Food Waste and Food Prosumption—A Case Study for Sustainable Households in Poland

Abstract

The main aim of the article was to examine the relationship between food waste and variables describing the socio-demographic characteristics of households in Poland, including reference to the prosumer behaviour of households. Do we respect food more if we produce it ourselves? That is the research question the authors have asked themselves. Consumer behaviour related to running a household, including the production of food for own needs and food waste by end consumers, is an interesting research area, especially in this combination. Food prosumption, alongside the issue of food waste, is part of new consumer trends that are an element of sustainable development. In order to explore the issue, our study was conducted using the diagnostic survey method with the CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview) survey technique. The survey was conducted in July 2022 among 1112 respondents. This is a representative population of households in Poland (in terms of gender, age, size of place of residence, and education), with non-random quota sampling. The answers to the questions received were analysed with a chi-square correlation, supported by the Yule effect (φ) and Cramer’s coefficient (V). The correlations, significant though weak, showed a link between food waste and the variables of age, number of children, and number of people in the household. In addition, the majority of respondents believe that food prosumption contributes to reducing food waste within the household where food is produced for own needs.

1. Introduction

Food prosumption is the production of food products in a household (farm, garden, orchard, etc.) in order to meet the needs of people in that particular household. Food prosumption is a very important issue taken up on the political scene, especially in matters of food security, sustainable development, environmental protection, and agricultural policy. The production of quality food for one’s own needs can play an important role in ensuring food security in a given region. In addition, thanks to producing food, households have the knowledge and skills to properly use (and not to waste) the food produced [1]. The analysis of consumer behaviour in households in Poland in the context of food waste is an interesting and current research problem, as a significant percentage of food is wasted in households [2,3]. The problem of food waste is enormous. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 1.3 billion tons of edible food are wasted every year, accounting for 1/3 of the world’s food production. In connection with the European Union’s (EU’s) imposition of an obligation to reduce food losses and waste by 50% by 2030, as well as reporting losses incurred, it became necessary to examine the initial situation in this area in Poland [4].

The main aim of this article is to examine the relationship between food waste and variables describing the socio-demographic characteristics of households in Poland, including reference to the prosumer behaviour of households. The issues raised in the article are important for several reasons. Firstly, the problem of food prosumption is important from the point of view of economics, sustainability, food security, and environmental and health issues [5,6,7,8]. On the other hand, the issue is related to the second very important element of sustainable development and food security, i.e., food waste. This approach to the problem is a novel addition to the research niche. What is new about research on the problem of food waste is that it is linked to the issue of food production in the household. Including prosumers as respondents is an element of originality. Data presented in scientific articles and reports issued by global organisations show that most food waste takes place in households [9,10,11]. But here, a research question arises: Do we respect food more if we produce it ourselves? Does this mean that if we produce food for our own needs, we waste less food in the household? After all, every prosumer is aware of how much time and work it costs to produce food.

The authors adopted the following logical structure for this article. The first part of the article is an introduction laying out the justification for the relevance of the issue, the aim of the research, and the structure of the article. The Literature review section describes definitions related to food waste, ways of counteracting it, and current statistics on this issue. The Materials and Methods section contains a description of the methodology of our own survey research and methods of statistical analysis. The results are presented in the Results section. The article ends with a discussion and a summary containing conclusions and the most important results of the research.

2. Literature Review

According to a European Parliament resolution, food waste refers to the situation in which food products are discarded from the agri-food chain for economic or aesthetic reasons or due to their impending expiry date [12]. This food is often still suitable for human consumption, but, in the absence of a possible alternative use, it is designated for liquidation and disposal. Unfortunately, this phenomenon causes negative externalities in terms of environmental impact, economic costs, and lack of profit for businesses [12] (OJ C, C/227). Food losses and food waste occur at all stages of the food value chain, during agricultural production, processing, transport, storage, and consumption [13,14]. Some authors define food waste as the loss of products that were originally intended for human consumption and were discarded or destroyed at the end of the value chain, i.e., distribution, sale, and final consumption [15].

