Barriers to Sustainable Building Project Performance in Developing Countries: A Case of Ghana and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Abstract

The global building and construction industry faces increasing challenges related to efficiency, performance, and sustainability, which significantly impact project success, particularly in developing economies. The timely and successful completion of building and construction projects is crucial for economic development; however, various barriers hinder effective project execution. This study identifies and empirically analyzes the critical barriers affecting building and construction project performance in two developing countries with distinct economic profiles, Ghana and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). A comprehensive literature review and expert interviews identified fourteen key barriers to project performance, ensuring clarity and technical relevance. Using an empirical questionnaire survey targeting experienced professionals, including contractors, clients, and consultants, the study employed the Relative Importance Index (RII) and Spearman’s correlation analysis to rank and examine the interrelationships between these barriers. The findings reveal that poor communication (RII = 0.831, ranked 1st), project cost and schedule constraints (RII = 0.806, ranked 2nd), and inadequate monitoring and evaluation (RII = 0.786, ranked 3rd) are the most significant barriers to project success in both contexts. These challenges align with global sustainability concerns, particularly Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), which emphasize resilient infrastructure and sustainable urban development. The study highlights the crucial role of decision makers, regulatory frameworks, and financial planning in overcoming these barriers and enhancing project outcomes. By addressing these constraints, the study provides actionable insights for policymakers, project managers, and industry stakeholders to improve project execution efficiency and foster sustainable building and construction practices. Future research should explore adaptive mitigation strategies and technological innovations that enhance project delivery efficiency in developing economies.

1. Introduction

The building and construction industry plays a pivotal role in the economic development of nations, serving as a foundation for infrastructure, including buildings, roads, and bridges [1]. The economic growth of a country is closely linked to its infrastructural advancements, making the efficient execution of building and construction projects a key factor in national development. A typical building construction project involves multiple stakeholders, various phases of work, and public- and private-sector contributions. The successful execution of building and construction projects depends on multiple interrelated factors influencing overall project efficiency, quality, and sustainability. These factors include financial management, stakeholder coordination, regulatory frameworks, workforce productivity, and risk mitigation strategies [2,3]. Understanding and addressing these elements is essential for improving project performance and minimizing delays, cost overruns, and inefficiencies.

Singh and Sharma [4] identified six key factors influencing building and construction project success: financial stability, stakeholder coordination, regulatory compliance, workforce competency, contractor efficiency, and external influences. Financial constraints are a significant barrier to project success, particularly in developing economies with limited access to funding [5]. Late payments, insufficient financial reserves, and poor cash-flow management have been identified as key contributors to project delays [6]. Yap et al. [7] emphasize that economic instability can exacerbate these issues, leading to underfunded projects, cost escalations, and contractor insolvency. Moreover, resource allocation, including material procurement and equipment availability, is crucial in determining project timelines and quality [8]. Successful project completion relies heavily on effective stakeholder collaboration. Poor communication between contractors, clients, consultants, and regulatory bodies often leads to misunderstandings, misaligned project goals, and construction errors [9]. Porras et al. [10] found that strong inter-stakeholder relationships facilitate better decision making, smoother workflows, and enhanced project oversight. Additionally, stakeholder involvement in early project planning has been shown to mitigate risks and improve execution [11].

Regulatory compliance ensures building and construction projects’ safety, quality, and environmental sustainability [12]. However, many developing countries’ inefficient permitting processes, procedural delays, and weak enforcement mechanisms hinder project progress [13]. Al-Suliman [14] highlighted that complex administrative procedures and inconsistent policy implementation contribute to project delays in Saudi Arabia. Similarly, Ghana’s lack of stringent building-code enforcement has resulted in substandard construction practices and safety violations [15]. A skilled workforce is also essential to project success [16]. Bamfo-Agyei et al. [17] assert that enhanced labor productivity leads to higher profitability, better project outcomes, and increased competitiveness. However, many construction industries, especially in low-income countries, suffer from labor shortages, lack of specialized training, and insufficient safety awareness [18]. Vocational training programs and investment in skill development are necessary to improve workforce efficiency and project quality [19].

Risk management strategies, including proactive safety measures, environmental impact assessments, and resilience planning, are critical for long-term project sustainability [20]. Moazami et al. [21] note that climate change and extreme weather conditions pose significant risks to building and construction projects, necessitating adaptive design and material choices. Similarly, Rady et al. [22] stress the importance of comprehensive monitoring and evaluation frameworks to track project performance and ensure adherence to quality standards.

This study addresses the limited research on barriers affecting building and construction project performance in developing economies, particularly in Ghana and KSA. The lack of comparative, country-specific analysis has led to inefficiencies in project execution, cost overruns, and delays, influencing economic growth and sustainable development. Given the construction sector’s crucial role in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment, and infrastructure expansion, understanding these barriers is essential for improving project management, regulatory frameworks, and financial planning. This study fills a gap in the literature by identifying and ranking the key barriers through empirical analysis, offering insights for policymakers, industry professionals, and researchers. The findings provide targeted recommendations to enhance project execution efficiency while contributing to the broader discourse on sustainable construction in developing economies.

The selection of Saudi Arabia and Ghana as case studies is based on their distinct economic and construction industry profiles, which provide a comparative perspective on the challenges hindering building project performance. Saudi Arabia, the largest economy in the Middle East, has a construction sector experiencing rapid growth, primarily driven by the Vision 2030 initiative [23]. This initiative aims to diversify the economy and invest heavily in infrastructure development. Despite these advancements, the Saudi construction industry faces persistent challenges, including cost overruns, regulatory inefficiencies, skilled labor shortages, and bureaucratic delays [23].

