Integrating Green Infrastructure into Sustainable Agriculture to Enhance Soil Health, Biodiversity, and Microclimate Resilience

Abstract

While green infrastructure (GI) offers numerous benefits, its implementation in low-resource settings remains constrained by limited policy support and upfront costs, highlighting the need for context-sensitive strategies. This paper highlights the value of integrating GI within sustainable agricultural systems and the effectiveness of various GI techniques in improving soil microbial communities and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The transition to sustainable agricultural systems requires innovative strategies that balance productivity, environmental conservation, and resilience to climate change. Sustainable agriculture increasingly leverages technological innovations in GI to enhance productivity, biodiversity, and microclimate resilience. Green infrastructure has found direct application in agroforestry, conservation buffers, precision agriculture, soil health monitoring systems, and nature-based solutions such as regenerative soil management. These applications are crucial in enhancing soil health, water retention, and biodiversity, while mitigating microclimatic impacts. Precision agriculture tools, like IoT sensors, drones, and AI-driven analytics, allow farmers to optimize water, nutrient, and pesticide use, boosting yields and efficiency while minimizing environmental impact. Simultaneously, advanced soil health monitoring technologies track soil moisture, nutrients, and biological activity in real time, informing practices that maintain long-term soil fertility and carbon sequestration. This integrated approach yields practical on-farm benefits, such as higher crop stability during droughts and enhanced habitats for beneficial species. In conclusion, there is a need for supportive frameworks, like subsidies for GI adoption, application of precision tools, incentives for improving soil microclimate, development of innovative GI programs, and knowledge-sharing initiatives, to encourage farmer adoption.

1. Introduction

The increasing pressures from climate change, rapid urbanization, and the growing demand for food necessitate a reevaluation of agricultural ecosystems. Traditional farming practices often prioritize production at the expense of environmental health, leading to losses in soil quality, biodiversity, and resilience against climate factors. Integrating green infrastructure (GI) within sustainable agriculture is a viable solution to these challenges. This integration promises enhancements in soil health and biodiversity and offers a pathway toward improved microclimate resilience.

Green infrastructure refers to a network of natural and semi-natural areas designed to provide ecosystem services, such as water purification, air quality improvement, and biodiversity enhancement, functioning harmoniously with urban structures and agricultural landscapes [1,2,3]. The escalating incidence of environmental degradation necessitates that agricultural practices incorporate these strategies to bolster ecological health while maintaining productivity. For example, studies have shown that wildlife-friendly farming can increase crop yields, demonstrating a viable pathway toward ecological intensification that stays in harmony with nature [4,5,6,7]. Green infrastructure in agriculture encompasses practices that utilize natural processes and ecosystems to support agricultural productivity and sustainability. This includes integrating hedgerows, buffer strips, cover crops, and increased crop diversity, all of which play crucial roles in enhancing ecological interactions within agricultural systems [8,9]. For instance, the work of Rodríguez et al. [10] demonstrated that the use of cover crops protects against soil erosion and enhances soil fertility and moisture retention, which are pivotal aspects of sustainable farming. Moreover, localized agri-food systems that incorporate traditional practices can elevate biodiversity while ensuring production sustainability [11,12,13,14].

Sustainable agriculture aims to create a balanced approach to farming that preserves the environment, supports socioeconomic equity, and ensures food security. The concept is underpinned by the need to use natural resources judiciously and reduce dependency on synthetic inputs. Bulut and Filik [15] opined that techniques such as crop rotation, conservation tillage, and organic farming practices are fundamental. Furthermore, agricultural biodiversity—ranging from crop varieties to traditional farming methods—is critical for sustainable food production systems, enhancing resilience against pests, diseases, and microclimate variability [16,17]. The degradation of soil health undermines agricultural productivity and ecosystem functionality. Intensive farming practices have resulted in soil compaction, loss of organic matter, and reduced microbial diversity [10,18]. Consequently, integrating GI that promotes soil health, such as conservation agriculture, is imperative. These practices enhance the physical and biological properties of soil and support important nutrient cycling processes essential for sustainable crop yields [10,13,16]. Moreover, enhancing biodiversity within agricultural systems bolsters ecosystem services crucial for long-term agrarian success. Diverse cropping systems provide natural pest control, improved pollination, and nutrient cycling, which are increasingly vital in pest resistance and environmental change [19,20]. Additionally, microclimate resilience can be promoted by adopting GI that buffers agricultural systems against disturbances manifested through climate change, including erratic weather patterns and extreme events [21,22,23].

This paper examines how GI practices contribute to sustainable agriculture by enhancing soil health, biodiversity, and microclimate resilience, focusing on theoretical foundations and practical applications. It highlights GI techniques to mitigate environmental degradation and improve agricultural productivity. Green infrastructure fosters soil microbial diversity, optimizes resource use through technology-driven solutions and strengthens ecosystem resilience against climate change. While GI offers numerous benefits, its implementation in low-resource settings remains constrained by limited policy support and upfront costs, highlighting the need for context-sensitive strategies. This paper discusses the socioeconomic incentives and policy frameworks necessary for widespread adoption. It will contribute to understanding how GI adoption provides multidimensional benefits and serves as a multifunctional tool to bridge ecological conservation with food security and climate adaptation strategies. This review also offers insights into scalable solutions that align agricultural productivity with long-term environmental stewardship by addressing research gaps and practical challenges.

2. Conceptual Frameworks for Linking Green Infrastructure and Sustainable Agriculture

The increasing application of GI practices within sustainable agriculture is driven by a conceptual framework that aligns principles of agricultural sustainability with the provision of ecosystem services, enhancing biodiversity and climate resilience. Together, these conceptual frameworks converge on a systems-based understanding that GI is not merely a set of isolated practices but a core strategy for resilient, sustainable agricultural landscapes that balance environmental conservation with food security goals. Central to these frameworks is recognizing that agrarian landscapes are multifunctional systems, providing food and fiber and vital ecosystem services, including water filtration, carbon sequestration, soil fertility enhancement, and biodiversity conservation [24,25]. Each GI practice is characterized by specific structural features contributing to ecological functions such as erosion control, biodiversity enhancement, climate regulation, and water management (Box 1).

Box 1. Agricultural green infrastructure practices and their ecological functions.

Practice	Features	Primary Function
Hedgerows	Linear plantings of shrubs or trees along field edges	Windbreaks and wildlife corridors
Cover Crops	Plants grown between cropping seasons	Soil cover and nutrient cycling
Riparian Buffers	Vegetated zones along waterways	Water filtration and erosion control
Agroforestry	Integrating trees with crops or livestock	Biodiversity and microclimate moderation
Terracing	Shaping sloped land into steps	Erosion control and water retention
Grassed Waterways	Channels planted with grass to convey water	Runoff control and sediment capture
Wetlands	Constructed or natural depressions with water-tolerant plants	Water storage and biodiversity support
Windbreaks/Shelterbelts	Rows of trees or shrubs planted to protect fields from the wind	Reducing wind erosion and improving microclimate
Perennial Field Borders	Undisturbed strips of permanent vegetation along crop fields	Pollinator support and soil stabilization
Bioswales/Rain Gardens	Landscaped areas designed to capture and filter runoff	Water infiltration, pollution control

