally suited to target individuals of all ages. However, while adults often have established views shaped by economic concerns, younger generations are more adaptable and can more effectively build environmental awareness and cultural resilience [7]. In particular, younger students need to be adequately prepared, as they will face the impacts of climate change on multiple levels throughout their lives. Educational initiatives targeting this age group aim to foster a proactive attitude toward mitigation and adaptation [8].

This paper explores the imperative of incorporating Environmental Education (EE) for Climate Change into Greece’s school curriculum to prepare younger generations for the challenges posed by climate change by identifying challenges, best practices, and strategic solutions. For this purpose, we have structured our investigation around the following key research questions:

What are the existing challenges and barriers to integrating climate change education into Greek compulsory education?

What best practices from international climate change education initiatives can be applied to the Greek educational system?

How can strategic educational and policy frameworks be developed to systematically incorporate climate change education into Greek compulsory education?

Since its inception in the 1960s, environmental education has been acknowledged as a crucial instrument meant to promote responsible decision-making and an awareness of the interrelationship among people, culture, and surroundings [9,10]. Studies (e.g., [2,11,12]) have shown that including EE in formal education develops pro-environmental attitudes and prepares students with the required tools to handle modern environmental problems.

Furthermore, underlined in international frameworks including UNESCO’s Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 4.7) is the need to include sustainability ideas in education.

Conversely, one of the most urgent worldwide issues influencing ecosystems, economies, and civilizations is climate change. Scientific studies (such as those by the IPCC, 2023) underline the need to arm the next generations with the knowledge and tools required for both adaptation and mitigation.

Studies reveal that inadequate educational coverage leads to still prevalent misunderstandings about climate change [13]. Early education is crucial since childhood conceptions developed there may persist into adulthood, impairing good decision-making and action.

Finland and Sweden, among other nations that have included climate change education (CCE) into their curricula, show higher student awareness, involvement, and preparedness to meet environmental challenges. Their approaches show good structures for grouping material on climate change in learning environments.

Although Environmental Education (EE) was first implemented in Greece in 1976 and included in secondary education in 1980, it is still an optional component of the curriculum. Environmental education has not been fully included in the mandatory education system even if 58 Environmental Education Centers (EECs) have been established all around the nation. Environmental education in Greece remains optional and scattered despite major public concern about climate change (EIB, 2021 [14]). This discrepancy emphasizes how urgently Climate Change Education (CCE) should be included in required curricula.

This paper investigates the need to include Environmental Education for Climate Change in Greece’s school curriculum, considering the urgent necessity to equip younger generations for the challenges presented by climate change. Particularly younger students have to be ready with the knowledge and tools required to deal with the several effects of climate change. Studies show that although adults usually have ingrained opinions and motivations connected to economic concerns, younger students are more flexible and able to create environmental awareness and culture [7,8].

This paper presents a PEST analysis to investigate external political, economic, social, and technological elements influencing EE in Greece as well as a SWOT analysis to assess the internal strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the present system, preparing students for the future. By means of SWOT and PEST studies, environmental education in Greece is being evaluated in an attempt to offer a complete knowledge of the internal and external elements influencing its present condition and future possibilities. All things considered, these kinds of studies provide a multidimensional perspective of environmental education, enabling strategic planning and the creation of suitable policies and programs catered to the possibilities and problems in the Greek setting.

Based on the results, the paper suggests strategic objectives and suggestions for the advancement of environmental education within the compulsory education system. The suggested objectives underline the need for well-defined policies and rules as well as curriculum adaptations to handle the intricate problems of climate change. These specifically demand the creation of a coherent national framework that will enable the application of Environmental Education at all educational levels, ensuring that new generations are ready to confront the effects of climate change on environmental and socioeconomic levels.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Global Perspectives on Environmental Education for Climate Change

International organizations and countries have implemented frameworks and strategies to improve environmental awareness and climate literacy. Climate change has attracted more and more worldwide attention over the past few decades, which supports the need for education on sustainability as a means to raise awareness and stimulate action. This fits perfectly with UNESCO’s focus on including climate change education (CCE) as a basic component of environmental projects [15].

2.1.1. Global Trends in the Incorporation of Climate Change Education

International agreements and initiatives provide the foundation for structuring environmental education within national curricula. The Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) framework of UNESCO and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) act as guiding platforms for countries to establish structured Environmental Education (EE) and Climate Change Education (CCE). These agreements underline multidisciplinary learning and urge nations to include environmental, social, and financial aspects of sustainability as well as climate change issues across disciplines.

In response, several countries have taken steps to institutionalize climate change education. Italy was the first country to announce in 2019, the integration of climate change and sustainable development into its national curriculum, with 1 h per week dedicated to climate change and sustainability tasks [16]. In Finland, climate change has been embedded in national curricula through an interdisciplinary approach that incorporates scientific, ethical, and civic dimensions [17]. Similarly, New Zealand’s education system explicitly includes climate change and sustainability topics, ensuring that students develop critical thinking skills to address environmental challenges [18]. Meanwhile, in Germany, EE is a legally mandated part of education policy, with schools implementing project-based learning and fieldwork to strengthen climate awareness [19]. Spain’s organic law (LOMLO/2020) integrates climate change education into the compulsory education system. The law explicitly refers to ‘climate change’ in key areas, including general objectives for baccalaureate and adult education and promoting ethical and environmentally responsible behaviors [20]. These adaptations to the school curricula are relatively recent, and so far, no studies have been conducted regarding their effectiveness.