In turn, the concept of food losses and waste refers to all processed, partially processed, or unprocessed products intended for human consumption, which, despite having been produced, are not consumed by humans. They have therefore not been used for their intended purpose. This applies to every stage of the food chain, from primary production through processing and distribution to consumption.

Food waste is a serious problem for the global community, as it not only expands landfills and rubbish dumps, increases greenhouse gas emissions, and pollutes rivers and seas, but the food production process itself also wastes water and energy [16,17,18].

Discarded food should be used in preparing meals for people who are hungry or malnourished. Schott and Andersson [19] point out that different types of waste should be distinguished when food is wasted. We should distinguish between waste that can be avoided and waste of food that cannot be prevented. Unavoidable food waste is the waste generated during the preparation of meals, e.g., skins, bones, etc. Food waste that can be avoided refers to products prepared for consumption but not eaten, e.g., cooked pasta or potatoes. It should be borne in mind that even unavoidable food waste consisting of non-edible parts of food can be exploited through proper waste management, such as composting [20].

The Food and Agriculture Organization has estimated that the global cost of food waste amounts to approximately USD 2.6 trillion in annual losses, taking into account the dimensions of sustainable development (approximately USD 700 billion in environmental costs, USD 1 trillion in economic costs, and USD 900 billion in social costs) [21]. Food waste is a global challenge because of its detrimental impact on the economy, environment, and society [16]. According to a UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) report [22], food waste from households, retail stores, and the food service industry in recent years amounted to 931 million tons, of which 570 million tons were waste from households. As indicated by the UNEP report, an average of 74 kg of food per capita is wasted every year worldwide [22]. In the EU, household food waste in 2021 accounted for more than 31 million tons of fresh weight, representing 54% of total food waste. Food losses and waste account for 8–10% of global greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to climate instability and extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. These changes have a negative impact on yields, potentially reducing the nutritional quality of crops and disrupting the supply chain [23].

Food is wasted at every stage of the food supply chain, including food production, food processing, retail and wholesale, and food services (catering), and at the consumer level. Many studies indicate that the largest proportion of wasted food, especially in affluent societies, occurs at the household level [24]. The most common reasons why consumers discard food are failure to notice the expiry date, improper storage of food, and purchasing too much [25]. Food is also wasted in households due to oversized portions and “supersized” purchases [26,27,28]. Papargyropoulou et al. [29] indicated that other important reasons for food waste in households include shopping that is not tailored to needs, improper storage, preparation (e.g., discarding before serving due to poor-quality food), and portioning (e.g., cooking too much). To sum up, thoughtless shopping and lack of meal planning, “ugly” fruit and vegetables, impulsive buying due to promotions, and incorrect packaging sizes are just some of the factors causing food waste in households, which accounts for the majority of the overall food waste.

Food waste is a consequence of a lack of awareness among household members, especially in developed countries, of the amount of food wasted every day, as well as the negative impact of this phenomenon on the environment, society, and the economy. In developed countries, food supply exceeds demand, and the ongoing changes in the lifestyle of most modern consumers are focused on consumerism and the accumulation of excess material goods [30,31].

Food waste has negative social, economic, and ecological effects. Food is a raw material, the production of which is associated with a heavy burden on the environment [32]. Food products require production, packaging, transport, energy, and emissions of industrial waste. Discarded food represents a waste of enormous amounts of water and energy used for its production [33,34,35], transport, storage, and preparation. The problem of food waste is now becoming global [36,37,38,39,40]. The idea of sustainable production and sustainable consumption has become an important element in preventing food waste. The key assumption of sustainable production is the best use of natural resources, so as to ensure sustainable civilisation development while preserving the natural environment [41].