One foundational framework is the agroecological systems approach, which emphasizes the design of agricultural systems that mimic natural ecosystems to enhance resilience and reduce reliance on synthetic inputs [26]. Agroecology incorporates elements of GI, such as agroforestry, riparian buffers, and hedgerows, highlighting how landscape-level planning enhances ecological functioning and promotes nature-based solutions for climate adaptation [27]. The Ecosystem Services Framework offers a complementary perspective, which explicitly values the ecological benefits of GI in agricultural landscapes. This framework has been instrumental in quantifying the economic value of natural capital and advocating for policy incentives that reward farmers for maintaining or enhancing ecosystem services through GI practices [28,29]. More recent frameworks, such as climate-smart agriculture (CSA), integrate GI into strategies for increasing productivity, enhancing resilience, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions [30]. CSA promotes adaptive strategies such as cover cropping, conservation tillage, and agroforestry, emphasizing their dual roles in improving soil health and enhancing carbon sequestration. The CSA framework was developed to address the intertwined challenges of food security and climate change by increasing agricultural productivity, enhancing resilience (adaptation), and reducing greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation). An empirical study by Lipper et al. [30] showed that CSA interventions, such as conservation tillage and agroforestry, can significantly improve soil organic carbon and reduce vulnerability to climate variability. However, adoption remains uneven due to institutional, economic, and informational barriers, particularly among smallholder farmers. CSA practices align closely with the principles of regenerative agriculture, such as incorporating organic amendments, maintaining soil cover, and minimizing soil disturbance. They contribute to climate resilience and support long-term soil fertility, microbial diversity, and carbon storage.

2.1. Principles of Sustainable Agriculture—Agroecology

Sustainable agriculture is founded on principles prioritizing ecological balance, economic viability, and social equity. This paradigm encapsulates practices designed to preserve natural resources while ensuring food security and supporting community livelihoods [31]. Fundamental principles include crop rotation, agroforestry, minimal soil disturbance, and organic farming methods, collectively contributing to maintaining soil health, enhancing biodiversity, and reducing reliance on chemical inputs [32]. For instance, covering crops and green manures can improve soil structure, enhance nutrient cycling, and increase organic matter content, which is critical for maintaining long-term soil productivity and ecosystem health [22,23]. Adopting GI strategies in sustainable agriculture can engender synergies that amplify these principles. By incorporating natural buffers, wetlands, and tree-lined waterways, agriculture will mitigate soil erosion and runoff and bolster habitats for various species, thus enhancing agricultural biodiversity [29,33]. Sustainable agriculture extends beyond productivity; it encapsulates a holistic view that integrates environmental stewardship with socioeconomic benefits, making agriculture more resilient to external shocks such as climate variability and market fluctuations [31].

2.2. Ecosystem Services and Agroecosystem Functionality

Ecosystem services are the myriad benefits of healthy ecosystems, and their integration into agroecosystems is paramount for achieving sustainability [34]. These services can be categorized into four main types: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services [35]. Provisioning services encompass food, fiber, and biomass production, essential for human sustenance. Regulating services include climate regulation, flood mitigation, and pest control—all critical in sustaining agroecosystem functionality [36]. For instance, enhancing soil organic matter through GI practices improves soil fertility and contributes to carbon sequestration, thus mitigating climate change impacts [37]. Moreover, cultural services, such as agricultural landscapes’ aesthetic and recreational values, significantly contribute to community well-being and encourage public engagement with agricultural systems [38]. Identifying and promoting these ecosystem services can foster a deeper appreciation for sustainable practices among farmers and consumers, encouraging implementation of GI strategies that yield multiple benefits [35].

Enhancing agroecosystem functionality through ecosystem services also contributes to resilience against climate change. Supported by GI practices, healthy ecosystems produce robust landscapes capable of withstanding extreme weather events, thereby protecting agricultural investments and livelihoods [29,33]. For instance, implementing GI, such as rain gardens and vegetated swales, can effectively manage stormwater, reduce soil erosion, and improve water quality—integral components in sustainable agricultural practices [32]. These GI practices can catalyze public participation in agricultural systems by creating tangible, place-based interventions that communities can engage with directly. These spaces invite collaborative stewardship, foster local ecological knowledge, and strengthen the social fabric around land management. These participatory dimensions of GI are closely linked to sustainable agricultural development by supporting biodiversity, enhancing ecosystem services, and promoting equitable land use practices. Furthermore, GI contributes to climate change mitigation and adaptation through improved carbon sequestration, water regulation, and resilience to extreme weather events, thus aligning environmental action with inclusive social engagement.

2.3. Climate Resilience and Nature-Based Solutions

Climate resilience refers to the capacity of agricultural systems to absorb, recover from, and adapt to climate-related stresses [39]. Nature-based solutions (NbS) typically leverage ecosystem services to address societal challenges and are pivotal in enhancing climate resilience in agriculture [31]. This includes practices such as agroforestry and the creation of wildlife corridors that contribute to biodiversity conservation and strengthen landscapes against the adverse effects of climate change, such as drought and flooding [40]. According to Frem et al. [41], the deployment of NbS is vital for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture while promoting carbon sequestration through improved land management and restoration of degraded landscapes. As agriculture accounts for a substantial proportion of global greenhouse gas emissions, integrating NbS can lead to significant mitigation outcomes alongside enhanced food productivity [42]. The review by Monteiro et al. [43] suggests that community-centric initiatives incorporating local knowledge and participation foster adaptive capacity, ensuring that agricultural systems remain viable despite climatic uncertainties.

While agroecology, ecosystem services, and climate resilience through nature-based solutions share the goal of integrating ecological integrity into farming systems, they approach this from different perspectives (Box 2). Sustainable agriculture emphasizes practices and social equity, ecosystem services offer a valuation lens for ecological benefits, and NbS frame these strategies within climate adaptation (Box 2).

Box 2. Comparative overview of key approaches to sustainable farming.

Strategy	Main Focus	Goals	Typical Practices
Agroecology	Ecological balance and food systems	Long-term productivity and resilience	Crop rotation, agroforestry, and cover crops
Ecosystem Services	Benefits of healthy ecosystems	Support agroecosystem functionality	Pollination, soil fertility, and pest control
Nature-Based Solutions	Climate adaptation using ecosystems	Build resilience and reduce greenhouse gases	Agroforestry, wetlands, and wildlife corridors

3. Key Components of Green Infrastructure in Agricultural Systems

Integrating GI into agricultural systems is essential for fostering sustainable practices that enhance soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience. Table 1 highlights some components of GI in agricultural systems and key benefits that illustrate their contributions to sustainable development and climate resilience. Agroforestry systems combine agricultural production with tree cultivation, resulting in synergistic benefits for crops and the surrounding environment. These systems have been shown by Fenster et al. [44] to improve soil structure and fertility by adding organic matter from leaf litter, roots, and decomposing biomass. Incorporating trees within agricultural systems enhances biodiversity by providing habitats for various faunal species, leading to improved pest management and pollination services. Furthermore, agroforestry practices increase resilience against climate change impacts by enhancing microclimates, reducing soil erosion, and improving carbon sequestration [45]. Studies have demonstrated that agroforestry systems significantly enhance microbial diversity and biomass in the soil, which are critical indicators of soil health [46,47]. The interaction between trees and crops can improve water retention and nutrient cycling, supporting better crop yields. In addition to ecological benefits, agroforestry can provide economic advantages by diversifying income sources for farmers through timber, fruits, nuts, and other non-timber forest products, thus reducing the financial risks associated with conventional monoculture systems [47].

Conservation buffers and riparian zones are crucial components of GI, as they protect water bodies from agricultural runoff and enhance water quality in adjacent ecosystems. These areas, characterized by a vegetated strip of land near water bodies, play a significant role in filtering sediments, nutrients, and pollutants before they enter aquatic systems [48]. Their integration into agricultural landscapes also contributes to the stabilization of soil, reducing the likelihood of erosion during heavy rains and safeguarding soil health and agricultural productivity [49]. Research indicates that vegetation in riparian zones enhances biodiversity by providing critical habitats for wildlife, particularly aquatic organisms, and pollinators [50]. Additionally, these buffers support ecosystem resilience by acting as ecological corridors that facilitate the movement of species in response to environmental changes. The multifunctionality of conservation buffers—from enhancing biodiversity to improving water quality—demonstrates their integral role in sustainable agricultural practices.