According to Eilam’s [21] review, in most countries, climate change concepts are dispersed across various textbooks of different subjects, typically under the umbrella of sustainability. However, the effectiveness of this approach has not been thoroughly investigated either. Although these developments have been made, obstacles persist. For instance, climate education policies differ greatly between states in the United States, with some implementing extensive programs while others offer scant coverage of climate science because of political disputes [22]. Likewise, in Latin America, although nations like Costa Rica have made great progress in including EE in curricula, other countries battle uneven policy execution [23]. The U.S. leaving the Paris Climate Agreement [24] earlier underlined how sensitive climate policies are to political changes, stressing the need to include CCE into national education policies to guarantee continuity and resilience.

Finally, studies show that most educators feel unprepared and insecure about including subjects related to climate change in their main instruction [21].

2.1.2. Pedagogical Approaches and Innovative Strategies

Understanding the need for efficient teaching strategies, studies show how instructional design models might help to improve climate change education. By motivating active participation with practical issues, Gagné’s nine principles [25] and problem-centered learning strategies [26] have been used to improve students’ knowledge of climate change. This change steers away from conventional knowledge-sharing models toward experiential learning, encouraging critical thinking and problem-solving ability.

Furthermore, becoming popular as a creative teaching tool, digital simulations, and gaming let students actively investigate climate systems and evaluate the effects of various policy choices [27]. Such immersive learning environments are especially successful in bridging scientific and social aspects and showing the complexity of climate issues.

2.1.3. Multidisciplinary Integration and Societal Relevance

An increasing number of studies highlight the need for a multidisciplinary approach to climate education. Beyond only a scientific concern, climate change poses a social challenge with far-reaching effects on migration, public health, and socio-economic stability [28]. The American Anthropological Association emphasizes how climate change aggravates social inequalities, stressing the need for educational approaches including social sciences, economics, and environmental justice [28].

Different educational projects all around reflect this multidisciplinary approach. Small-scale dairy operators in Mexico have participated in climate literacy initiatives including indigenous knowledge and locally based environmental practices [29]. A community-school intervention in Portugal has shown the benefits of participatory education, whereby students actively participate in local climate adaptation projects [30]. Studies from Chile, meantime, show ongoing misunderstandings among teachers about climate change, which emphasizes the need for professional growth and focused teacher training initiatives to improve climate literacy [31].

2.1.4. Toward a Comprehensive and Systematic Climate Change Education

Coherent, forward-thinking strategies that systematically integrate CCE into national curricula are essential for addressing the gaps and inconsistencies in climate change education on a global scale. Studies highlight the need to include climate literacy in curricula to guarantee continuity between political and institutional changes. Moreover, education has to be context specific, allowing localized adaptations while matching with worldwide goals for sustainable development.

Zhai et al. [32] argue in their special issue on climate change education that a cross-cultural perspective that integrates education, policy, and societal transformation is necessary to address climate change. In line with Sustainable Development Goal 13 of the United Nations, these studies provide insightful analysis of how various areas are adjusting climate education to fit their sociocultural setting, reflecting best practices.

Curriculum design should be approached critically and scientifically to guarantee that climate change education is thorough and action-oriented in every nation. Including global points of view in climate education not only improves sustainable development strategies but also promotes international cooperation, arming the next generations with the tools and knowledge required to properly handle climate issues.

2.2. Challenges and Opportunities in Implementing EE for Climate Change

It is imperative to implement effective environmental education (EE) for climate change in order to equip individuals with the necessary skills to confront and alleviate the climate crisis. In spite of this, educators and policymakers encounter substantial obstacles that necessitate strategic solutions and innovation. Notwithstanding these challenges, there are also growing possibilities that will help to increase the influence of climate-oriented education and support a society more informed and involved.

Regarding the difficulties, the problem of climate change has several facets on scientific, economic, and sociopolitical levels that can be challenging to communicate coherently and understandably. This natural complexity makes it challenging to create suitable courses. Furthermore, climate change education incorporates data and knowledge from many disciplines, including physics, biology, geology, geography, economics, ethics a.o., which makes the development of a unified, comprehensive approach that completely addresses the topic especially more difficult. In contrast, a comprehensive, well-designed climate change education program can improve students’ comprehension of its multifaceted nature, cultivate their critical thinking, and prepare them to confront future challenges. Given the complexity of climate change, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [33] has underlined the need for multidisciplinary approaches including many scientific disciplines. The conclusions of the IPCC confirm the need for climate education in all spheres to promote a scientifically based knowledge of climate problems.

Implementing EE programs depends much on the variations in economies. Some nations lack even basic measurements, funding, or enough educational tools for teachers. Not every nation has enough public, financial, institutional, and creative ability to carry out major initiatives [34]. Conversely, interactive platforms and digital tools can help to make difficult climate ideas more interesting and easily available. Schools and research facilities working together provide chances for resource sharing and mutual support, improving the results of education. Global Networked Learning Environments enable the creation of shared materials and curricula that link teachers, students, and communities outside of traditional boundaries [35], promoting collaboration and reciprocal learning. By means of group projects, students acquire useful skills and develop global citizenship, enhancing the impact of Environmental Education initiatives.

The diversity in sociopolitical settings has a significant impact even in developed nations ([36], as mentioned in [37], affecting public support for EE programs and the inclusion of climate education into basic courses). For Saudi Arabia, where oil is a main economic driver [38], climate change education might have to negotiate the conflict between economic interests and environmental sustainability [37]. Universities in China have instituted “Environmental Science and Public Policy” courses meant to equip students with an awareness of the scientific, technical, economic, political, legal, historical, ethical, and scientific aspects of complicated environmental issues, fostering awareness of global climate change and strengthening China’s capacity to respond [37]. In Denmark, the Ministry of Education has focused on leveraging public attention to climate change to strengthen science education in public schools [39]. There is a strong dependence on public awareness and acceptance, as well as institutional conditions, such as government support [34].