There are simple methods and rules that should be introduced in the household to stop wasting food. They are not labour-intensive and do not require financial outlay but will bring only benefits—not only for the environment and the economy but also for the household. Good practices in this regard include the following: meal planning, preparation of a shopping list, proper storage of food products, self-portioning of food by family members, checking the expiry date and applying the principle of first in–first out, creatively using leftovers, and increasing the level of consumer awareness [42,43,44].

In addition, packaging should be designed to protect the product from deterioration in the best possible way and should be available in various sizes to enable consumers to purchase the right size for them [45,46]. The next steps concern the transfer of food to food banks and NGOs. European countries are introducing legislation to force producers and shops to donate food to charity. Food banks are organisations whose mission is to utilise excess-produced food for social purposes. They appeared in Poland in the early 1990s. Food banks have their own warehouses, cold stores, freezers, or vehicles for transporting refrigerated products. They work with various companies that produce and distribute food. Food banks are also involved in education on how to avoid wasting food and eat properly [47,48,49,50].

Reducing food waste by half as part of sustainable production and consumption patterns is one of the UN’s development goals by 2030. One of the initiatives of the FAO was the establishment of Food Day in 1979. It is celebrated every year on October 16, and the celebration serves to deepen knowledge of global food problems and to strengthen a sense of solidarity in the fight against hunger, malnutrition, and poverty in various regions around the world [51]. As part of the Resource Efficiency Strategy, the EU intends to enhance cooperation between all stakeholders to identify actions that can provide European added value in reducing food waste without compromising food safety. A wide range of initiatives to prevent and reduce food waste are being implemented at national, regional, and local levels in the EU Good practices for preventing and reducing food waste, including research and innovation by national and EU institutions, raising consumer awareness through information and education campaigns, appropriate food redistribution, and measuring food waste in EU countries. One good practice is to apply the principle of proper purchasing planning, product processing, and food sharing and segregation, i.e., separating bio-waste from other food products. The European Green Deal presented in 2019, an action plan aimed at achieving climate neutrality by 2050, also includes important campaigns in the context of reducing food waste. One of them is the “Farm to Fork” strategy published by the European Commission in 2020. It aims to make the EU food system more sustainable and healthier, environmentally friendly, and resilient to crises (such as the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic). The first key task of this strategy is to set legally binding food waste reduction targets for all EU countries, based on the latest data from all Member States. Another element of the strategy is a revision of the rules on the labelling of shelf-life and minimum durability [52].

One way to reduce food waste is through the idea of sustainable consumption and production, which involves the use of goods and services to meet needs that bring a better quality of life. Achieving these goals will be accompanied by a radical reduction in the use of natural resources and energy, a reduction in the production of waste and the emission of environmental pollutants, and the cessation of the use of toxic materials. At the same time, obtaining a better quality of life for the present generations will not be an obstacle to meeting the needs of future generations [53].

Prosumption is defined as the activity of consumers in the selection and creation of products and services tailored to their needs. Prosumption requires consumers to commit, devote time, contribute their own effort, and create not only for themselves but also for others. Prosumers voluntarily and willingly participate in the processes of co-creation and improvement of products and services, creating new ideas and solutions related to running a household. This is determined not only by the inclusion of prosumption in new consumer trends but also by the economic aspect. One factor in the development of prosumption in recent years has also been the economic crisis, which has forced consumers to take more action, produce products themselves, or limit the use of services by performing them themselves. The COVID-19 pandemic can also be considered to have been a moment of crisis, while, as Trębska [54] noted, it was also a time conducive to prosumer behaviour related to running a household.