Regenerative soil management practices are pivotal in enhancing soil health and fostering sustainable agricultural productivity. These practices emphasize building soil organic matter, restoring soil biodiversity, and promoting nutrient cycling through minimal disturbance techniques, cover cropping, and crop rotations [51]. Research shows that regenerative practices, such as applying organic amendments like composted manure, significantly contribute to increases in microbial biomass and diversity, which are essential for soil fertility and physical structure [52]. For instance, studies have highlighted that regenerative agriculture leads to improved soil enzyme activities, which correlate with enhanced nutrient availability for crops [53,54,55]. Adopting these practices addresses soil degradation from conventional agricultural methods and improves carbon sequestration capabilities, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation. Furthermore, a diverse cropping system under regenerative management enhances resilience against disease and pest outbreaks, thus reducing dependence on chemical inputs and fostering a healthier agroecosystem [56,57].

Wetlands and constructed ecosystems represent another crucial component of GI, providing multiple benefits for agricultural systems. Natural and constructed wetlands can be integrated into farmlands to facilitate natural water filtration, improve water retention, and support biodiversity by creating unique habitats for various species [58,59]. These ecosystems offer significant ecosystem services, such as flood regulation, sediment trapping, and nutrient cycling, which are essential in maintaining the health of agricultural landscapes [60,61]. Studies have shown that integrating wetlands into agricultural systems enhances resilience to climate variability by serving as buffers against extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts [47,62,63]. Furthermore, constructed wetlands can be designed to treat agricultural runoff, thereby improving water quality and providing a habitat for wildlife. Such integration of wetlands in farming landscapes exemplifies a nature-based solution that aligns agricultural production with ecological conservation, making it a key strategy for fostering sustainable farming practices.

One of the most promising approaches involves deploying smart agricultural systems, where wireless sensor networks, drones, real-time data platforms, and the Internet of Things (IoT) enable farm machinery to work in concert to create data-driven, adaptive farming ecosystems (Figure 1) [64]. These systems allow farmers to monitor soil health, crop conditions, and environmental variables in real time, enabling precision interventions that optimize input use while minimizing ecological impacts. Figure 1 demonstrates the dynamic interactions between ground-based sensors, aerial drones, networked communication infrastructure, and centralized data processing systems. Together, these components exemplify how digital technologies can enhance the functions of GI, improving water management, soil conservation, biodiversity enhancement, and climate adaptation. This approach will strengthen the environmental and economic sustainability of agricultural systems and empower farmers with real-time insights, fostering adaptive management practices essential for navigating climate uncertainties [64,65,66,67].

Table 1. Green Infrastructure in Agricultural Systems.

Component	Application Scenario	Examples	Key Benefits	References
Agroforestry Systems	Integration of woody perennials (trees, shrubs) with crops and/or livestock.	Silvopasture, alley cropping	Enhances carbon sequestration, improves soil structure, diversifies income sources, and promotes biodiversity.	[68,69]
Riparian Buffers	Vegetated zones along streams, rivers, or wetlands intercept pollutants and reduce erosion.	Grass buffers, forest buffers	Reduces nutrient runoff, enhances water quality, stabilizes streambanks, and supports wildlife habitat.	[70]
Cover Cropping	Use of non-commodity crops to protect and enhance the soil between cash crop cycles.	Legumes, grasses (e.g., clover and rye)	Adds organic matter, fixes nitrogen, prevents erosion, suppresses weeds, and supports microbial diversity.	[71,72]
Hedgerows	Planted rows of shrubs, trees, or native plants bordering fields.	Native hedgerows	Serves as a habitat corridor, supports beneficial insects and pollinators, and provides wind protection.	[73]
Conservation Tillage	Minimal disturbance tillage to preserve soil structure and biological activity.	No-till, strip-till systems	Reduces erosion, conserves soil moisture, promotes soil microbial activity, and enhances carbon storage.	[74,75,76]
Wetland Restoration	Re-establishing or creating wetlands within agricultural landscapes to enhance ecosystem services.	Floodplain restoration, farm ponds	Improves water filtration, enhances flood resilience, sequesters carbon, and supports wetland biodiversity.	[77,78]
Grass Waterways	Grassed channels that convey surface runoff while preventing soil erosion.	Native grass channels	Filters sediment and nutrients, reduces gully formation and promotes infiltration and aquifer recharge.	[79]
Perennial Vegetation Strips	Long-term vegetative buffers (native grasses, shrubs, etc.) are established within or between fields.	Prairie strips	Enhances biodiversity, supports soil stability, provides habitat for beneficial species, and reduces runoff.	[80]
Rainwater Harvesting	Capture and storage of rainwater for irrigation or recharge of soil moisture.	Farm ponds, rooftop collection	Reduces reliance on groundwater, enhances drought resilience, and improves water access for crops/livestock.	[81,82]
Bioswales and Buffer Strips	Landscaped depressions designed to slow, capture, and filter stormwater runoff.	Filter strips, vegetated swales	Reduces nutrient and sediment runoff, enhances water infiltration, and supports aesthetic and functional landscapes.	[83,84]
Windbreaks	Rows of trees or shrubs are planted to protect fields from wind erosion.	Tree shelterbelts	Prevents wind erosion, reduces crop damage, creates microclimates, and provides habitat for birds and pollinators.	[85]
Composting Systems	Incorporation of organic farm and household waste into soil fertility practices.	On-farm composting, vermicomposting	Improves soil organic matter, enhances microbial activity, reduces dependence on synthetic fertilizers, and supports the circular economy.	[86,87]
Pollinator Habitat	Designated areas are planted with pollinator-friendly species.	Pollinator gardens, flowering borders	Enhances pollination services, supports biodiversity, and promotes ecosystem resilience.	[88,89]
Terracing and Contour Farming	Reshaping and cultivating land along contours to prevent erosion.	Bench terraces, contour strip cropping	Reduces surface runoff, improves soil water retention, minimizes slope erosion, and supports long-term soil health.	[90]
Green Roofs and Living Fences	Use of vegetated roofs and biologically active fences for agricultural infrastructure.	Green barns, living fences	Provides insulation, reduces stormwater runoff, enhances farm aesthetics, and supports habitat connectivity.	[91,92]
Constructed Wetlands	Engineered wetlands are designed to treat agricultural runoff and wastewater.	Integrated wetland treatment	Filters nutrients and contaminants, provides wildlife habitat, and promotes water reuse.	[93]
Solar-Powered Water Systems	Use of solar energy to power water collection, pumping, or irrigation systems.	Solar pumps, drip irrigation	Reduces fossil fuel dependence, increases water efficiency, and supports off-grid farming systems.	[94,95]
Biological Pest Control Areas	Habitat zones for beneficial insects that naturally control pests.	Beetle banks, insectary strips	Reduce pesticide use, enhance biological pest suppression, and promote beneficial insect populations.	[96,97]
Permeable Pavements in Farmyards	Porous surfaces that allow rainwater infiltration, reducing runoff.	Gravel, permeable concrete	Enhances groundwater recharge, reduces surface runoff, and mitigates flooding risks.	[98,99]
Crop–Livestock Integration	Integrated systems combine crops and livestock to cycle nutrients and enhance soil health.	Rotational grazing, crop grazing	Reduces waste, enhances nutrient cycling, improves soil organic matter, and diversifies farm income.	[100]
Renewable Energy Installations	On-farm renewable energy infrastructure is linked to sustainable farming operations.	Solar arrays, wind turbines	Reduces carbon footprint, provides energy resilience, and supports climate-smart farming practices.	[101,102,103]

Table 1. Green Infrastructure in Agricultural Systems.