In certain countries, there is a high level of awareness and sensitivity to climate change, which results in widespread public support for policies that are related to the issue. Public opinion polls show Germans, for example, as reflecting a greater level of public involvement and concern and seeing climate change and environmental protection as critical issues [40]. In Germany, a comprehensive knowledge of climate issues is promoted by a strong focus on including environmental education in many disciplines [37]. Most nations, following the Paris Agreement, have promised to lower the carbon intensity of their GDP. Some countries, like Mexico, have even passed laws with clear targets for emission reduction, proving a legal dedication to sustainable development [37]. Indeed, residents of Colombia are urged to participate actively in decisions about climate change.

On the other hand, other nations may not have implemented binding climate-related legislation, resulting in varying degrees of accountability and progress in the pursuit of global climate objectives. For instance, in Brazil, there is a lack of public awareness, which is partly due to short-term political visions that fail to convey the seriousness of climate change [37]. Even in some developed countries, such as the United States, awareness can be more limited, which sometimes hinders the implementation of climate policies and affects public acceptance. The U.S. has great difficulties both signing international climate agreements and implementing home climate policies. Global issues were raised by the nation’s earlier pull from the Paris Agreement. At that time, policies and rules pertaining to climate change directly affected by the White House’s doubts had an impact on allies. Emphasizing increased awareness and international cooperation, nations including Germany, China, and Mexico stressed how important it is to meet the Paris Agreement targets independent of the US posture [37].

Even if the United States is rejoining the Paris Agreement, progress still seems difficult. The ambitious climate goals face political resistance within the U.S., pressures from powerful fossil fuel companies, and caution from international leaders who worry about the stability of future American climate policy. Previous research has shown that, compared to other developed nations, Americans generally do not view climate change as an urgent issue. U.S. residents frequently regard it as a distant issue, both in terms of time, which affects future generations, and in terms of space, which primarily affects developing countries [41]. Particularly for the European Union [42], Donald Trump’s recent re-election as President of the United States could cause significant difficulties in climate change initiatives since Trump’s past intentions to boost fossil fuel production and withdraw the US from the Paris Agreement are well known. As highlighted in the article above, a Trump administration could have a significant negative impact on global climate initiatives, diverting focus from environmental responsibility to traditional industrial development at the cost of sustainability.

Misinformation and even misunderstandings also pose a significant challenge. About 15% of Americans believe that global warming is not occurring, while approximately 30% attribute global warming to natural causes [43]. There are some core beliefs that make the challenge even bigger—such as the belief that the issue is too complex for individual or community-level action to make a difference, that scientists will eventually find a solution, or that addressing climate change is primarily the responsibility of wealthy countries [44]. Ingrained social beliefs pose a problem, as any new information that contradicts them tends to be rejected [45].

Beyond the above, there is a growing trend to integrate environmental education with a focus on climate change on a consistent basis within the core curriculum in various countries. Italy was the first country to mandate climate change education in schools to address the global climate crisis through education and foster environmental awareness among younger generations [16]. Since 2013, Indonesia has included climate change as a core competency for primary school students and hosts events such as the Climate Change Education Forum and Expo to encourage climate education and promote networking among educators and schools [46]. In 2022, Turkey implemented a distinct elective course for the three grades of compulsory education that focused on environmental education and climate change [47]. In the Republic of Korea, climate change topics have already been incorporated into preschool education [46]. While many countries worldwide have made progress in this area, UNESCO [46] research reveals that nearly half of the 100 countries studied do not mention climate change in their national curricula.

3. Methodology—Research Design

This study employs a qualitative research methodology to conduct a thorough evaluation of the current state of Environmental Education (EE) for Climate Change in Greece and to develop strategic recommendations for its advancement within the compulsory education system. Two main analytical frameworks—SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) and PEST (political, economic, technological) studies—define the direction of the research. These frameworks were selected due to their ability to offer a dual perspective on the internal (institutional policies, curriculum structure, pedagogical approaches) and external (policy developments, economic constraints, societal attitudes, technological advancements) factors that affect the integration and efficacy of environmental education in the context of climate change.

The internal structural analysis (SWOT) assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the existing environmental education framework within Greece’s educational system, focusing on institutional support, curriculum presence, and teacher preparedness. The external analysis (PEST) evaluates broader influences, including political commitments to sustainability education, economic incentives or constraints, societal awareness and engagement with climate change, and the role of technological advancements in education.

Semi-structured interviews with educators and policymakers, curriculum content review, and policy document analysis were employed to gather the primary data for this study. The criteria for data selection were as follows: relevance to climate change education, alignment with international sustainability goals (e.g., SDG 13, Education for Sustainable Development), and relevance to Greece’s educational framework.

Emphasizing its application in strategic planning and policy evaluation, the SWOT analysis conforms to the framework suggested by Gürel and Tat [48] and Helms et al. [49]. Comparably, the PEST analysis framework is modified by Aguilar [50] and educational applications are later modified by Yüksel [51], which underlines its use in evaluating external drivers of policy change in environmental education.

The qualitative approach is particularly well suited to this study because of the multifaceted and intricate nature of environmental education and climate change. The research endeavors to capture the nuanced dynamics of the educational landscape in Greece by concentrating on qualitative methods. This includes the investigation of the current system’s strengths and weaknesses, as well as the identification of external opportunities and threats that could influence future developments.