3. Materials and Methods

The main aim of this article is to examine the relationship between food waste and variables describing the socio-demographic characteristics of households in Poland, including reference to the prosumer behaviour of households. The specific objective is to investigate the relationship between food waste and food presumption. Research hypothesis: There is a correlation between food waste and food prosumption. The hypothesis was verified negatively. In order to identify selected consumer behaviour, direct research was carried out. The research was carried out in July 2022 using a diagnostic survey using the CAWI technique (Computer-Assisted Web Interview) among 1112 adult respondents selected in a non-random manner—quota selection (according to the criteria of age, gender, place of residence, and education). The research was conducted throughout the country on a nationwide sample of Poles. The study population is representative because the research sample was selected based on the structure of the statistical population of Poles in terms of the studied features (age, gender, place of residence, and education) based on data from the Central Statistical Office. In the conducted study, respondents were asked whether they declared wasting food and how often. In addition, they were asked a number of questions related to their socio-demographic characteristics. Respondents were asked in great detail about food production for their own needs (they indicated individual food products that they were able to produce themselves). The survey included both single-choice questions and several multiple-choice questions. The analysis of the obtained data was carried out using measures of descriptive statistics with the program Statistica 13.3. An alpha level = 0.05 was assumed for the obtained results. The answers to the questions received were analysed with a chi-square correlation, supported by the Yule effect (φ) and Cramer’s coefficient (V).

Table 1. Summary of socio-demographic variables in the study sample.

Variable	Value	n	%
Gender	Male	537	48.29
	Female	575	51.71
Place of residence	Village	401	36.06
	Town with up to 20,000 inhabitants	245	22.03
	Town with 20,001 to 99,999 inhabitants	158	14.21
	City with 100,000 to 499,999 inhabitants	155	13.94
	City with over 500,000 inhabitants	153	13.76
Age	18–24	86	7.73
	25–34	183	16.46
	35–44	226	20.32
	45–54	176	15.83
	55–64	198	17.81
	65+	243	21.85
Education	Primary education	36	3.24
	Secondary school education	21	1.89
	Vocational education	287	25.81
	High school education	410	36.87
	Higher education	358	32.19
Income	Up to PLN 1000	120	10.79
	From PLN 1001 to PLN 2000	340	30.58
	From PLN 2001 to PLN 5000	563	50.63
	From PLN 5001 to PLN 8000	71	6.38
	Over PLN 8000	18	1.62

Note. N = 1112. Source: Authors’ work.

shows the structure of the study population. The study involved 52% women and 48% men. In the studied population, two-person households were the most common (30%). About 32% of the households surveyed contained children up to 14 years of age. Moreover, 39% of respondents lived in a rural area. The largest group of respondents were people whose monthly net income per person was in the range of PLN 2001 to PLN 5000 (50%). Higher education was indicated by 32% of respondents (Table 1).

4. Results

In this study, we compared the two research problems of food waste and food prosumption. Respondents were asked whether they produce food for their own needs and also whether they ever discard food in their household and how often.

In accordance with the definition of food prosumption, respondents were asked whether they consumed food products they produced themselves from an allotment, home garden, or farm or received such products free of charge from relatives. This question was answered positively by as many as 69% of the respondents in total and as many as 84% of the inhabitants of rural areas. Among the surveyed population, 19% declared that they had agricultural land or a farm, 24% had a family allotment garden, 43% cultivated a vegetable garden, and 22% cultivated an orchard.

The next question concerned food waste. The respondents were asked if they ever discard food. In total, 38% of respondents answered in the affirmative, 60% said they did not discard food, and 2% refused to answer this question (Figure 1).

Figure 2 presents the results regarding the frequency at which the respondents discard food. 29% of respondents say they discard food several times a month. One in ten respondents admitted to discarding food several times a week. None of the respondents admitted to discarding food every day.

In order to supplement the scientific research on issues related to food prosumption and food waste, the respondents were asked about their opinion on whether we respect food more if we produce it ourselves. In total, 77% of respondents believe that their efforts in producing food themselves contribute to a reduction in food waste. Only 9% of respondents disagreed with this statement, and 14% said they did not have an opinion on the subject (Figure 3).