Component	Application Scenario	Examples	Key Benefits	References
Agroforestry Systems	Integration of woody perennials (trees, shrubs) with crops and/or livestock.	Silvopasture, alley cropping	Enhances carbon sequestration, improves soil structure, diversifies income sources, and promotes biodiversity.	[68,69]
Riparian Buffers	Vegetated zones along streams, rivers, or wetlands intercept pollutants and reduce erosion.	Grass buffers, forest buffers	Reduces nutrient runoff, enhances water quality, stabilizes streambanks, and supports wildlife habitat.	[70]
Cover Cropping	Use of non-commodity crops to protect and enhance the soil between cash crop cycles.	Legumes, grasses (e.g., clover and rye)	Adds organic matter, fixes nitrogen, prevents erosion, suppresses weeds, and supports microbial diversity.	[71,72]
Hedgerows	Planted rows of shrubs, trees, or native plants bordering fields.	Native hedgerows	Serves as a habitat corridor, supports beneficial insects and pollinators, and provides wind protection.	[73]
Conservation Tillage	Minimal disturbance tillage to preserve soil structure and biological activity.	No-till, strip-till systems	Reduces erosion, conserves soil moisture, promotes soil microbial activity, and enhances carbon storage.	[74,75,76]
Wetland Restoration	Re-establishing or creating wetlands within agricultural landscapes to enhance ecosystem services.	Floodplain restoration, farm ponds	Improves water filtration, enhances flood resilience, sequesters carbon, and supports wetland biodiversity.	[77,78]
Grass Waterways	Grassed channels that convey surface runoff while preventing soil erosion.	Native grass channels	Filters sediment and nutrients, reduces gully formation and promotes infiltration and aquifer recharge.	[79]
Perennial Vegetation Strips	Long-term vegetative buffers (native grasses, shrubs, etc.) are established within or between fields.	Prairie strips	Enhances biodiversity, supports soil stability, provides habitat for beneficial species, and reduces runoff.	[80]
Rainwater Harvesting	Capture and storage of rainwater for irrigation or recharge of soil moisture.	Farm ponds, rooftop collection	Reduces reliance on groundwater, enhances drought resilience, and improves water access for crops/livestock.	[81,82]
Bioswales and Buffer Strips	Landscaped depressions designed to slow, capture, and filter stormwater runoff.	Filter strips, vegetated swales	Reduces nutrient and sediment runoff, enhances water infiltration, and supports aesthetic and functional landscapes.	[83,84]
Windbreaks	Rows of trees or shrubs are planted to protect fields from wind erosion.	Tree shelterbelts	Prevents wind erosion, reduces crop damage, creates microclimates, and provides habitat for birds and pollinators.	[85]
Composting Systems	Incorporation of organic farm and household waste into soil fertility practices.	On-farm composting, vermicomposting	Improves soil organic matter, enhances microbial activity, reduces dependence on synthetic fertilizers, and supports the circular economy.	[86,87]
Pollinator Habitat	Designated areas are planted with pollinator-friendly species.	Pollinator gardens, flowering borders	Enhances pollination services, supports biodiversity, and promotes ecosystem resilience.	[88,89]
Terracing and Contour Farming	Reshaping and cultivating land along contours to prevent erosion.	Bench terraces, contour strip cropping	Reduces surface runoff, improves soil water retention, minimizes slope erosion, and supports long-term soil health.	[90]
Green Roofs and Living Fences	Use of vegetated roofs and biologically active fences for agricultural infrastructure.	Green barns, living fences	Provides insulation, reduces stormwater runoff, enhances farm aesthetics, and supports habitat connectivity.	[91,92]
Constructed Wetlands	Engineered wetlands are designed to treat agricultural runoff and wastewater.	Integrated wetland treatment	Filters nutrients and contaminants, provides wildlife habitat, and promotes water reuse.	[93]
Solar-Powered Water Systems	Use of solar energy to power water collection, pumping, or irrigation systems.	Solar pumps, drip irrigation	Reduces fossil fuel dependence, increases water efficiency, and supports off-grid farming systems.	[94,95]
Biological Pest Control Areas	Habitat zones for beneficial insects that naturally control pests.	Beetle banks, insectary strips	Reduce pesticide use, enhance biological pest suppression, and promote beneficial insect populations.	[96,97]
Permeable Pavements in Farmyards	Porous surfaces that allow rainwater infiltration, reducing runoff.	Gravel, permeable concrete	Enhances groundwater recharge, reduces surface runoff, and mitigates flooding risks.	[98,99]
Crop–Livestock Integration	Integrated systems combine crops and livestock to cycle nutrients and enhance soil health.	Rotational grazing, crop grazing	Reduces waste, enhances nutrient cycling, improves soil organic matter, and diversifies farm income.	[100]
Renewable Energy Installations	On-farm renewable energy infrastructure is linked to sustainable farming operations.	Solar arrays, wind turbines	Reduces carbon footprint, provides energy resilience, and supports climate-smart farming practices.	[101,102,103]

4. Soil Health Enhancement Through Green Infrastructure

Green infrastructure enhances soil health by promoting natural processes that restore soil structure, fertility, and biological activity. Cover cropping, agroforestry, buffer strips, and no-till farming improve soil organic matter content, reduce erosion, and enhance water retention capacity. These nature-based solutions foster microbial diversity and create conditions for beneficial soil organisms to thrive, enhancing nutrient cycling and plant health. Additionally, GI techniques help sequester soil carbon, providing climate mitigation benefits and improving soil resilience to extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods. Integrating composting systems, bioswales, and constructed wetlands into agricultural landscapes further aids in filtering contaminants and promoting soil remediation.

Soil microbial communities play a critical role in maintaining soil health through their involvement in organic matter decomposition, nutrient recycling, and pathogen suppression. Adopting GI has been shown to enhance microbial diversity and abundance, which are essential characteristics of healthy soils [104]. For example, urban green spaces incorporating various vegetation types can significantly influence soil microbial communities’ composition and functional diversity, promoting ecological processes that directly benefit agricultural production [105]. Research indicates that different types of GI, such as green roofs, rain gardens, and bioswales, can create microhabitats that support diverse microbial populations. These environments enhance ecosystem functionality by promoting nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition, ultimately improving soil fertility [104,106]. Moreover, the establishment of vegetative buffers around agricultural lands protects water resources and fosters richer microbial ecosystems, supporting sustainable land management practices [84,104,107]. Understanding and leveraging these biological processes are crucial for enhancing soil health and promoting agricultural biodiversity within GI frameworks.

The structural integrity of soil is fundamental for its viability and functionality. Green infrastructure improves soil structure by promoting soil aggregation and reducing compaction [108]. Techniques such as cover cropping and applying organic amendments (e.g., compost) bolster soil structure and enhance organic matter content, which is vital for sustaining soil health [109]. Increased organic matter improves soil porosity, aeration, and water retention, facilitating more effective nutrient cycling [110]. Notably, the integration of biochar—a form of carbon-rich organic material—into agricultural soils has shown promising results in enhancing soil fertility and structure. Studies indicate that biochar application can improve soil’s physical properties, enhance nutrient retention, and reduce nutrient leaching, thereby promoting better plant growth and productivity [37,42]. Additionally, the cycling of nitrogen and phosphorus is significantly enhanced in soils treated with organic amendments, as these inputs support microbial populations that play a key role in nutrient mobilization and availability [109,110]. Therefore, by implementing various forms of GI, soils can achieve a higher quality of structure and organic matter, leading to improved nutrient cycling and long-term sustainability in agricultural settings [109].