Conversely, Ghana is a lower-income developing country, and the construction sector is a crucial contributor to economic growth [24]. However, Ghana’s construction industry encounters significant obstacles, including inadequate funding, inefficient project management, weak enforcement of building regulations, and a lack of skilled labor. Moreover, the country’s economic instability and fluctuating exchange rates exacerbate financial constraints in construction projects [24]. By analyzing these two contrasting economies, one represents a high-income, resource-abundant country with regulatory complexity and a developing country with financial and institutional challenges. This study aims to better understand how different economic, regulatory, and cultural contexts influence construction project performance.

The paper is constructed into six sections. The first section is the former introduction to the building and construction project performance. The second is a thorough literature review to extract the main barriers hindering building project performance in developing countries. The third is the Materials and Methods section, which describes how the study is applied and data gathered. The results, analysis, and discussion sections follow, where the data are analyzed and insights are developed. The final section is the Conclusions section, which provides general findings and potential development recommendations.

2. Literature Review

The performance of building and construction projects is evaluated based on key performance indicators (KPIs) such as time, cost, quality, and stakeholder satisfaction. Successful project execution requires the efficient integration of financial, technical, and managerial resources to meet project objectives [15]. However, external factors, including economic conditions, regulatory frameworks, and environmental constraints, significantly impact project outcomes [25]. In developing economies, delays and cost overruns are prevalent due to inadequate planning, inefficient monitoring, and a lack of skilled labor [21]. Addressing these challenges necessitates understanding critical barriers that hinder project performance, which are discussed in the following sections. The present study aims to compare the performance of building and construction projects between Ghana and KSA by extracting the main barriers hindering the projects’ performance from the literature and determining which factors are the most important according to the professionals and practitioners of the industry in each country.

2.1. The Building and Construction Industry in KSA

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia boasts the largest economy in the Middle East and ranks the eighteenth largest globally [26]. A permanent and founding member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Saudi Arabia also holds membership within the G20 forum as one of the world’s largest economies [27]. Saudi Arabia’s building and construction industry is a key driver of economic growth, bolstered by Vision 2030, which prioritizes infrastructure expansion through megaprojects. Despite its rapid growth, previous research highlights persistent challenges, including regulatory inefficiencies, financial constraints, labor shortages, and project delays. Al-Suliman [14] identified procedural delays and inconsistent regulatory enforcement as major obstacles slowing down project approvals in KSA. Similarly, Hijazi [28] emphasized the impact of funding delays and fluctuating oil prices, which affect financial stability and project continuity. The heavy reliance on foreign labor has also created challenges, as Carlgren et al. [29] found that Saudization policies aimed at increasing local workforce participation have led to skill shortages and project inefficiencies.

In addition to labor and financial constraints, project management inefficiencies remain critical. Rady et al. [22] examined risk management practices and found that poor safety compliance and ineffective monitoring frameworks contribute to delays and cost overruns. Pour Rahimian et al. [25] explored the adoption of Building Information Modeling (BIM) in KSA and found that limited digital literacy, resistance to change, and inadequate training have hindered the implementation of innovative construction technologies. Furthermore, Gonzalez-Porras et al. [10] highlighted how poor stakeholder coordination and communication breakdowns negatively affect large-scale projects, especially those involving international firms.

Research suggests that regulatory reforms, improved financial strategies, workforce development programs, and enhanced technology integration are viable solutions to these challenges. Al-Suliman [14] advocated for streamlined permit approval processes and better regulatory enforcement to minimize delays. GlobalData [30] emphasized the role of public–private partnerships (PPPs) in mitigating financial risks and reducing project funding gaps. Additionally, Hijazi [28] recommended expanding vocational training programs to enhance workforce competency, while Pour Rahimian et al. [25] suggested promoting BIM adoption and AI-driven project management to improve efficiency. Addressing these barriers is essential for sustainable growth and successful project execution in Saudi Arabia’s construction sector.

2.2. The Building and Construction Industry in Ghana

On the other hand, Ghana is a low-income country with decelerated GDP growth from 3.8% in 2022 to 2.9% in 2023 due to macroeconomic instability and external factors [31]. Ghana’s construction industry is a vital contributor to economic development, accounting for approximately 7.2% of the country’s GDP [31]. Despite its importance, the sector faces persistent challenges, including funding shortages, weak regulatory enforcement, labor inefficiencies, and project delays [15,24]. Bamfo-Agyei et al. [17] highlighted that limited access to credit, high loan interest rates, and financial mismanagement significantly affect project completion rates. Similarly, Rady et al. [22] found that inefficient procurement processes and inconsistent government funding for public projects have led to frequent cost overruns and contractor disputes. Furthermore, Ghana’s inadequate enforcement of building codes and lack of regulatory oversight have resulted in substandard construction quality and safety concerns [28].

Workforce-related challenges also hinder project performance, as Ghana’s construction sector suffers from a shortage of skilled labor and insufficient vocational training programs. Kissi et al. [15] found that a lack of continuous professional development opportunities for workers contributes to low productivity and poor workmanship. Additionally, Pour Rahimian et al. [25] emphasized that limited adoption of modern construction technologies, such as BIM and automation, has slowed efficiency improvements in Ghana’s construction projects. Stakeholder coordination also presents a significant challenge, as Gonzalez-Porras et al. [10] observed that miscommunication and unclear project roles between contractors, consultants, and government agencies frequently result in project delays and disputes.