These answers are the subjective opinions of respondents on this subject; therefore, it was decided to check the correlation between the level of food waste in a single household and the variable describing the production of food for own needs and variables describing the selected socio-demographic characteristics of the analysed population.

The variable describing food waste by households was measured as a dichotomous nominal variable assuming the value “not wasting-wasting”. Cramer’s V and Yule’s phi ratios were used to assess the relationship between food waste and selected variables describing the surveyed households.

Table 2. Correlation analysis of food wastage with socio-demographic variables.

Tested Variables	χ2	df	p	φ/V
Gender	7.81	1	0.005	0.08
Age	54.81	3	<0.001	0.22
Place of residence	6.20	4	0.185	0.07
Education	15.37	4	0.004	0.12
Income	14.11	4	0.007	0.11

Note. N = 1095. χ²—chi-square test result, df—degree of freedom, p—significance, φ—Yule’s coefficient, and V—Cramer’s coefficient. Source: Authors’ work.

shows the correlation of results for a group of variables describing the socio-demographic characteristics of the surveyed households.

The results showed that the place of residence did not correlate significantly with the variable of food waste. The other variables showed significant but weak relationships. The strongest correlations with food waste can be seen for the age variable. With age, the number of declarations of food waste decreases. The relationship between food waste and income indicates that with each higher income bracket, the number of declarations of food waste increases. The less people earn, the less they seem to waste. Similarly, as education level increases, the percentage of declarations of food waste increases. The correlation between gender and food waste was also significant, and its results indicate that women were more likely to declare food waste than men. A similar assessment was made of the correlations between food waste and other variables related to running a household, the results of which are presented in

Table 3. Correlation analysis of food waste with household management variables.

Tested Variables	χ2	df	p	φ/V
Ownership of a farm	3.42	1	0.064	0.06
Having family allotment gardens	1.49	1	0.222	0.04
Number of children under 14 in the household	20.79	5	<0.001	0.14
Number of persons in the household	15.11	5	0.010	0.12
Household debt	16.63	1	<0.001	0.12
Self-supply of food	0.24	1	0.622	0.01

Note. N = 1095. χ²—chi-square test result, df—degree of freedom, p—significance, φ—Yule’s coefficient, and V—Cramer’s coefficient. Source: Authors’ work.

.

The analysis showed that owning a farm or a family allotment garden, as well as declaring food prosumption, did not significantly correlate with food waste. Having children up to 14 years of age and the number of people in the household correlated significantly and weakly with food waste. The percentage of responses declaring food waste increases with the number of children and with the number of household members. There was a weak but significant correlation between having household debt and food waste. Debt was associated with a reduction in declarations of food waste.

The frequency of discarding food was also assessed. This ordinal variable was assessed for association with socio-demographic variables describing the household using Cramer’s V coefficient.

Table 4. Correlation analysis of waste disposal frequency with socio-demographic variables.

Tested Variables	χ2	df	p	V
Gender	7.89	5	0.162	0.14
Age	32.65	15	0.005	0.16
Place of residence	23.98	20	0.243	0.12
Education	25.37	20	0.187	0.12
Income	29.26	20	0.083	0.13

Note. N = 428. χ²—chi-square test result, df—degree of freedom, p—significance, and V—Cramer’s coefficient. Source: Authors’ work.

presents a summary of the correlation between the frequency of discarding food and socio-demographic variables.

Gender, place of residence, education, and income did not correlate significantly with the frequency of discarding food. A slightly stronger association (statistically significant) was observed between age and the frequency of discarding food. The frequency of discarding food decreases slightly in subsequent stages of life. It should be remembered, however, that this correlation was at a weak level, close in strength to the non-significant relationships with gender or income.

Table 5. Correlation analysis of waste disposal frequency with household management variables.