SWOT analysis—the acronym SWOT comes from the words Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats—is a method of assessing the readiness of companies [52]. Essentially, during the analysis, the interactions of internal and external factors are studied and the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats are recorded in relation to a product, activity, sector, etc. This analysis constitutes a quantitative and qualitative tool in the development of comprehensive strategic planning ([53] as cited in [54]). Various sectors have borrowed this analysis from economics in the context of strategic planning.

PEST analysis constitutes another strategic marketing planning tool, but it has also been used for policy making in other sectors as well. The acronym PEST consists of the initials of the words political, economic, social, and technological analyses, respectively, and the political, social, and technological macro-environment of the sector under study. Political data include information on government policies, legislation, and educational initiatives, while economic data include the economic situation of the country and the financing of education. Technological data are used to investigate the potential for the integration of available technologies into the educational process, while social data are used to analyze perceptions and attitudes regarding climate change. PEST analysis will be integrated into the SWOT analysis below. A combination of document analysis, including policy reviews, educational reports, and academic literature, as well as interviews with key stakeholders, including educators, policymakers, and environmental education experts, was employed to collect data for the SWOT and PEST analyses. The qualitative data were subsequently systematically analyzed to extract pertinent insights, which were categorized under the SWOT and PEST frameworks. This structured analysis facilitated the identification of strategic objectives and actionable recommendations for the improvement of Environmental Education for Climate Change in Greece.

4. Results

4.1. SWOT Analysis

The SWOT analysis offers a disciplined framework for assessing the internal and external elements influencing environmental education for climate change in Greece. In order to guarantee a thorough examination, this section correlates the research findings with the identified strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, incorporating them into the cultural, socio-political, economic, and environmental dimensions (Figure 1,

Table 1. SWOT analysis.

Environmental Education for Climate Change	Present Situation	Future Situation External Factors
+	Strengths Competent scientific/teaching staff Interdisciplinary environmental studies programs Specialization and training opportunities Legislative framework Global interest Implementation in SCSs and university programs	Opportunities Global orientation on the issue New-generation concerns Social Media Sufficient knowledge of the phenomenon in the scientific community Advanced technologies
−	Weaknesses Misunderstandings of concepts and phenomena Unstructured way of environmental education Scattered concepts in the existing program Not a complete lesson Optional nature	Threats Reaction to change Anthropocentrism Economic crisis Movement on the non-existence of climate change

).

4.1.1. Strengths

The increasing awareness of the consequences of climate change among citizens is one of the strengths associated with the implementation of Environmental Education for Climate Change. The majority of Greeks acknowledge the significance of addressing climate change, as indicated by a survey conducted by the European Investment Bank [14]. Other relevant polls show a notable increase in pro-environmental attitudes, which suggests a preparedness for related actions [55]. Reflecting both the reality of the situation and the growing public interest in environmental and climate change issues, Greek publications on these subjects have also seen an increasing volume. Since 2017, the mass media has frequently covered the climate crisis, with expert scientists often weighing in on the subject [56].

At the school level, there has been a notable interest in teachers in participating in environmental education programs over the past twenty-five years [57]. Greece currently has a number of specialized environmental education teachers, who work at the 58 Environmental Education Centers. Under Article 12 of Law 4547/2018 [57], Centers for Sustainability Education (C.S.E.) were established, which replaced the Environmental Education Centers, whose mission includes supporting schools in sustainability education and fostering connections between the educational community and local society to promote sustainable environmental management and bring attention to sustainable solutions for local challenges.

Furthermore, several universities offer interdisciplinary environmental curricula, including postgraduate programs specializing in environmental education. The Training and Lifelong Learning Centers (KEDIVIM) of various universities offer annual seminar programs in environmental education, providing teachers with additional incentives. There has also been an increase in shorter seminar programs on climate change offered by various private institutions.

In an effort to comply with European and global standards, Greek Law has implemented pertinent legislation regarding education and environmental protection. Through Ministerial Decision No. 66152/4 [58], the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs established a theoretical framework for the integration of the environmental curriculum “Environment and Education for Sustainable Development” into the curriculum of kindergarten, primary (grades 1–6), and secondary (grades 1–3) schools. Additionally, Second Chance Schools, which offer adult education at the secondary school level, incorporate two hours of environmental education into their weekly programs.

Lastly, Environmental Education Officers have been appointed to inform and motivate teachers to participate in environmental activities, with the assistance of Environmental Education Centers. Still, teachers’ discretion and voluntary nature define participation in these programs.

4.1.2. Weaknesses

Although environmental education was piloted in Greece in 1987 and legislated for inclusion in compulsory education in the early 1990s, its implementation has remained voluntary, both for students and teachers [59]. This voluntary approach continues today, with environmental education not established as a separate course in the existing curriculum. Despite its importance, education on important critical environmental issues like climate change is often regarded as of secondary importance. Unlike other areas of education, environmental education has not been clearly defined or systematically developed [60]. Deficiencies exist at multiple levels, including logistical infrastructure, educational personnel, and the broader educational system [60].

Current Greek textbooks only marginally address major environmental issues [61]. While some environmental concepts and values are included, they are scattered throughout the texts and lack coherence [62], preventing meaningful connection and critical evaluation. An analysis by Nantsopoulos and Mogias [12] reveals that although climate change topics appear in primary school Environmental Studies textbooks, they are not thoroughly analyzed or presented in a targeted way. In addition, these textbooks are more than a decade old, and teachers frequently prioritize core subjects over Environmental Studies. Fragmented knowledge and disorganized content are incapable of offering students a structured and transparent learning experience [63].