Previous research has recommended policy reforms, increased investment in workforce training, and enhanced technological integration to address these challenges. Hijazi [28] suggested that each government should strengthen regulatory enforcement to improve safety and compliance with building standards. Bamfo-Agyei et al. [17] advocated for financial interventions to support contractors facing liquidity issues, such as low-interest construction loans and government-backed funding schemes. Additionally, Pour Rahimian et al. [25] recommended promoting digital construction management tools to improve project efficiency, while Rady et al. [22] emphasized the importance of monitoring and evaluation frameworks to track progress and ensure quality control. Implementing these measures is essential to enhancing Ghana’s construction sector and mitigating long-standing industry barriers.

Although Saudi Arabia’s construction market size is far more extensive than Ghana’s, the construction industry contributes significantly to both countries’ economies. Thus, the results of this study could be extrapolated to have significance in other high-come and low-income countries, as the construction industries of Saudi Arabia and Ghana are representative of the construction industries in high- and low-income countries, respectively.

2.3. Key Barriers Affecting Construction Project Success

From a thorough review of the literature, fourteen factors have been identified as important to the success of building projects with no specific order of importance, as shown in Figure 1. These barriers were well documented and applied within the research framework during 2024 to explore research published in journals, books, and studies on building project performance. The organization of the literature review was based upon two criteria: the journal is indexed in databases such as the Science Citation Index and Engineering Index Compendex database, and the topics are related to building project performance. The literature then enables the investigation of the barriers to building project performance in KSA and Ghana.

Table 1. Project performance barriers mapped against key references.

Code	Barrier	Source(s)
B1	Climate-change resilience	[21,32,33,34,35]
B2	Project cost and schedule	[7,8,11,14,36,37,38,39]
B3	Cultural awareness	[29,40,41,42]
B4	Monitoring and evaluation of projects	[15,25,43,44,45]
B5	Prompt material supply	[46,47,48,49,50]
B6	Inter-stakeholder influence	[10,22,51,52,53,54]
B7	Labor productivity	[16,17,55]
B8	Poor communication	[7,9,37,40,56,57,58]
B9	Financial problems	[6,7,59,60,61,62]
B10	Lack of plant/equipment	[63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70]
B11	Quality of workmanship	[28,46,71]
B12	Building regulations	[72,73,74,75]
B13	Safety regulations	[76,77,78,79,80]
B14	Variation and error in design	[38,81,82,83,84,85]

presents a comprehensive mapping of the extracted barriers that hinder project performance in the building and construction sector. The barriers identified range from external factors such as climate-change resilience (B1) to internal project management challenges like financial problems (B9) and poor communication (B8). Each barrier is supported by multiple references, indicating the depth of research conducted on these issues.

Table 2. Project performance barriers in building and construction projects.

Code	Barrier	Description
Project Management and Planning Issues
B2	Project cost and schedule	Cost overruns and schedule delays arise from poor budgeting, inaccurate forecasting, and inefficient project management practices [37,56].
B4	Monitoring and evaluation of projects	Effective monitoring and evaluation are critical to project success, ensuring adherence to timelines, objectives, work quality, and budgets [25].
B5	Prompt material supply	Timely procurement and supply of construction materials are crucial, as materials account for approximately 60% of the total project budget [46].
B10	Lack of plant/equipment	Insufficient equipment availability reduces productivity and project inefficiencies [63,64].
Human and Organizational Factors
B3	Cultural awareness	Cultural differences influence communication, work ethics, and decision making, impacting project collaboration and stakeholder engagement.
B6	Inter-stakeholder influence	Stakeholder involvement contributes to project success by leveraging industry expertise, past experiences, and decision-making insights [10,22].
B7	Labor productivity	Worker productivity is key to construction success, affecting profitability, competitiveness, and project timelines [17].
B8	Poor communication	Communication failures lead to project delays, misunderstandings, and lack of awareness, impacting project outcomes [37,56,57].
Financial and Economic Constraints
B9	Financial problems	Cash-flow issues, late payments, and unstable financial markets cause project delays and disruptions [7].
Regulatory and Safety Compliance
B12	Building regulations	Regulations ensure safety and structural integrity but can delay projects if compliance is not met [72,73].
B13	Safety regulations	Enforcing safety protocols reduces onsite accidents, improves worker productivity, and enhances project efficiency [76,77].
Design and Construction Issues
B1	Climate-change resilience	Climate change impacts construction projects by affecting material durability, site conditions, and resource availability, requiring adaptive strategies to mitigate risks.
B11	Quality of workmanship	Poor workmanship affects building durability, serviceability, and aesthetics, increasing maintenance costs and project risk [28].
B14	Variation and error in design	Errors in architectural design contribute to cost overruns, safety risks, and project delays, with variations accounting for up to 36% of budget increases [26,81].

contains a classification of project performance barriers in building and construction projects, categorized into project management, human and organizational factors, financial constraints, regulatory compliance, and design issues. This structured approach facilitates a clearer understanding of the critical challenges affecting project success and informs targeted mitigation strategies.

3. Materials and Methods

The study investigates and identifies the barriers affecting the performance of building and construction projects in developing countries, using Ghana and KSA as case studies. A quantitative approach was adopted, which started with a comprehensive literature review, a structured questionnaire survey, and statistical data analysis. Figure 2 outlines the sequence of the research process to maintain transparency on how the research was conducted.

3.1. Literature Review Method

A systematic literature review was conducted to identify key barriers to construction project performance. Fourteen (14) barriers were extracted from previous studies and categorized based on their relevance and frequency in the literature (Table 1). Given the criticality of these barriers, a Relative Importance Index (RII) ranking was performed to prioritize them for decision making. The literature further highlights recurring challenges in construction projects, such as cost overruns, delays, and inadequate planning, emphasizing the need for an empirical investigation into these barriers within the case-study countries.