Tested Variables	χ2	df	p	V
Ownership of a farm	6.09	5	0.297	0.12
Having family allotment gardens	3.45	5	0.631	0.09
Number of children under 14 in the household	39.54	25	0.032	0.14
Number of persons in the household	39.01	25	0.037	0.14
Household debt	4.19	5	0.523	0.10
Self-supply of food	6.62	5	0.251	0.12

Note. N = 428. χ²—chi-square test result, df—degree of freedom, p—significance, and V—Cramer’s coefficient. Source: Authors’ work.

shows correlations between the frequency of discarding food and household-related variables.

The results showed that food prosumption, having household debt, and owning a farm or allotment garden did not significantly correlate with the frequency of discarding food. These relationships were weak. The relationships between the frequency of discarding food and the number of children and people in the household were also weak but statistically significant. It can be noted that the number of indications suggesting more frequent disposal of food increased with the number of children up to 14 years old and the number of household members. Interestingly, the strength of these correlations is the same.

The analyses showed that socio-demographic variables and household-related variables correlated poorly with food waste and discarding food. Among the socio-demographic variables, age showed the strongest correlation. Among the household-related variables, it was the number of people and the number of children up to 14 years. The presented values of dependencies were in the area of 0.7–0.22 for socio-demographic variables and 0.01–0.14 for variables related to running a household.

5. Discussion

As the research shows, food waste in households is associated with various characteristics of consumers and their families and various types of consumer behaviour.

According to Vittuari et al., consumer behaviour related to food waste is influenced by many psychological, socio-cultural, and economic factors [55]. Many authors in their studies emphasise that age, gender, education, and household characteristics, i.e., household size and composition, employment status, and income, are important factors influencing food waste. Although it can be assumed that consumers’ socio-demographic factors influence the amount of food wasted, research indicates that their impact is not clear [56]. Van Geffen et al. [57], in their research, pointed out that older consumers, especially those over the age of 65, waste less food compared to younger consumers. This situation may be due to a number of factors: on the one hand, greater awareness of food waste and its negative impact on the environment, and on the other, knowledge also gained from various life experiences, e.g., lack of financial resources to meet basic needs [58]. There are also many studies indicating other behaviours of older people in terms of food waste, namely a lack of correlation between age and the amount of food wasted [59].

Similarly, the relationship between gender and food waste is similar, with some research showing that men discard more food than women [60], while others show that the opposite is true [58] or that gender has no effect on food waste [61]. The cited studies on the correlation between gender and age variables and food waste show the differentiation of the impact of these variables on the analysed phenomenon. This may result from the size of the research sample, the country of the study, or the socio-cultural characteristics of the analysed community.

Education is a very important demographic feature. As it turns out, higher education levels are associated with greater food waste. This can be explained by the fact that better educated people earn more and therefore buy more products that later end up being discarded [31].

The size and type of household (with or without children) also affect how much food is discarded. In general, larger households waste more than smaller ones [56]. In turn, food waste in families with children is at a higher level than in families consisting exclusively of adults [58].

An important economic factor affecting the satisfaction of food needs and also the level of waste is the level of household income. It turns out that the dependencies are not at all uniform, i.e., some research indicates that higher income levels are associated with more food being wasted [62], but there are also studies showing no link between food waste and income [63].

The phenomenon of food waste at the household level may vary depending on the people living therein, in particular, their age and habits [64].

As Aschemann-Witzel et al. [65] report, conducting food management education campaigns at the end-consumer level can effectively contribute to reducing food waste if they are targeted toward the most important consumer segments and address issues related to the main causes of discarding food. The authors point out that it is important not so much to identify the improper conduct of a given group of consumers in terms of food management but, above all, to indicate proper behaviour as a model to follow. The authors explain that older consumers are characterised by greater experience in planning and cooking meals and that there are stronger and established standards of conduct in this group of respondents. It has also been shown that older consumers are less likely to use home delivery of ready meals, convenience foods, or food services, including catering. In research by Davenport et al. [66], the authors found that consumers over the age of 60 manage purchased food better than consumers under the age of 35. This applies to shopping, planning, cooking, and—what is particularly important—observing and distinguishing shelf life dates. Other studies, this time in Australia and the UK, also highlight that age is a factor in food waste, with young people wasting more food than older people [67,68].