Effective water management is crucial for sustainable agriculture, particularly in light of changing climatic conditions that lead to increased variability in precipitation patterns. Green infrastructure mitigates water-related challenges by enhancing the hydrological performance of agricultural landscapes through improved water retention and reduced soil erosion [32]. The design of permeable systems, such as bioswales and rain gardens, facilitates rainwater infiltration into the soil, effectively reducing surface runoff and promoting groundwater recharge [111,112]. Research has shown that these GI systems significantly decrease the risk of soil erosion by stabilizing soil by establishing deep-rooted vegetation that binds the soil structure, reducing the velocity of surface water flow [113]. This is particularly critical in agricultural contexts where soil loss can directly impact crop productivity and ecosystem health. Moreover, the role of GI in managing stormwater helps prevent flooding and limits nutrient runoff, thereby protecting water quality in adjacent water bodies [32,114].

Figure 2 highlights how various GI elements—ranging from bioretention cells and bioswales to green roofs, urban agriculture, and wetlands—contribute to critical soil-related ecosystem functions [115]. The ecosystem services covered include regulation, provisioning, and cultural services. Stormwater management, water pollution control, biodiversity enhancement, and carbon sequestration emerge as dominant regulating services that most GI types provide, particularly bioretention cells, bioswales, and permeable pavements [116,117]. These infrastructures directly influence soil infiltration, pollutant filtration, and nutrient cycling, showcasing their importance in maintaining soil quality and hydrological balance (Figure 2). Urban agriculture, community gardens, and brownfields stand out for providing food and soil fertility services, directly linking soil health to food production and local food systems [118]. Moreover, certain GI types, like green walls and wetlands, also raise awareness, aesthetics, and health and well-being, underscoring the multifunctionality of GI beyond purely ecological functions [65,119]. Figure 2 also reveals research gaps in attention to soil-related services, such as nutrient cycling, metal pollution control, and noise regulation in some GI types, indicating further research and design optimization opportunities [115].

5. Biodiversity Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes Using Green Infrastructure

Agricultural intensification, habitat fragmentation, and climate change pose significant threats to biodiversity, particularly in regions where agriculture dominates land use. Green infrastructure strategies create multifunctional landscapes that balance production with ecological health by establishing habitat networks, enhancing ecological connectivity, and providing refuge for native species. These nature-based approaches conserve pollinators, beneficial insects, and soil microbes, improve resilience to climate change, and support long-term agricultural productivity.

Table 2. Agricultural green infrastructures and their biodiversity conservation benefits.

Green Infrastructure Component	Biodiversity Benefits	Examples of Implementation	References
Hedgerows and Windbreaks	Provide habitat and corridors for wildlife, support pollinators, and enhance genetic connectivity	Planting native shrubs, grasses, and trees along field edges	[73]
Riparian Buffers	Protect aquatic biodiversity, filter runoff, and create habitats for amphibians and riparian species	Establishing vegetated strips along streams and rivers	[84]
Agroforestry Systems	Enhance habitat diversity, promote multi-tiered vegetation, and increase habitat complexity	Integrating trees with crops or livestock systems	[68]
Cover Cropping	Supports soil microbial diversity, attracts pollinators, and enhances beneficial insect populations	Planting clover, vetch, or other legumes between cash crops	[72,121]
Pollinator Strips	Directly supports pollinators such as bees and butterflies and enhances crop pollination	Establishing wildflower strips within or around fields	[122]
Wetland Restoration	Provides critical habitat for aquatic species, birds, and amphibians, and improves water quality	Restoring natural wetlands within farms or adjacent areas	[77,123]
Multifunctional Field Margins	Enhance biodiversity while providing ecosystem services such as pest control and erosion prevention	Creating diverse margins with native plants	[124,125]
Perennial Grassy Buffers	Supports ground-nesting birds, small mammals, and beneficial insects	Planting perennial grasses along contour strips	[126,127]
Tree Corridors and Shelterbelts	Facilitates species movement, provides nesting sites, and supports biodiversity across fragmented landscapes	Connecting habitat patches with tree-lined corridors	[128,129]
Compost and Organic Amendments	Enhances soil microbial biodiversity and promotes soil food web complexity	Applying compost or farmyard manure to fields	[130,131]
Habitat Ponds	Provides habitat for amphibians, insects, and birds while enhancing local biodiversity	Creating small water bodies on farmland	[132,133]
Rotational Grazing Areas	Promotes diverse vegetation and supports insect and bird populations	Rotating livestock through diverse pasture areas	[134]
Integrated Pest Management	Enhances beneficial predator populations, reduces pesticide use, and promotes balanced ecosystems	Using natural predators, trap crops, and biological controls	[135]

highlights key GI components and their biodiversity benefits, offering practical examples for enhancing species richness, ecosystem functionality, and overall landscape health in agricultural settings. Green infrastructure is a critical tool for enhancing biodiversity conservation within agricultural landscapes by creating habitat networks, ecological corridors, and refuge areas for native species. Practices such as hedgerows, riparian buffers, agroforestry systems, and cover cropping improve soil health and water quality and support pollinators, beneficial insects, birds, and soil microbial diversity. These multifunctional landscapes enhance connectivity between natural habitats, fostering gene flow and species migration while mitigating the fragmentation caused by intensive agriculture. By integrating biodiversity-friendly design into farms, GI promotes ecological resilience. It can also help ensure that agricultural landscapes sustain production goals and ecosystem services, ultimately supporting long-term sustainability and climate adaptation [120].

5.1. Pollinator Habitats and Beneficial Insects

Pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, are indispensable for reproducing many crops and wild plants. The decline in their populations has raised significant concerns over food security and ecosystem functioning [136]. Green infrastructure interventions can create and enhance habitats that support these vital insects. Research indicates that diverse floral resources in agricultural landscapes increase the abundance and diversity of pollinators, particularly in the face of habitat degradation [137]. For example, retaining native plant species and providing supplementary forage can alleviate habitat degradation, thereby enabling populations of wild pollinators like bumblebees to thrive [138]. The establishment of pollinator-friendly habitats, such as wildflower strips and hedgerows, can bolster the resilience of pollinator communities against the impacts of agricultural intensification. Studies have noted that habitat corridors connecting semi-natural environments with crop fields facilitate the movement and foraging behavior of pollinators, thus enhancing their effectiveness in agricultural pollination services [139,140]. Furthermore, addressing pesticide use and enhancing landscape diversity is crucial for improving the health of pollinator populations, confirming that the conservation of natural habitat fragments is essential for supporting pollinators’ nesting and foraging needs beyond crop flowering seasons [138].

5.2. Agroecological Networks and Habitat Connectivity

Agroecological networks incorporating natural elements into agricultural planning play a significant role in biodiversity conservation. These networks enhance habitat connectivity, allowing pollinators and other beneficial organisms to navigate through fragmented landscapes efficiently [138,141]. Preserving semi-natural habitats, such as grasslands and forest edges, within agricultural settings is vital for maintaining species richness and ecological functions. Research highlights that landscapes characterized by high structural complexity and greater habitat diversity foster increased populations of wild pollinators [20,142]. This complexity can include a combination of cultivated lands, natural habitats, and strategic plantings that create microhabitats conducive to various insect species. Utilizing such networks helps mitigate the adverse effects of agricultural intensification, which can otherwise lead to biodiversity loss [143]. For instance, maintaining hedgerows or shelter belts provides a habitat for beneficial insects and also aids in keeping microclimates favorable and reducing soil erosion [144]. Developing strategies for creating interconnected landscapes, such as implementing buffer strips and establishing pollinator corridors, can foster resilience within these ecosystems, ensuring that pollinator services are sustained and enhanced over time [20,140].