3.2. Questionnaire Survey

A structured questionnaire survey was conducted among construction professionals in Ghana and KSA to assess the identified barriers empirically (Appendix A). The questionnaire aimed to capture professional perspectives on the barriers affecting the successful execution of building and construction projects. To ensure a structured and comprehensive approach, the questionnaire was divided into three main sections: (1) Respondent Demographics, (2) Identification and Ranking of Barriers, and (3) Additional Insights on Project Challenges.

3.2.1. Questionnaire Design

The survey consisted of twenty-five questions, including five demographic questions that collected data on respondents’ roles, years of experience, education levels, and sector involvement to assess their relevance to the study; fourteen barrier assessment questions utilizing a five-point Likert scale; and six open-ended questions designed to capture additional insights on specific challenges and propose potential mitigation strategies beyond the predefined barriers.

3.2.2. Pre-Survey Validation

A two-stage validation process was conducted before full-scale distribution: an expert review, where a pilot test was conducted with 15 industry experts to refine the questionnaire to ensure clarity of technical terms and contextual relevance [86], and finalization, where, based on expert feedback, the finalized questionnaire was structured using a five-point Likert scale, allowing respondents to rank the severity of each barrier from (1) Strongly Disagree to (5) Strongly Agree [87].

3.2.3. Survey Distribution and Data Collection

The study employed a purposive sampling approach, targeting professionals with direct experience in construction project planning, execution, and management. The inclusion criteria required participants to have at least five years of industry experience and hold roles as contractors, consultants, or clients in the construction sector. The questionnaire was distributed via Google Forms to targeted professionals in both countries using a convenience sampling approach [88]. Participants provided insights on their perceptions of the barriers within their organizational and project contexts.

Table 3. Responses to the questionnaire survey.

No	Main Information	Number	Percent (%)	Comments
1	Distributed	150	100
2	Received	115	77
3	Accepted	98	65	Ghana: 50, KSA: 48
4	Excluded	17	11	Incomplete or invalid responses

presents an overview of the survey responses:

The final dataset comprised 98 valid responses, representing 85% of returned surveys and 65% of distributed questionnaires. This response rate is significantly higher than that of similar studies conducted in Saudi Arabia, which typically achieve around 35% response rates [89,90]. The sample size was adequate for statistical analysis, including RII calculations and Spearman’s correlation analysis.

3.3. Data Reliability and Validity

To assess the reliability and internal consistency of the collected data, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) was calculated. A minimum reliability threshold of 0.70 is generally considered acceptable [91]. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the 14 barriers was 0.82, indicating strong reliability and credibility for further statistical analysis.

3.4. Relative Important Index (RII)

The Relative Importance Index (RII) quantifies and prioritizes the barriers affecting construction project performance. This method is widely applied in construction research to evaluate the significance of different factors [87,92]. The RII was calculated using Equation (1):

RII = ∑ (a.x)∗100/5

(1)

where

a = constant (weight) 1−5, x = n/N, n = Frequency of responses, and N = Number of responses.

This ranking enabled a structured comparison of the barriers, providing valuable insights for policymakers and industry professionals.

4. Results

The data collected from respondents provide insights into the perceived challenges in the construction industry. The findings highlight key barriers affecting project success, focusing on efficiency, performance, and sustainability. Given the dynamic nature of construction projects and increasing competition, ensuring project success is crucial, particularly in developing countries such as KSA and Ghana, where infrastructure development is a national priority.

4.1. Participants Demographic

The study surveyed professionals and stakeholders in the construction industry to capture a holistic view of the challenges encountered.

Table 4. Respondents’ characteristics.

Respondents’ Characteristics	Frequency (n = 98)	Percentage
Type of organization
Contractor	29	29.7%
Consultant	43	43.8%
Client	26	26.5%
Working Experience
5–10 years	37	37.9%
10–15 years	20	20.4%
15–20 years	17	17.3%
More than 20 years	24	24.4%
Education
Diploma	13	13.2%
Bachelor	44	44.8%
Master	33	33.6%
Ph.D.	8	8.4%
Type of Sector
Infrastructure	46	46.9%
Commercial Building	18	18.3%
Residential	24	24.4%
Utility	10	10.4%

presents a breakdown of respondents and includes key variables such as organizational role (contractor, consultant, client), years of experience (categorized as 5–10, 11–15, 16–20, and over 20 years), educational qualifications (diploma, bachelor’s, master’s, Ph.D.), and sectoral involvement (infrastructure, residential, commercial, utilities). These demographic details offer valuable insights into the professional background of respondents and their perspectives on construction industry challenges.

The distribution includes contractors, consultants, and clients, reflecting the diversity of roles in the industry. Respondents’ experience ranges from 5 to over 20 years, ensuring a balanced dataset capturing perspectives from seasoned professionals and emerging practitioners. Regarding educational attainment, most respondents (44.8%) hold a bachelor’s degree, followed by 33.6% with a master’s degree. Only 8.4% had a Ph.D., while 13.2% possessed a diploma. This suggests that the industry comprises professionals with undergraduate qualifications, which may indicate a need for more advanced training and education in construction management and emerging technologies.

The sectoral distribution of respondents indicates that 46.9% are engaged in infrastructure projects, making it the most represented sector. This is followed by 24.4% in residential construction, 18.3% in commercial projects, and 10.4% in utilities. The high concentration of professionals in infrastructure projects aligns with national development priorities, particularly in rapidly growing economies such as KSA and Ghana, where large-scale public works and transportation projects are central to economic progress. Conversely, the lower representation in the utility sector may suggest challenges related to investment, policy constraints, or the complexity of integrating modern technologies into service delivery.