Greece has not had a consistent long-term plan for applying environmental education initiatives in recent years. The economic crisis further reduced the time available for these programs in schools and decreased the resources allocated to the Environmental Education Centers [59]. Furthermore, the Greek educational system remains largely teacher-centered and heavily theory based [59], whereas environmental education requires practical engagement and value formation rather than just theoretical instruction. There is a moderate level of general knowledge regarding environmental and climate change issues, and there are substantial misconceptions that continue to exist [64]. Teachers all around often express a lack of confidence in addressing climate change issues [2].

Although the Ministry of Education and Culture [58] has developed a framework for including an environmental curriculum in mandatory education, this curriculum has not been included as a separate subject but rather is instead included inside the current system. There is currently no provision for teacher training, textbook revisions, or other essential support, and teachers are anticipated to implement this framework solely on the basis of guidelines. This is particularly alarming, as research suggests that future educators are not adequately prepared to provide fundamental environmental education, which results in the perpetuation of misconceptions from teachers to students [13,61,62].

Regarding environmental policy, Greece is not directly active [65]. The country’s environmental legislation, such as Law 1650/1986, imposes penalties on violators; however, this approach is primarily based on deterrence rather than promoting proactive behavior change. Applied in Greece, the “polluter pays” concept can be somewhat interpreted to imply that those who can afford it may poll and merely pay the fines [65].

Moreover, a lot of Greek people have psychological distance from the climate crisis since they have not personally experienced its negative effects in their daily lives. This distance renders climate change seem nebulous, far-off, and ethereal ([2] p. 54). Though the media now more often draws attention to climate change, the emphasis usually is on its effects rather than its causes; even these effects are sometimes presented in a vague, spatially temporal context [56]. Although more educational pieces on climate change are appearing, most of them center on climate science and pay less attention to adaptation and coping mechanisms [66].

Lastly, although research indicates that there has been an increase in pro-environmental attitudes, these attitudes do not necessarily convert into pro-environmental behavior. This frequently results in an intention-action discrepancy whereby people intend to act but do not [67]. This phenomenon transcends environmental problems since studies show that general attitudes are not always accurate forecasters of particular behaviors [68].

4.1.3. Opportunities

There are numerous opportunities to advance Environmental Education for Climate Change in Greece, such as the growing trend of citizens engaging in sociopolitical actions to address environmental issues [60]. Further enhancing these opportunities is the increasing global interest in climate change. In recent years, there has been a substantial increase in the scientific literature that has concentrated on public awareness, sensitivity, and behavior in relation to climate change. This increase is likely due to the devastating effects of climate change since 2012 and the increased attention that followed the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio that same year [69]. In addition, the media has increased its coverage of extreme weather events, with the recent floods in central-western Greece serving as a notable example.

In response to the recent health crisis, technological advancements have resulted in an increase in distance learning seminar programs, providing teachers with new opportunities for professional development. The educational process is also improved by the development of artificial intelligence and other technological tools, particularly in the context of environmental education.

Numerous research studies have been conducted in recent decades to evaluate the knowledge and attitudes of citizens and specialized groups, such as educators, regarding climate change. These studies, which underscore the issue of unpreparedness among future teachers [64], present a critical opportunity to reconsider the decision to integrate environmental literacy into the current educational system and to incorporate a dedicated course on climate change within the curriculum.

4.1.4. Threats

Today’s society is predominantly anthropocentric, frequently failing to comprehend the comprehensive nature of the environment and clinging to the delusion of human control over it [70]. This perspective, in conjunction with opposition to educational reform—whether from students, parents, teachers, or the broader system—presents an immense challenge to the development of environmental citizenship and accurate climate literacy. Such resistance, if it is deeply ingrained, must be acknowledged as a weakness that impedes progress in these regions.

Environmental education, despite its changing terminology (e.g., education for sustainability, environmental citizenship), consistently endeavors to achieve the same fundamental objective: the cultivation of an environmental culture and the promotion of environmental awareness. The climate change denial movement, which is particularly prevalent in the United States, is one of the numerous threats that this endeavor must contend with. It is important to note that one-third of Americans either deny the existence of climate change or reject the notion that human activity is a contributing factor [71]. In the same vein, a survey conducted by the European Investment Bank [14] indicated that approximately 9% of respondents do not believe that human activities are the cause of climate change and global warming.

Furthermore, the economic crisis is one of the most significant threats, particularly for countries such as Greece, where environmental protection is frequently ignored in favor of economically driven approaches, which have a variety of negative consequences [65].

4.1.5. Cultural, Socio-Political, Economic, and Environmental Dimensions

The SWOT findings and research results are categorized into four main dimensions: cultural, socio-political, economic, and environmental, guaranteeing a comprehensive approach.

From a cultural standpoint, multidisciplinary initiatives are quite important for promoting acceptance of climate change education. Still, there are ongoing misinterpretations of important ideas that compromise the success of these programs. Reducing these misinterpretations will guarantee that climate education is accurate and efficient and help to raise public participation.

Given their political character, the socio-political component stresses the need for legislative frameworks and global support of climate education. Though these components provide a strong foundation for policy-driven advancements, resistance to change inside educational institutions and the scattered integration of climate issues across courses still impede development. Dealing with these challenges requires coordinated efforts to simplify and enhance climate-related content applied in official education.