5.3. Role of Cover Crops and Perennial Vegetation in Biodiversity

Cover crops and perennial vegetation are critical components of GI within agricultural landscapes, enhancing soil health while providing habitats for many organisms [145]. Cover crops, such as clover or rye, can improve soil structure and fertility while offering pollinators food sources during critical times of the year, particularly when main crops are not blooming [146,147]. Their use supports beneficial insects by providing diverse flowering plants that contribute to agricultural biodiversity. Moreover, incorporating perennial vegetation into agricultural systems creates stable ecosystems that support a wider range of species than annual cropping systems. Perennial plants enrich floral diversity and foster habitats for various insects, including essential pollinators [148,149]. Studies suggest that agroforestry systems, which integrate trees with crops, enhance plant diversity and create insulated environments where insect populations can thrive, leading to improved ecosystem services such as pollination and pest control [150,151]. Incorporating a wide variety of native perennial species in agricultural settings can also buffer against the impacts of climate change by providing resilience to fluctuations in weather patterns, ensuring that critical pollination services can persist [137,143]. Adopting cover crops and promoting perennial vegetation are synergistic strategies to enhance biodiversity within agricultural landscapes, leading to more sustainable farming practices.

Biodiversity-focused GI offers substantial ecological and agricultural benefits, yet its implementation requires some trade-offs [20,28]. A key challenge is land competition, as dedicating farmland to features like hedgerows, flower strips, or riparian buffers can reduce space for food production—particularly in land-scarce settings such as smallholder farms. These interventions also increase labor demands for tasks like planting native species, managing diverse cropping systems, and ongoing maintenance. For many farmers, especially in the Global South, the cost of establishing and maintaining such systems can be prohibitive without subsidies or external support [40,60]. Additionally, biodiversity-enhancing practices often take time to produce tangible benefits, which may delay economic returns and discourage adoption. Acknowledging these constraints is crucial for designing GI strategies that are both ecologically effective and socioeconomically viable.

6. Climate Resilience and Mitigation Benefits of Integrating Green Infrastructure into Agriculture

Integrating GI into agricultural practices presents dual benefits: enhancing climate resilience and contributing to climate change mitigation through various ecological mechanisms. One of the primary climate mitigation benefits of integrating GI in agriculture is its capacity to sequester carbon and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Agricultural soils can be significant carbon sinks, and practices such as cultivating cover crops and perennial vegetation can enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks [152,153,154]. Cover cropping, for instance, captures atmospheric CO₂ during the growing season, effectively replacing bare fallow periods, which typically result in carbon release [155]. Meta-analyses suggest that adopting cover cropping can increase SOC significantly, thereby compensating for anthropogenic GHG emissions and improving the overall carbon balance of agricultural ecosystems [156,157]. Moreover, agroforestry practices enhance carbon sequestration in tree biomass and soil [158,159]. Trees integrated into agricultural landscapes contribute to carbon storage within the soil through increased root biomass and organic matter inputs, which improve soil structure and nutrient availability [156,157]. Evidence indicates that agroforestry systems can sequester more carbon than conventional farming approaches that often focus on monoculture practices [68,156,157]. The deployment of these carbon-absorbing practices is critical for meeting national and global climate goals. With agriculture contributing an estimated 14% of GHG emissions worldwide [158], pursuing strategies incorporating GI to bolster carbon sequestration is beneficial and necessary for combating climate change. Returning agricultural residues and straws to fields can enhance soil organic matter content and reduce nitrous oxide emissions, further benefiting carbon sequestration efforts and economic development [159,160,161,162].

Integrating GI within agricultural systems also bolsters adaptive capacity, enabling farms to manage climate risks effectively. Climate-smart agriculture encompasses strategies to increase farm productivity and enhance resilience against climate-related shocks [163]. By diversifying cropping systems through implementing GI, farmers can mitigate risks of crop failure due to climate variability by embracing polycultures and specialty crops better suited for changing conditions [164,165]. Research highlights that agroecological practices, including soil conservation and biodiversity promotion through GI, create more resilient farming systems. For example, regions adopting no-tillage practices within GI frameworks have demonstrated increased soil moisture retention and reduced vulnerability to drought conditions [164,165]. The resilience provided by implementing diverse and integrated farming systems parallels efforts to sustain yields against increasing climate anomalies and extreme weather events. Community engagement and exposure to climate education further enhance adaptive capacity, empowering farmers to adopt practices that will sustain their livelihoods amid climate challenges [166]. These multifaceted adaptations underline the importance of a holistic approach, where GI enhances productivity and contributes to the socioeconomic stability of agricultural communities [163].

Innovative practices among local farmers—such as establishing agroforestry systems, using cover crops, and integrating organic farming techniques—have significantly improved soil health and strengthened community resilience against climate variability [167,168]. In Ghana, farmers increasingly adopt agroecological practices that work synergistically with the local ecosystem to combat land degradation and improve productivity. For instance, the use of organic fertilizers in combination with cover cropping has enhanced soil fertility while reducing dependency on synthetic inputs [169]. Soto et al. [50] also assessed the impact of regenerative agriculture practices on soil quality in Mediterranean dryland and found improved physical (e.g., aggregate stability), chemical (e.g., nutrient content), and biological (e.g., microbial activity) soil properties without compromising crop nutritional status. These practices support higher crop yields and enhance SOC levels, highlighting a win–win scenario for climate mitigation and food production. Moreover, initiatives focused on community-based restoration, such as restoring degraded land through sustainable practices, demonstrate how vulnerable communities can adapt to changing climatic conditions while improving their agricultural output [167]. These efforts align with global objectives to enhance food security amid increasing climate risks while contributing to national commitments to reduce GHG emissions. Overall, the experiences of farmers demonstrate the viability of integrating GI into agricultural practices as a pathway to achieving adaptive capacity and climate resilience, thereby paving the way for sustainable development in the face of climate change [170,171].

CSA represents an integrated approach that combines technological, ecological, and knowledge-based innovations to enhance the sustainability and resilience of agricultural systems in the face of climate change. CSA operates across multiple dimensions—weather-smart, water-smart, carbon-smart, nutrient-smart, energy-smart, and knowledge-smart interventions—each tailored to address specific vulnerabilities and opportunities within farming landscapes (Figure 3) [172]. CSA fosters adaptive capacity by incorporating GI, such as real-time weather advisories, precision irrigation systems, conservation tillage, renewable energy solutions, and farmer-to-farmer learning networks while minimizing environmental impacts [173]. These interventions collectively enhance soil health, optimize water use, sequester carbon, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and empower farming communities with climate literacy and decision-making tools. CSA is vital to GI strategies, ensuring agricultural landscapes sustain food production and contribute to broader ecological resilience and climate adaptation goals [170,174].

Implementing CSA presents context-specific challenges that vary significantly between smallholder and industrial farming systems [174]. Smallholder farmers often face constraints such as limited access to climate-resilient seeds, financial resources, extension services, and reliable weather forecasts, which can hinder the adoption of CSA practices. In contrast, industrial farmers may have better access to resources, but encounter challenges related to the scale and complexity of transitioning from conventional, high-input systems to more sustainable models [20]. For example, integrating agroforestry or diversified cropping into large-scale monocultures requires significant restructuring of operations, logistics, and market systems.