4.2. Relative Importance Index (RII) Analysis of the Barriers

The RII method was employed to rank the barriers affecting construction projects in KSA and Ghana, providing a comparative perspective on the key challenges encountered in both regions.

Table 5. Relative Importance Index (RII) for both countries with ranking.

Code	Barrier	KSA		Ghana
		RII	Ranking	RII	Ranking
B1	Climate-change resilience	0.692	9	0.736	7
B2	Project cost and schedule	0.767	4	0.844	1
B3	Cultural awareness	0.675	10	0.624	11
B4	Monitoring and evaluation of projects	0.783	3	0.788	5
B5	Prompt material supply	0.729	7	0.772	6
B6	Inter-stakeholder influence	0.767	4	0.792	4
B7	Labor productivity	0.617	13	0.6	12
B8	Poor communication	0.829	1	0.832	2
B9	Financial problems	0.746	5	0.812	3
B10	Lack of plant/equipment	0.717	8	0.78	5
B11	Quality of workmanship	0.742	6	0.788	5
B12	Building regulations	0.642	11	0.716	9
B13	Safety regulations	0.621	12	0.708	10
B14	Variation and error in design	0.792	2	0.724	8

presents these rankings, highlighting similarities and distinctions between the two contexts. “Poor communication” emerged as the most significant barrier in KSA, while it ranked second in Ghana, underscoring its critical role in project execution and stakeholder coordination. Conversely, “Project cost and schedule constraints” was ranked as the most pressing issue in Ghana, whereas it placed fourth in KSA, reflecting the financial limitations that pose a more substantial challenge in Ghana’s economic environment. Additionally, “Variation and error in design” was ranked as the second-highest barrier in KSA, emphasizing the considerable impact of design deficiencies on construction project outcomes.

As shown in

Table 6. Relative Importance Index (RII) for both countries combined.

Code	Barrier	RII	Rank
B1	Climate-change resilience	0.714	9
B2	Project cost and schedule	0.806	2
B3	Cultural awareness	0.649	12
B4	Monitoring and evaluation of projects	0.786	3
B5	Prompt material supply	0.751	7
B6	Inter-stakeholder influence	0.780	4
B7	Labor productivity	0.608	13
B8	Poor communication	0.831	1
B9	Financial problems	0.780	4
B10	Lack of plant/equipment	0.749	8
B11	Quality of workmanship	0.765	5
B12	Building regulations	0.680	10
B13	Safety regulations	0.665	11
B14	Variation and error in design	0.757	6

, the combined ranking of barriers provides a broader perspective by averaging the RII scores from both countries. “Poor communication” (RII = 0.831) emerged as the most significant barrier overall, reinforcing its role in project inefficiencies and potential delays. “Project cost and schedule constraints” (RII = 0.806) ranked as the second-highest issue, highlighting the pervasive financial challenges influencing project feasibility. The third most critical factor was “Monitoring and evaluation of projects” (RII = 0.786), underlining the necessity of effective oversight mechanisms to ensure regulatory compliance, quality assurance, and timely project delivery.

4.3. Correlation Analysis for the Barriers

Spearman’s correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among barriers and identify significant associations between key factors influencing construction project success. The results in

Table 7. Spearman’s correlation analysis for the 14 identified barriers.