Economic constraints seriously jeopardize the sustainability of programs aimed at climate education. Limited resources might hinder the expansion of initiatives. However, the growing influence of digital tools provides a good replacement with reasonably priced solutions that might increase involvement in climate change education and access. Using these technical developments will help to lessen the financial difficulties that institutions and teachers experience.

Finally, in the environmental aspect, the knowledge of the scientific community is quite helpful in advancing climate education.

4.2. PEST Analysis

4.2.1. Political Factors

In Greece, the political environment for Environmental Education (EE) is bolstered by robust environmental legislation and specific laws that require environmental education in schools. These legal systems provide a basis for including environmental issues in the curricula, complementing global obligations including the Paris Agreement. Research on environmental policy in the context of education implies that efficient application depends on well-defined legislative support [72]. Nevertheless, Greece is confronted with a challenge in the form of an ambiguous legislative framework, which results in inconsistent application across educational institutions. This is consistent with data from Jones et al. [73], who observe that unclear policies might impede national initiatives to develop a coherent environmental education plan. Greece is not as successful in achieving nationwide uniformity in program implementation as other European countries with structured EE policies.

4.2.2. Economic Factors

The advancement of environmental education in Greece is significantly hindered by economic constraints. The continuous economic crisis has limited financing for infrastructure, teacher preparation, and educational initiatives, limiting the integration of EE in institutions. Studies on funding environmental education [74] show that sustainability and efficacy depend critically on financial support. Consistent funding for environmental courses has allowed countries with strong EE programs, such as Germany and Sweden, to successfully institutionalize them. On the other hand, Greece’s financial problems have led the emphasis to move from EE to basic problems. Lack of funding could drastically lower the possible influence of EE projects, hindering efforts to encourage sustainable living and increase knowledge of climate change.

4.2.3. Social Factors

Social awareness and concern about climate change have grown among Greeks as a whole, including teachers. This growing interest serves to justify the need for comprehensive environmental education. Monroe et al. [75] found that public involvement is very important in determining environmental courses. Additionally, the implementation of incentives in Greece, including the distribution of credit to students who participate in environmental projects, is in accordance with the most effective strategies observed in other countries. Studies on EE participation incentives [76] suggest that acknowledging student involvement promotes environmental responsibility and long-term engagement. Notwithstanding this increasing awareness, resistance to change in educational institutions continues to reflect general conclusions on the difficulties of including sustainability education in official systems [77].

4.2.4. Technological Factors

Modern technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) offer great opportunities to advance environmental education in Greece. Research of digital tools—including virtual reality, simulations, and interactive learning environments—showcases how they increase student involvement and knowledge of environmental problems [77]. Greece has begun including such technologies, even though at a slower pace than leading countries in EE innovation and where AI-driven educational tools are widely used in Finland and the Netherlands. Moreover, very important for increasing awareness, distributing instructional materials, and supporting climate change activism is social media. Research on digital participation in environmental education [78] underlines how dynamic and relevant learning can be achieved by including real-time environmental problems in classroom debates. Notwithstanding these benefits, unequal access to technology still presents a problem, especially in underfunded institutions (

Table 2. PEST analysis.

Political	Economic	Social	Technological
+ Existence of environmental legislation + Existence of legislation on environmental education + International agreements on environmental protection and climate change − Unclear and vague legislative framework regarding the implementation of environmental education in schools	− Economic crisis	+ Increased interest of citizens and educators in climate change + Existence of incentives for credit allocation following program participation	+ Development of technology and artificial intelligence + Potential use of advanced technologies, virtual reality, simulations, and interactive games + Social media platforms

, Figure 2).

5. Guidelines for the Strategic Planning of Environmental Education for Climate Change

Drawing from principles of marketing economics, the framework for strategic planning [52], adapted towards environmental and climate literacy, can include the early identification of dysfunctions, analysis of the current situation, ideas for change, testing of ideas, goal setting, development of strategies and tactics to achieve the goals, the program, implementation timeline, and evaluation of results. To avoid overly general analysis, which would reduce its effectiveness, there should be a focus [52], for example, on specific audiences or targets, with an orientation toward them each time.

The SWOT and PEST analyses conducted on environmental education for climate change in compulsory education in Greece revealed significant findings. There is growing public awareness of climate change, with the majority of Greeks recognizing the importance of this phenomenon. However, the optional nature of environmental education and the lack of clear guidance for educators limit its effectiveness. Integrating environmental education fully into the core curriculum could enhance adaptation to the climate crisis and address arising challenges. On the other hand, unclear legislation and a lack of professional training for educators are significant barriers to its implementation.

The above analyses indicate a need for strategic planning and the integration of environmental education within the educational system to achieve the goals of climate change adaptation.

The formulation of a national strategy for EE/CE should proceed by taking into account the country’s international commitments. Environmental education should be dual-purpose, encompassing not only the theoretical and practical elements for minimizing environmental risks in the short term but also fostering a relationship with nature [58] and developing a long-term, robust environmental consciousness.

Environmental literacy, particularly education on climate change, is of utmost importance both for adaptation and for addressing problems. By environmental and climate literacy, we do not merely mean environmental/climate literacy, but also a holistic approach to understanding the current situation accompanying the climate crisis, providing tools to address and adapt to it at multiple levels. Naturally, it also includes the development of critical thinking and environmental consciousness. Education plays a central role in managing the climate crisis, offering the potential for developing skills and behaviors, and even modifying sociocultural systems [2].