7. Farmer Adoption of Green Infrastructure and Socioeconomic Considerations

The conceptual framework presented in Figure 4 illustrates the multifaceted factors influencing the adoption of GI in agricultural systems. It outlines key barriers, incentives, and enabling conditions essential for designing inclusive and effective strategies that facilitate GI adoption, particularly among smallholder and resource-constrained farming systems. The adoption of GI in sustainable agriculture is influenced by various barriers and incentives, and the role of extension services and farmer knowledge networks. Farmers often face several barriers to adopting sustainable agricultural practices and GI. Key obstacles include high initial costs, insufficient knowledge and training, and perceived risks associated with new practices [175,176]. Financial constraints can significantly hinder adoption, as many farmers are reluctant to invest in new technologies or practices that do not yield immediate economic benefits. Research has shown that adopting sustainable practices is often impeded by a lack of access to credit or financial resources, so investing in green technologies seems untenable [175,176,177,178]. Conversely, various incentives can promote the adoption of GI. For instance, economic incentives, such as subsidies, grants, or tax benefits for implementing sustainable practices, can alleviate some economic pressures farmers face [179]. Social incentives, such as recognition within communities or access to new markets for sustainably produced goods, can also encourage farmers to transition to more sustainable practices [180]. When farmers perceive that their peers or local cooperatives are successfully adopting these practices, they are more likely to follow suit due to social pressure and the dissemination of positive experiences [179,180]. Furthermore, implementing collective strategies within communities often improves the adoption of GI practices [181]. Cooperative membership has significantly boosted the likelihood of adopting sustainable practices, as cooperation enables shared resources, knowledge, and risks among farmers [179]. Thus, while barriers to adoption are significant, targeted strategies that leverage community involvement and economic incentives can effectively facilitate the transition toward sustainable agriculture.

Extension services and farmer knowledge networks are critical in disseminating sustainable agricultural practices and GI information. These services provide farmers with access to research, training, and resources that enhance their understanding of sustainable practices and the environmental benefits they offer [182]. Effective extension programs can facilitate the transfer of technology and knowledge from research institutions to farmers, promoting adoption through education and hands-on demonstrations [183]. Moreover, the role of technology and the internet in connecting farmers to critical information and resources cannot be underestimated. In contemporary agricultural systems, using digital platforms and social media can enhance communication and the sharing of best practices among farmers, thus creating robust knowledge networks [184,185]. These platforms enable farmers to access real-time information on climate conditions, market trends, and best practices in sustainable agriculture, facilitating informed decision-making [186]. However, it is essential to acknowledge that extension services must be tailored to local contexts and farmer needs. Research has highlighted how culturally sensitive approaches, which consider the unique socioeconomic circumstances of farmers, significantly increase the effectiveness of extension programs [183,187]. Training extension agents to understand and promote sustainable practices is crucial for successful implementation [188]. Providing continuous education and resources to support farmers in adapting to new technologies and practices is fundamental for realizing the long-term benefits of GI.

Integrating GI into agricultural systems yields substantial socioeconomic benefits, ultimately enhancing the resilience of rural livelihoods. Sustainable farming practices contribute to improved soil health, increased crop yields, and reduced costs associated with chemical inputs, ultimately boosting farmers’ incomes [189]. Furthermore, the diversification of crops and practices within GI frameworks creates new market opportunities and income streams for farmers, enhancing their overall economic stability. In addition to direct financial benefits, sustainable practices ensure reliable food production in the face of climate change, thereby contributing to food security for farming families [190]. Livelihood resilience is also supported through capacity-building initiatives, which empower farmers to manage risks associated with climate variability and market fluctuations. Research shows that farmers who adopt sustainable practices enjoy enhanced resilience against environmental stressors, ensuring sustained income and food availability even amid adverse conditions [191]. Moreover, adopting GI practices can foster community stability and social cohesion, as farmers often collaborate on shared challenges related to sustainable agriculture [179,192]. This sense of community promotes knowledge-sharing and collective problem-solving, further bolstering the resilience of local agricultural systems [193]. Additionally, investment in sustainable practices can improve environmental quality, resulting in healthier ecosystems supporting community livelihoods over the long term.

Implementing GI is not without challenges, despite the economic and ecological benefits. Limitations include land-use trade-offs, where space allocated for biodiversity elements such as riparian buffers or hedgerows may reduce available farmland—particularly critical in densely cultivated or land-scarce regions (Box 3). GI also requires ongoing labor and financial investment for maintenance, monitoring, and adaptation, which may pose barriers for smallholder farmers. Furthermore, the benefits of GI, such as improved soil health or enhanced biodiversity, often take time to materialize, potentially limiting short-term incentives for adoption. However, integrating GI with new technologies offers promising avenues for future development. Precision agriculture tools, remote sensing, and geospatial analytics can optimize the placement and management of GI elements. Digital platforms and smart sensors can also monitor ecological indicators in real time, improving efficiency and informing adaptive management strategies. These synergies can make GI more scalable, data-driven, and attractive to agricultural stakeholders.

Box 3. Limitations of agricultural green infrastructure and opportunities for integration with emerging technologies in sustainable agriculture.

Limitations of Green Infrastructure	Technological Integration for Future Development
Land-use trade-offs (e.g., reduced arable land)	Use of geographic information system and spatial modeling to optimize GI placement without compromising yield
High labor and maintenance demands	Deployment of automated systems like IoT sensors for irrigation and vegetation monitoring
Delayed realization of benefits	Use of predictive modeling and machine learning to estimate long-term GI impacts
Financial constraints for smallholders	Blockchain-enabled platforms for accessing microfinance, green subsidies, and credits
Lack of real-time ecological data	Remote sensing and drone technology for monitoring vegetation cover and water cycles
Difficulty in assessing performance and return on investment	AI-driven dashboards to visualize and analyze environmental and productivity indicators

8. Policy Implications of Incorporating Green Infrastructure into Agricultural Systems and Governance Frameworks

Incorporating GI into agricultural systems is imperative for achieving sustainable development goals, particularly improved soil health, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience. The involvement of policy frameworks plays a crucial role in facilitating the adoption and implementation of GI practices [194,195]. Integrating GI into agricultural policies involves creating enabling environments supporting the transition toward sustainable farming practices. Policymakers must recognize the multifaceted benefits of GI, which include environmental health improvements and enhanced economic resilience in farming communities [47]. Establishing a clear regulatory framework that encourages the adoption of GI involves setting standards for sustainable land use practices, providing technical guidance, and aligning agricultural policies with broader environmental and social objectives. Emerging frameworks prioritize the inclusion of GI in land-use planning, reflecting a shift towards recognizing the critical role that natural resources play in agricultural productivity and climate adaptation [49]. For instance, developing policies that mandate vegetative buffers around agricultural fields can protect water quality while increasing habitat availability for beneficial organisms [196]. Incentivizing farmers to adopt these practices can reinforce their integration into existing agricultural frameworks. Education and awareness-raising initiatives are essential to inform stakeholders—from farmers to local government officials—about the benefits of GI [197]. This can be accomplished through policy-led programs that facilitate collaboration between agricultural departments and environmental agencies, ensuring that policy objectives align with practical implementation at the ground level.