Barriers		B1	B2	B3	B4	B5	B6	B7	B8	B9	B10	B11	B12	B13	B14
B1—Climate-change resilience	Corr	1	0.281 **	0.221 *	0.164	0.191	0.161	0.276 **	0.116	0.205 *	0.217 *	0.132	0.107	0.271 **	0.179
	p-value	.	0.005	0.029	0.106	0.059	0.113	0.006	0.256	0.043	0.032	0.195	0.292	0.007	0.077
B2—Project cost and schedule	Corr	0.281 **	1	0.223 *	0.209 *	0.350 **	0.250 *	0.211 *	0.185	0.291 **	0.262 **	0.208 *	0.169	0.202 *	0.162
	p-value	0.005	.	0.027	0.039	<0.001	0.013	0.037	0.068	0.004	0.009	0.04	0.097	0.047	0.11
B3—Cultural awareness	Corr	0.221 *	0.223 *	1	0.224 *	0.172	0.136	0.297 **	0.082	0.220 *	0.102	0.15	0.303 **	0.191	0.239 *
	p-value	0.029	0.027	.	0.026	0.091	0.182	0.003	0.422	0.03	0.316	0.141	0.002	0.06	0.018
B4—Monitoring and evaluation of projects	Corr	0.164	0.209 *	0.224 *	1	0.455 **	0.424 **	0.240 *	0.330 **	0.059	0.378 **	0.327 **	0.004	−0.012	0.439 **
	p-value	0.106	0.039	0.026	.	<0.001	<0.001	0.017	<0.001	0.565	<0.001	0.001	0.97	0.908	<0.001
B5—Prompt material supply	Corr	0.191	0.350 **	0.172	0.455 **	1	0.434 **	0.445 **	0.328 **	0.327 **	0.420 **	.449 **	0.158	0.045	0.372 **
	p-value	0.059	<0.001	0.091	<0.001	.	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	0.001	<0.001	<.001	0.121	0.66	<0.001
B6—Inter-stakeholder influence	Corr	0.161	0.250 *	0.136	0.424 **	0.434 **	1	0.297 **	0.500 **	0.254 *	0.293 **	0.352 **	0.018	−0.087	0.423 **
	p-value	0.113	0.013	0.182	<0.001	<0.001	.	0.003	<0.001	0.012	0.003	<0.001	0.86	0.397	<0.001
B7—Labor productivity	Corr	0.276 **	0.211 *	0.297 **	0.240 *	0.445 **	0.297 **	1	0.241 *	0.308 **	0.342**	0.275 **	0.328 **	0.250 *	0.354 **
	p-value	0.006	0.037	0.003	0.017	<0.001	0.003	.	0.017	0.002	<.001	0.006	<0.001	0.013	<0.001
B8—Poor communication	Corr	0.116	0.185	0.082	0.330 **	0.328 **	0.500 **	0.241 *	1	0.341 **	0.365 **	0.341 **	0.112	0.093	0.288 **
	p-value	0.256	0.068	0.422	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	0.017	.	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	0.272	0.361	0.004
B9—Financial problems	Corr	0.205 *	0.291 **	0.220 *	0.059	0.327 **	0.254 *	0.308 **	0.341 **	1	0.296 **	0.196	0.261 **	0.14	0.146
	p-value	0.043	0.004	0.03	0.565	0.001	0.012	0.002	<0.001	.	0.003	0.053	0.01	0.17	0.153
B10—Lack of plant/equipment	Corr	0.217 *	0.262 **	0.102	0.378 **	0.420 **	0.293 **	0.342 **	0.365 **	0.296 **	1	0.411 **	0.155	0.085	0.277 **
	p-value	0.032	0.009	0.316	<.001	<0.001	0.003	<0.001	<.001	0.003	.	<0.001	0.129	0.408	0.006
B11—Quality of workmanship	Corr	0.132	0.208 *	0.15	0.327 **	0.449 **	0.352 **	0.275 **	0.341 **	0.196	0.411 **	1	0.02	−0.159	0.295 **
	p-value	0.195	0.04	0.141	0.001	<0.001	<.001	0.006	<.001	0.053	<0.001	.	0.848	0.118	0.003
B12—Building regulations	Corr	0.107	0.169	0.303 **	0.004	0.158	0.018	0.328 **	0.112	0.261 **	0.155	0.02	1	0.603 **	0.246*
	p-value	0.292	0.097	0.002	0.97	0.121	0.86	<0.001	0.272	0.01	0.129	0.848	.	<0.001	0.015
B13—Safety regulations	Corr	0.271 **	0.202 *	0.191	−0.012	0.045	−0.087	0.250 *	0.093	0.14	0.085	−0.159	0.603 **	1	−0.04
	p-value	0.007	0.047	0.06	0.908	0.66	0.397	0.013	0.361	0.17	0.408	0.118	<0.001	.	0.696
B14—Variation and error in design	Corr	0.179	0.162	0.239 *	0.439 **	0.372 **	0.423 **	0.354 **	0.288 **	0.146	0.277 **	0.295 **	0.246 *	−0.04	1
	p-value	0.077	0.11	0.018	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	0.004	0.153	0.006	0.003	0.015	0.696	.

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed); ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

reveal strong positive correlations between several barriers, highlighting the interdependencies that affect project performance.

The most pronounced correlation was observed between “Monitoring and evaluation of projects” (B4) and “Building regulations” (B12), with a coefficient of r = 0.97 (p < 0.001). Similarly, “Monitoring and evaluation of projects” (B4) and “Safety regulations” (B13) exhibited a strong correlation of r = 0.908 (p < 0.001), emphasizing the role of oversight mechanisms in maintaining workplace safety and minimizing accidents.

On the other hand, the weakest relationship was found between “Cultural awareness” (B3) and “Variation and error in design” (B14), with a correlation of r = 0.018, indicating a negligible association. This suggests that cultural factors have a minimal influence on design-related challenges in construction projects, likely because technical and regulatory aspects play a more dominant role in determining design quality.

5. Analysis and Discussion

5.1. Barriers Hindering Building Project Performance in KSA

The most prominent challenge identified by respondents in Saudi Arabia is poor communication (B8), with an RII value of 0.829, indicating a lack of effective coordination among stakeholders. This barrier significantly influences project efficiency, leading to misunderstandings, misaligned expectations, and potential delays. These findings align with previous studies [15,92,93,94,95], emphasizing that ineffective communication results in unclear project objectives and stakeholder conflicts. A lack of structured communication channels within construction organizations or among shareholders contributes to resource mismanagement and overall project failure [13,87,89]. To mitigate this, it is essential to establish comprehensive communication protocols, mandatory employee training programs, and structured feedback mechanisms to improve clarity and coordination in project execution.

Beyond communication issues, respondents identified variation and error in design (B14) as another critical barrier. The inconsistent application of design standards and frequent modifications lead to cost overruns and construction delays. This finding highlights the need for enhanced design-validation processes, standardized protocols, and the integration of digital tools such as BIM to reduce errors and streamline the design process. Automated design validation and real-time stakeholder feedback mechanisms can minimize rework and enhance project efficiency. Monitoring and evaluating projects (B4) also ranked among the top barriers, emphasizing the necessity of leadership commitment to project oversight and risk management.

5.2. Barriers Hindering Building Project Performance in Ghana

In Ghana, project cost and schedule constraints (B2) were ranked as the most significant barrier (RII = 0.844), reflecting construction firms’ financial constraints and resource-allocation challenges. This is consistent with previous research [96,97,98], highlighting the impact of budget fluctuations, material price volatility, and limited access to credit on project feasibility. Poor financial planning often leads to disruptions in cash flow, procurement delays, and the ineffectiveness of workforce deployment. Addressing this challenge requires improved budget forecasting, risk mitigation strategies, and increased government–private-sector collaboration to ensure steady project funding.