Lewandowska indicates that the most food is discarded by young, educated people living alone in large cities, which is associated with the fast pace of life and lack of time [69].

Olejniczak [70] pointed to characteristics attributed to the shopping behaviour of Polish seniors. These include, for example, making purchases mostly in a planned and organised way—with a small proportion of impulse purchases, high frequency of purchases in stores located near the place of residence (small-format and discount outlets), and criteria for buying food—freshness, quality, product origin, special offer, price, and high degree of self-satisfaction of needs (compared to other age segments)—and preparing products themselves. People also point to their own knowledge and experience as the main sources shaping their opinions about products, as well as advertising magazines as the main source of information about the products available. On the other hand, their rates of online shopping are low. These behaviours can have a significant effect on lowering the propensity to waste food.

The study authors found that women were more likely to report wasting food than men, but this could be due to the fact that women are more likely to take care of the house than men, prepare meals, and clean up. According to the results of the Centre for Public Opinion Research survey, “Current problems and events” in most Polish families, women are still responsible for carrying out all of the ironing (82%), washing (81%), preparing meals (67%), washing dishes (58%), routine cleaning (58%), and deep cleaning (54%). Other research results also confirm that despite changes in the labour market and the perception of women, they are still, to a greater or lesser extent, tied to the running of a household [71,72,73,74,75].

Other studies show that consumers are increasingly aware of the optimal management of food products and thus the minimisation of food waste at the household level [64].

6. Conclusions

This article describes two phenomena that can be inextricably linked in the household: food prosumption and food waste. Consumers’ decisions about their own food production and what happens to unused food depend on the many different socio-demographic characteristics of households and consumer habits.

Inefficient management of food products leads to a situation where a given batch of food, apart from being impossible to consume, is also a waste of the human labour previously expended on its production, an irreversible consumption of natural resources, and the incurring of financial costs. According to the results of the study, 38% of respondents admitted that they sometimes discard food. Since 69% of respondents consider themselves food prosumers, and even more, as many as 77% of respondents, believe that in households where food is produced, more attention is paid to the aspect of food waste, it could be assumed that there is a significant correlation between these variables, although it has not been demonstrated in this case.

The strengths of this manuscript are primarily the selection of the topic as a research niche that combines the assessment of the relationship between two phenomena: food waste and food prosumption. Food prosumption is becoming increasingly common due to the growing interest in sustainability, healthy eating, and reducing dependence on large commercial chains. Also, it provides food autonomy (control over ingredients and product quality) and connection with nature and community (encourages local relationships and culinary traditions) and reduces waste. This research paper emphasises the link between food waste and food production in households. The study fills a research gap in this context. Secondly, the research was conducted on a representative sample of Poles, so the conclusions from the research can be used to determine social policy solutions. The weaknesses of the study include the use of simple statistical methods in the methodology, but any improvement to the research can always become an intention for the future.

In conclusion, one of the key areas in food management in the context of waste reduction is the proper management of food in households. Various measures should therefore be taken to raise awareness among consumers about food waste and the possibilities of minimising it. The obtained results indicate the validity of the research undertaken and the need to continue it in order to best understand the behaviour of consumers that contributes to food waste. There is a reasonable indication for active public policies and education campaigns on food management at the level of the end consumer. Food waste is currently a serious and multi-faceted problem. It appears in discussions in the public sphere. Households should consider conscious consumption, read labels carefully, and try not to buy excessive amounts of food products. In order to effectively combat food waste, new, more restrictive laws in this area must be introduced. Although Poland is only just creating legal acts on this issue, it is starting to move in the right direction to reduce the excessive disposal of food products.