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) offers a financial mechanism through which farmers can receive compensation for maintaining or enhancing ecosystem services through GI practices. PES schemes encourage sustainable land management by rewarding farmers for their practices’ environmental services, such as carbon sequestration, improved water quality, and biodiversity conservation [31]. These programs can significantly influence the economic viability of adopting GI, offering financial incentives that offset initial costs related to transitioning to sustainable practices. Studies have demonstrated that designing PES programs can improve environmental outcomes while enhancing farmers’ livelihoods [31,198]. For instance, contracts for maintaining buffer zones or implementing agroforestry systems can provide farmers with additional income streams, thereby incentivizing investment in sustainability [199]. Additionally, offering training and technical assistance as part of the PES framework can further enhance adoption rates. Educating farmers about GI practices’ financial and ecological benefits encourages their participation in these programs, ultimately leading to long-term sustainability [200]. Costa Rica’s national PES program has supported reforestation and agroforestry, resulting in a 21% increase in forest cover between 1986 and 2013 and improved ecosystem service delivery, including water regulation and soil stabilization [201,202]. The Common Agricultural Policy in Europe incorporates agri-environmental schemes that reward farmers for implementing GI practices, such as buffer strips, hedgerows, and cover crops. Studies across EU member states have shown positive environmental outcomes, including enhanced biodiversity, improved water quality, and carbon sequestration [203,204]. These examples demonstrate how well-designed policy instruments can effectively reduce financial barriers, encourage ecological stewardship, and mainstream GI practices in industrial and smallholder farming systems.

A successful approach to implementing GI in agriculture requires collaboration among various stakeholders, including governmental agencies, agricultural associations, non-governmental organizations, and local communities. Multistakeholder engagement ensures that the policies designed to support GI are inclusive and reflect the diverse needs and perspectives within agricultural landscapes [61]. Regional policy examples illustrate how collaborative approaches can yield positive outcomes. For instance, successful case studies in urban areas demonstrate how integrating community gardens and urban green spaces has improved local food security and resilience against climate change while providing recreational areas that promote community health [205,206]. In rural agriculture, incorporating stakeholders in decision-making processes ensures that policies are grounded in the realities farmers face. Furthermore, effective governance frameworks that align local, regional, and national policies are paramount for scaling up GI practices [207]. Such frameworks facilitate knowledge sharing, improve resource allocation, and promote best practices that lead to more resilient agricultural landscapes. Ensuring that policy instruments consider GI practices’ long-term sustainability and adaptability will be crucial for their success.

9. Future Directions and Research Gaps

As the integration of GI in sustainable agriculture progresses, several future directions and research gaps emerge, warranting attention from researchers, practitioners, and policymakers. Monitoring and assessing the effectiveness of GI in agricultural systems is critical for understanding its impacts on soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience. There is a pressing need for innovative methodologies that leverage remote sensing and spatial modeling to evaluate changes in land use and ecosystem services provided by GI [208]. Such technologies enable researchers to identify shifts in vegetation cover, assess microclimatic changes around urban GI, and evaluate their effects on local biodiversity [209]. Further research is essential in developing standardized indicators and metrics for assessing the multifunctionality of GI, particularly regarding its role in providing ecosystem services [210]. Creating a comprehensive set of urban GI indicators can aid cities in measuring sustainability benefits, and incorporating economic, environmental, and social dimensions [210]. Employing big data analytics and citizen science initiatives can also enhance monitoring efforts, maximizing participation and fostering local stewardship [211]. Moreover, randomizing experimental designs in field assessments can deepen our understanding of how specific GI practices influence agricultural outcomes. This, combined with participatory approaches, can help adapt practices based on the local context and feedback from the farming communities [212]. Ultimately, advancing assessment and monitoring frameworks will facilitate evidence-based decision-making for policy and practice in sustainable agriculture.

Scaling GI practices across diverse agroecosystems presents unique challenges. Different agricultural systems—ranging from smallholder farms in the Global South to large-scale industrial operations—vary in their ecological and socioeconomic contexts, requiring tailored approaches for scaling [213]. Research should focus on identifying the conditions under which GI practices thrive, assessing factors such as land tenure, labor availability, and resource access that influence implementation success [214]. Innovative implementation strategies should be evaluated for scalability, such as integrating GI practices into existing agricultural subsidies or providing technical assistance for farmers in diverse settings [215]. Collaborative frameworks involving local governments, agricultural organizations, and community groups can enhance support for farmers adopting GI by providing necessary resources, training, and knowledge-sharing networks [215]. Furthermore, understanding cultural perspectives and social acceptance of green infrastructural changes is essential for successful scaling [216]. By integrating insights from local communities and valuing traditional agricultural practices, more inclusive and effective approaches can be developed for advancing GI in agricultural landscapes.

Integrating traditional and indigenous knowledge systems with modern scientific practices presents an essential avenue for enriching the implementation of GI in agriculture. Indigenous communities often possess valuable knowledge regarding local ecosystems, adaptive practices, and sustainable management strategies developed over generations [217]. Collaborative research approaches that fuse this knowledge with scientific analysis can yield innovative solutions for enhancing soil health, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience [211]. Current research highlights the need to appreciate indigenous agroecological systems in policy frameworks and agricultural practices [208]. This can be achieved by engaging indigenous farmers in research initiatives, ensuring that their insights inform the development of sustainable agricultural practices. Additionally, ethnobotanical studies and participatory action research can facilitate knowledge exchange between scientists and indigenous communities, fostering more holistic and culturally appropriate approaches to sustainable agriculture [218]. Encouraging recognition of indigenous practices, such as seasonal land management and habitat conservation strategies, can enhance the adaptability of agricultural systems while promoting biodiversity [219]. Bridging these knowledge systems supports the preservation of cultural identity and contributes to building climate resilience in agricultural landscapes. The future of integrating GI into sustainable agriculture hinges upon addressing key research gaps and exploring innovative methodologies. This encompasses enhancing monitoring and assessment tools, scaling GI across diverse agroecosystems, and bridging traditional and indigenous knowledge with scientific insights. By addressing these areas, researchers and practitioners can better understand the intricate dynamics of GI in agriculture, paving the way for more effective policies and practices that contribute to sustainable agricultural systems globally.

10. Conclusions

Integrating GI into agricultural practices presents a multifaceted strategy for enhancing soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience. This approach addresses the immediate challenges faced by agricultural systems and aligns with broader sustainability goals essential for future generations. The future of agriculture must recognize the importance of these natural interactions and focus on sustaining natural resources while enhancing food production. The key components of GI—agroforestry systems, conservation buffers and riparian zones, regenerative soil management practices, and wetlands—are integral to enhancing soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience within agricultural systems. By fostering a holistic approach to agricultural practices incorporating these elements, farmers can achieve sustainable production that aligns with ecological principles and supports long-term food security. As agriculture faces mounting challenges from climate change, integrating GI components will prove essential in cultivating resilient landscapes that produce food sustainably while preserving and restoring ecosystem integrity. The strategic implementation of GI within agricultural landscapes significantly promotes biodiversity conservation. Enhancing pollinator habitats, nurturing beneficial insect populations, establishing agroecological networks that facilitate habitat connectivity, and leveraging cover crops alongside perennial vegetation are all essential roles GI plays in supporting biodiversity. Collectively, these practices demonstrate how integrating ecological principles into agricultural systems can foster resilience, bolster ecosystem services, and contribute to the long-term sustainability of food production systems. Integrating GI into agricultural systems yields substantial climate resilience and mitigation benefits. GI proves essential for fostering sustainable agricultural practices, from carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas reduction to enhancing adaptive capacity and risk management. Ultimately, the continued implementation and refinement of these strategies are vital for confronting the challenges of climate change and securing the future of global food production. Integrating GI into sustainable agriculture presents multiple layers of complexity concerning farmer adoption and socioeconomic impacts. Addressing barriers while providing targeted incentives, enhancing extension services, and fostering collaborative knowledge networks are all essential for promoting the adoption of these practices. Furthermore, the socioeconomic benefits of integrating GI into agriculture create pathways for boosting livelihoods and enhancing resilience against climate variability. Fostering cooperation among stakeholders—including farmers, extension services, and policymakers—is paramount to achieving sustainable agricultural transformations that benefit both people and the planet.