Poor communication (B8), variation and error in design (B14), and financial problems (B9) were also ranked highly, reinforcing the importance of structured communication channels, rigorous design validation, and robust financial management. The ranking of these barriers underscores the challenges in coordination among stakeholders, inconsistent adherence to project designs, and the economic volatility that influences resource availability.

Unlike Saudi Arabia, where labor productivity ranked as a minor concern, labor productivity (B7) in Ghana was considered a more significant factor than previously reported in similar studies. While this study ranked it lower than other barriers, previous research [16,99] suggests that higher workforce efficiency increases profitability, competitiveness, and improved project outcomes in labor-intensive construction environments. This implies that while Ghana has developed strategies to optimize worker performance, additional workforce training and incentives could improve productivity.

5.3. Comparison of Findings Between KSA and Ghana

A comparative analysis of construction project barriers in KSA and Ghana reveals common challenges and distinct differences shaped by economic, structural, and technological factors. While both countries experience significant issues related to poor communication (B8), cost and schedule constraints (B2), and inadequate monitoring and evaluation (B4), the underlying causes and mitigation strategies vary based on industry maturity, financial stability, and workforce dynamics.

Across both KSA and Ghana, poor communication (B8) consistently ranks among the most critical barriers. Ineffective stakeholder coordination leads to misunderstandings, delays, and inefficient project execution. In KSA, communication challenges are often linked to complex procedural structures and multi-layered project management hierarchies. In contrast, in Ghana, fragmented communication stems from a lack of standardized reporting frameworks and limited digital collaboration tools. Implementing centralized communication platforms, real-time reporting mechanisms, and stakeholder engagement initiatives can significantly improve project coordination in both contexts.

Similarly, cost and schedule constraints (B2) emerged as a significant barrier in both countries, but with differing underlying causes. In KSA, financial challenges are primarily driven by budget misallocations, regulatory inefficiencies, and cost overruns in large-scale projects. In Ghana, economic instability, fluctuating material prices, and restricted access to credit create significant project financing obstacles [97,98]. Addressing these constraints requires flexible cost-estimation models, financial risk mitigation strategies, and improved procurement planning to ensure project viability.

Monitoring and evaluation (B4) ranked as a high-impact barrier in both nations, underscoring the need for stronger regulatory oversight and performance-tracking mechanisms. In KSA, extensive regulatory requirements often delay project approvals, whereas in Ghana, insufficient monitoring frameworks result in poor compliance and inconsistent project assessments. Strengthening compliance audits, integrating digital project-tracking tools, and enforcing regulatory adherence can enhance monitoring effectiveness in both regions.

While labor productivity (B7) ranked last in both countries, the reasons for this vary. In KSA, the reliance on modern machinery reduces the impact of workforce inefficiencies, whereas in Ghana, labor productivity improvements have been actively pursued to enhance overall project success. This suggests that automation and digital integration play a more significant role in KSA, while Ghana still benefits from refining workforce strategies.

5.4. Correlation Analysis Findings

Another crucial finding is the significant correlation between “Monitoring and evaluation of projects” and “Building and safety regulations” (r = 0.97 and r = 0.908, respectively). This strong association demonstrates that projects with rigorous oversight frameworks tend to comply better with legal and safety standards. This highlights the importance of developing structured project-monitoring systems integrating performance analytics and compliance tracking. Government agencies and building and construction firms should strengthen inspection protocols and adopt real-time data collection tools to ensure safety and quality standards adherence.

Interestingly, cultural awareness ranked among the least significant barriers, suggesting that cross-cultural differences do not significantly hinder project execution in KSA and Ghana. However, this may not hold for international collaboration projects where diverse stakeholder expectations and communication styles could influence project outcomes. Cultural competency training and cross-border project management strategies can enhance collaboration. These findings reinforce the importance of strategic interventions to overcome barriers in construction projects. By implementing data-driven solutions, project stakeholders can enhance project efficiency, reduce delays, and support sustainable development in KSA and Ghana.

5.5. Strategic Recommendations

A comprehensive, multi-faceted strategy is required to effectively address the identified barriers in the construction industries of KSA and Ghana. These recommendations focus on improving stakeholder communication, financial planning, project monitoring, and technological integration, ensuring sustainable and efficient project execution.

One of the primary strategies for mitigating project inefficiencies is enhancing stakeholder communication. Establishing centralized communication platforms and structured reporting frameworks can help minimize misunderstandings and delays. Effective communication ensures that all project participants remain aligned with objectives, reducing conflicts and improving coordination. Implementing real-time collaboration tools, regular stakeholder meetings, and transparent documentation practices can streamline communication processes and foster greater project efficiency [100,101,102,103,104,105].

Optimizing financial and procurement strategies is critical, particularly for mitigating cost overruns and delays. Adopting value-based procurement models, which assess contractors based on expertise, past performance, and efficiency rather than cost alone, can significantly enhance project delivery outcomes. Additionally, incorporating collaborative contracting and strategic supplier partnerships can mitigate supply-chain disruptions and facilitate the timely procurement of materials and resources. These strategies are particularly vital in Ghana, where financial constraints and schedule limitations pose significant challenges to project feasibility [106,107].

Enhancing project monitoring and evaluation is essential for ensuring construction quality, adherence to timelines, and regulatory compliance. Developing comprehensive training programs focused on quality control, leadership development, and continuous professional education can equip industry professionals with the necessary skills to oversee project execution effectively. Additionally, visible leadership commitment to quality initiatives fosters a culture of accountability and continuous improvement. Establishing robust performance-tracking tools, conducting regular audits, and strengthening compliance assessments will enhance project oversight and reduce risks associated with mismanagement and regulatory inefficiencies [107,108,109].