Climate change, as a complex and multifaceted issue, necessitates a long-term and multi-level educational approach [79]. Therefore, participation in environmental and climate change education programs can no longer remain optional, nor should mere guidelines be given to educators without clarity on whether there are sufficiently trained individuals to implement the task. It is worth noting that the educators themselves, who are called upon to participate in environmental education programs focused on climate change, may transmit incorrect information to students (see, e.g., the Jeunes Visionnaires program [7]).

As a result, those responsible for promoting environmental education, particularly regarding the theme of the climate crisis, must be appropriately trained. According to the NAAEE, an environmental educator should be knowledgeable about relevant concepts and developments in the fields of environment and environmental education, capable of interdisciplinary teaching, able to design an educational program, and able to cultivate problem-solving skills and critical thinking in students [10]. Training programs are of vital importance as they contribute to the advancement of the learning process, enabling educators, through partnerships and dialogue with local organizations, to take on the role of a communication channel, actively integrating as a member of both the educational community and society [80].

If the burden of environmental education is to be placed on educators, university curricula must be appropriately restructured so that future educators are equipped to undertake the challenging task of environmental education for students. Adequate training through specialized postgraduate and/or seminar programs should also be considered a prerequisite. Proper education helps reduce misunderstandings and prepares educators to address misconceptions that may arise among students [81]. Strengthening educators in knowledge and skills is of utmost importance in this direction [82].

On the other hand, university programs in environmental sciences are characterized by broad interdisciplinarity. As we concluded in a previous article [64], environmental education scientists who are trained in an interdisciplinary, multi-level manner on environmental issues may be the most capable of becoming environmental educators, especially on topics such as climate change and the response/adaptation to the ongoing climate crisis.

Integrating climate change into the educational curriculum is crucial for understanding its impacts and preparing students for future challenges. However, its implementation faces obstacles such as political disagreements, lack of resources and teacher training, as well as resistance to reforming existing curricula [21]. Overcoming these challenges requires raising awareness within the educational community, developing appropriate resources, and gradually incorporating CCE into the curriculum [21].

5.1. Classroom and Teaching Level

An adequate understanding of climate change and the climate is essential for action-taking and the adoption of climate-friendly behaviors, particularly at a young age [79]. Thus, knowledge by itself does not seem to be enough to act [79,83]. Three aspects define effective climate literacy: knowledge, skills, and attitudes/values.

UNESCO and UNEP underline that curricula should concentrate on providing fundamental knowledge for understanding the causes and consequences of climate change, developing skills, and fostering values and attitudes by suitable pedagogical methods that support action [83]. Teachers have to use efficient teaching strategies if students are to reach the curricular targets concerning climate change. Equipping teachers with the necessary tools, resources, and skills required to properly inform pupils on the effects of climate change is mostly dependent on schools. CCE cannot be a sustainable and efficient means of reducing climate change without this support [83]. Furthermore, considering students’ readiness and past knowledge helps Climate Change Education (CCE) to be more successful and focused [83].

Including climate change mitigation and adaptation into the national curricula calls for innovative solutions combining theoretical knowledge with practical applications. Along with these efforts strengthened by supportive policies at local, national, and international levels, interdisciplinary teaching approaches including conservation education, outdoor learning experiences, and the development of instructional materials that incorporate environmental technology can help to effectively implement this [84].

By means of interactive approaches including role-playing as political representatives or scientific advisers, actively involving students can generate a closer emotional connection to the topic [85]. The learning process becomes more successful when educational settings where students cooperatively create solutions, participate in discussions, compare points of view, and support their arguments with scientific data [86]. While project-based learning can reinforce behavioral changes, it should not come at the expense of the cognitive learning process [85,87].

Action-oriented and efficacy-related knowledge tends to have a greater impact, with the cognitive dimension serving complementary [88]. Learning strategies stressing research, problem-solving, and project-based activities help to improve the efficacy of Climate Change Education. These approaches ought to be combined with peer interactions, student autonomy, open communication, and group projects [79]. When others provide more support and encouragement, students are more likely to embrace their capacity as change agents [89].

The objective of CCE is to cultivate critical thinking, analytical skills, and the capacity to effectively evaluate information, in addition to imparting knowledge about climate change. Though a worldwide occurrence, the local effects of climate change can differ greatly. Helping students close the distance between their local or national changes and the larger global backdrop of climate change effects depends critically on CCE [83].

Enhancing personal interest through appropriate education can reduce the psychological distance from the phenomenon of climate change. Studies show that local activities inside the framework of climate change education help to create this context by means of experienced involvement [2]. Six strategies were found by Monroe et al. [75] to improve the efficacy of climate change educational programs: personal relevance and meaning; engaging teaching strategies; deliberative discussions; interaction with scientists; identification and resolution of misunderstandings; and application of school or community projects.

At the classroom and teaching level, it is essential that education on climate change and environmental education, in general, utilize existing technology as a tool. The terms and concepts are often difficult to grasp. The use of specialized images and videos, even incorporating AI, could improve outcomes and reduce misunderstandings. Realistic images appear to more effectively promote awareness [90], thus their use could be particularly helpful [12], as well as the use of documentaries or videos. The use of technology also supports this approach, provided the programs are suitable for the age group they are used with [82].

Educational initiatives that increase awareness and a feeling of responsibility can help shape attitudes and behaviors toward climate change as well as the acceptance of practices for mitigating and adapting. These interventions are more effective when concentrated on local problems involving personal participation [82]. Such a program might include monitoring aspects of the local environment with an emphasis on their preservation [7] and the potential consequences that are already occurring or are expected to occur. Local observation could thus reduce psychological distance, helping children realize the proximity of the impacts of climate change and perceive the phenomenon not as something distant, but as having immediate and observable consequences. Education can, beyond its fundamental principles, be enriched with themes depending on the living area of the students, with differentiation based on which regions pollute more and which are more affected. For example, there is a high environmental risk for the regions of Thessaly, Eastern Macedonia, and Thrace, while income in these regions is low [65].

As numerous past studies have shown, students often do not believe that climate change has or will have significant impacts on an individual or societal level [91]. Other studies indicate that awareness of the consequences of climate change can evoke anxiety, fear, sadness, and anger in children. Dealing with these emotional responses and enabling young people to act will help them meet the difficulties presented by climate change [8]. Moreover, emphasizing just negative effects without providing any feasible remedies might cause anxiety and a feeling of powerlessness [67]. The social aspect of a hands-on program helps students understand their power and ability to influence events [7], which is very important. Pruneau et al. [7] mention that despite the positive outcomes of their research from the implementation of an interactive local program, students seem to need more time to assimilate knowledge and be encouraged to adopt new behaviors. Anderson [82] suggests that education on environmental change should be integrated into all existing subject areas. However, we argue that, beyond this, it is necessary to introduce a separate interdisciplinary theme within the curriculum. Its integration into other subjects can be particularly helpful and function as a supplementary approach.

On the other hand, it is important not to overlook the relationship between humans and the environment in conjunction with other socio-cultural systems, with the ultimate goal of sustainable development [92]. The interdisciplinarity of climate change education must be a fundamental element of it.

Young people have demonstrated active participation in environmental activism, showing determination and optimism for a better future [8]. What we owe to the younger generation is to provide climate change education that promotes, among other things, individual self-regulation skills, specific adaptation strategies, and support actions at both local and global levels.

5.2. Goal Setting

Based on the discussion above, short-term and long-term goals can be formulated. These goals are briefly presented in Figure 3 and more detailed in

Table 3. Short-term goals of strategic planning of environmental education for climate change in Greek compulsory education.

Short-Term Goals	Description
Assignment of teaching to specialized Educators	Prioritizing the assignment of EE-related subjects for climate change to educators with scientific backgrounds in environmental studies, ensuring that environmental content is delivered by teachers with relevant expertise.
Strengthening teachers’ training	Creation of training programs for teachers focused on climate change and methods of teaching EE for climate change. Providing tools and resources to integrate EE into their classes.
Integration of Climate Change topics into current curricula	Revision of curricula to include topics related to climate change. Development of interdisciplinary approaches that blend EE with other sciences.
Public Awareness	Organization of awareness and information campaigns on climate change. Collaboration with local communities and organizations to promote EE. Education should be accompanied by the enhancement of behaviors and knowledge within the broader social system.

and

Table 4. Long-term goals of strategic planning of environmental education for climate change in Greek compulsory education.

Long-Term Goals	Description
Deep integration of EE for climate change into the Greek Educational System	Ensuring that EE becomes a fundamental component of compulsory education. This includes the development of a mandatory national framework that clearly defines guidelines and objectives, making EE an integral and required part of the educational curriculum.
Policy and Curriculum Recommendations	Providing specific guidelines for policymakers regarding the revision of educational frameworks. Establishing partnerships with universities and research centers to develop innovative educational programs.

.

6. Conclusions

This paper evaluated, using SWOT and PEST analyses, the efficacy of environmental education for climate change within mandated education in Greece. Apart from the political, economic, social, and technological ones, research exposed the main strengths, shortcomings, opportunities, and hazards. The results highlight two main elements stopping the whole integration of environmental education into the curriculum: the optional character of it and the lack of coordinated legislative support.

Important elements of a whole approach to climate change education have to be addressed: the political framework controlling environmental policies, the economic constraints influencing resource allocation, the social awareness and involvement of teachers and students, and the technological developments providing new instruments for creative learning. These features emphasize the necessity of a deliberate and orderly approach to ensure the effective integration of climate change education.

Several strategic planning suggestions in this paper help to overcome present problems and enable the proper inclusion of climate education into the curriculum. First of all, climate change education should be taught as a basic component of necessary knowledge rather than as a voluntary or extracurricular activity. This calls for adjustments in national education policies to ensure constant application among all educational institutions. Furthermore, experts who are suitably qualified and specialized to maximize instructional efficiency and stop the dissemination of misinterpretations assign climate change education. Strengthening programs for teacher preparation will help to guarantee that teachers possess the necessary tools and techniques to deliver successful environmental education. This should be done with an eye toward including qualified experts who can clearly depict the subtleties of climate change.

Tying climate change education with disciplines including geography, science, economics, and social studies will help to promote a whole knowledge of environmental challenges by means of an interdisciplinary approach. Advancements in digital tools and technologies including virtual simulations, interactive experiences, artificial intelligence-driven learning platforms, and virtual simulations might raise student involvement and knowledge. Furthermore, supporting public awareness and outside-of-the-classroom environmental education among local governments, environmental organizations, and educational institutions will help to support cooperation among them.

Future research should mostly focus on developing a disciplined assessment system and an implementation plan to assess the success of these approaches. If we are to truly progress, though, institutionalizing climate change education inside mandated education calls for a long-term political will. The first priority for policymakers should be ongoing investments in teacher preparation, curriculum development, and technological integration to make sure climate education remains dynamic and sensitive to evolving scientific knowledge. Moreover, evaluating their success, refining strategies, and handling fresh difficulties depends on continuous review of the implemented policies. Greece can build a strong and forward-looking education system allowing the next generations to take informed and proactive action in addressing the climate crisis by supporting cross-sector cooperation and keeping a relentless commitment to educational reform.