Integrating digital construction technologies can significantly mitigate risks associated with design errors, resource misallocation, and inefficient project execution. Adopting BIM, real-time project-monitoring systems and automation tools can enhance accuracy in design validation, cost estimation, and risk mitigation. In KSA, automation plays a pivotal role in improving efficiency, whereas in Ghana, investing in mechanization and workforce training in digital tools can enhance productivity. Implementing data-driven decision-making processes and predictive analytics will optimize project planning and reduce uncertainties.

Table 8. Comparative analysis of key barriers.

Barrier	Ranking in KSA	Ranking in Ghana	Contextual Factors Influencing the Rankings	Proposed Mitigation Strategies
Poor communication (B8)	1st	2nd	Poor communication is a dominant issue in both countries, often due to a lack of structured coordination, stakeholder misalignment, and inefficient reporting mechanisms.	Implement centralized project communication platforms, stakeholder engagement frameworks, and standardized documentation practices.
Project cost and schedule constraints (B2)	4th	1st	It is more severe in Ghana due to economic instability, fluctuating material costs, and financing challenges. KSA benefits from more substantial financial infrastructure but still faces budgeting challenges.	Develop flexible cost-estimation models, risk management frameworks, and contingency planning for cost control.
Variation and error in design (B14)	2nd	8th	Frequent design modifications and evolving regulatory standards in KSA contribute to a high ranking. Ghana’s ranking is lower, likely due to more straightforward project scopes.	Implement BIM, automated design validation, and real-time stakeholder feedback mechanisms.
Monitoring and evaluation of projects (B4)	3rd	5th	Strong regulatory oversight in KSA increases the importance of monitoring, while in Ghana, resource limitations hinder evaluation effectiveness.	Strengthen real-time performance tracking systems, compliance audits, and standardized reporting mechanisms.
Financial problems (B9)	5th	3rd	Ghana faces more significant financial constraints due to limited access to credit and high borrowing costs, whereas KSA has better financial backing but still faces cash-flow issues.	Promote public–private partnerships (PPPs), improve payment schedules, and establish financial risk management strategies.
Lack of plant/equipment (B10)	8th	5th	This is more significant in Ghana due to limited resources and reliance on imported machinery. KSA has better infrastructure but still experiences procurement delays.	Strengthen local supply chains, introduce leasing options for equipment, and improve procurement planning.
Building regulations (B12)	11th	9th	Ghana faces enforcement issues, while KSA’s complex regulatory environment causes administrative delays.	Streamline regulatory approval processes, improve policy enforcement, and enhance training for compliance officers.
Labor productivity (B7)	13th	12th	Labor-intensive projects in Ghana rely more on manual work, whereas KSA’s construction industry is more mechanized.	Invest in worker training programs, integrate automation where feasible, and improve site management practices.

compares key barriers and mitigation strategies, reinforcing the need for country-specific yet adaptable solutions. By addressing these critical barriers through structured intervention strategies, the construction industries in KSA and Ghana can enhance sustainability, resilience, and overall project efficiency, ultimately contributing to national economic growth and infrastructure advancement.

6. Conclusions

This study provides a significant theoretical contribution to building and construction management by empirically identifying and analyzing the key barriers hindering project success in developing countries, particularly Ghana and KSA. This study:

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Utilized Relative Importance Index (RII) analysis and Spearman’s correlation to offer a structured, data-driven approach to ranking and understanding the interrelationships between these barriers.

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Extended the existing literature by demonstrating that poor communication (B8), project cost and schedule constraints (B2), and inadequate monitoring and evaluation (B4) are universally critical barriers in both economic contexts.

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Contributed to construction project optimization theories by emphasizing the role of stakeholder collaboration, regulatory frameworks, and financial planning in enhancing project success

From a practical perspective, the findings offer valuable insights for construction practitioners, policymakers, and industry stakeholders as the research:

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Highlighted the importance of structured stakeholder engagement, improved financial planning, and regulatory oversight in overcoming significant construction barriers.

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Proposed practical strategies such as:

• Implementing centralized communication platforms to enhance coordination and reduce misunderstandings.
• Adopting value-based procurement models to optimize contractor selection and resource allocation.
• Enhancing project-monitoring systems to ensure regulatory compliance and timely execution.

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Encouraged continued collaboration, innovation, and policy improvements to achieve greater sustainability, resilience, and efficiency in the building industries of KSA and Ghana.

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Supported national economic development by fostering better construction practices and improved infrastructure project outcomes.

Improved planning and compliance reduce waste; optimize energy use, and lower environmental impact. Additionally, better communication and stakeholder collaboration enhance labor productivity, equitable infrastructure access, and overall community well-being. By overcoming these barriers, KSA and Ghana’s construction sectors can achieve greater efficiency, resilience, and sustainability in urban development and infrastructure.

Despite its contributions, this study focuses exclusively on Ghana and KSA, limiting the generalizability of findings to other developing countries with different regulatory and economic environments. Additionally, while the study utilized RII analysis and correlation measures, it did not incorporate longitudinal data to assess how these barriers evolve. Future studies should aim to expand the geographical scope of this research by examining similar barriers in other developing countries across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia to enhance the external validity of the findings. Additionally, incorporating longitudinal studies can provide deeper insights into how construction barriers evolve and how mitigation strategies influences project performance in the long run. Moreover, further research should explore the intersection of construction project management with sustainability and digital innovation, particularly the adoption of BIM, automation, and AI-driven project-monitoring tools. Lastly, assessing the impact of economic fluctuations and policy reforms on project execution would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how financial and regulatory changes influence construction industry dynamics.