Enhancing Academia–Industry Partnerships for Sustainable Building: A Change Framework for Research and Innovation Integration in Sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract

This study examines how academia–industry partnerships can be enhanced to promote sustainable building practices in sub-Saharan Africa, a region facing rapid urbanization, climate risks, and resource constraints. The research addresses the gap in existing frameworks that often overlook local context, material lifecycle, and the role of early adopters in sustainable construction. A conceptual framework was developed featuring the following seven core components: adaptation, technology, material lifecycle, early adoption, transformation, policy, and sustainability. The methodology involves a detailed literature review, a comparative analysis of existing global and regional frameworks, and case studies from countries such as Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Ghana, Rwanda, and Ethiopia. Findings revealed that context-specific adaptation strategies, access to digital tools, use of local materials, and strong policy support drive successful partnerships. Past projects like Kenya’s KOSAP, South Africa’s Green Star system, Makoko Floating School in Nigeria, and Burkina Faso’s use of earth bricks validated the framework’s relevance and flexibility. The study concludes that academia and industry can effectively collaborate when supported by structured processes, training, and policy alignment. These findings contribute to the fields of architecture and urbanism by offering a practical, scalable, and inclusive framework suited to Sub-Saharan realities. The study recommended further research into digital integration, cross-border cooperation, and culturally responsive design to build upon these results and support long-term sustainable development in the region.

1. Introduction

In sub-Saharan Africa, sustainable building practices are urgently needed due to rapid urbanization, climate change, and resource limitations. Many sub-Saharan countries like Nigeria, South Africa, and Ghana face housing shortages, inefficient energy use, and environmental degradation, making it essential to adopt eco-friendly construction methods [1]. However, Ali and Akkaş [2] added that despite the presence of academic research on sustainable materials, energy-efficient designs, and green technologies, industries often struggle to integrate these innovations into real-world projects. O’Dwyer et al. [3] continued that weak collaborations, lack of funding, policy gaps, and limited knowledge transfer prevent the construction sector from fully benefiting from academic advancements. Without a structured system to link research with industry needs, opportunities for reducing construction waste, lowering carbon emissions, and improving energy efficiency are lost. Ali and Akkaş [2] suggested that strengthening academia–industry partnerships is key to ensuring that research-driven solutions become practical, scalable, and widely implemented in sub-Saharan Africa’s construction sector.

According to Bungau et al. [4], sustainable building is becoming more important as people try to reduce environmental harm and use energy more efficiently. However, progress in this area is slow because academic research and industry practices are not well connected. Bodolica and Spraggon [5] explained that universities focus on studying new ideas and creating innovations, while industries focus on applying practical solutions to real-world problems. The study continued that since they work separately, many good research ideas do not reach the industry, and industries may miss out on important advancements. This gap makes improving building practices and adopting new sustainable methods difficult. To move forward, there is a need to change how academia and industry work together. As Ekins and Zenghelis [6] emphasized, progress in sustainable building will continue to be slow without change, and the innovation potential will not be fully realized. Furthermore, O’Dwyer et al. [3] suggested that this change must focus on creating a structured way for academia and industry to collaborate effectively. Universities should ensure that their research aligns with real-world industry challenges, making it easier for companies to apply new knowledge. At the same time, Barros et al. [7] reiterated that industries should be open to working with researchers and using their findings to improve building materials, designs, and construction techniques. If this collaboration improves, both sectors will benefit from shared knowledge and resources. Without change, many research findings will remain in academic journals without being tested or used in practice. Fernandes and O’Sullivan [8] illustrated that a structured framework could help establish clear communication, set common goals, and build long-term relationships between universities and industries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and other developing regions. This will help ensure that valuable research does not go to waste and that industries can access new technologies and ideas to support sustainable construction.

This study aims to develop a change framework that strengthens academia–industry partnerships in sub-Saharan Africa for sustainable building. The objective is to create a structured approach that promotes knowledge exchange, joint problem-solving, and continuous innovation, ensuring that academic research contributes effectively to real-world sustainable construction practices. By achieving this, the study hopes to bridge the gap between research and industry, leading to better and more sustainable building solutions.

2. Literature Review

The construction industry needs change to become more sustainable, but weak connections between academia and industry slow progress. Strong partnerships can help by combining research innovations with practical industry applications to develop greener building solutions. This review examines the need for change, the role of partnerships in sustainable construction, and how research and innovation can be effectively integrated into the industry.

2.1. The Need for Change in the Construction Industry

The construction industry plays a crucial role in economic development, but its environmental impact has raised concerns about sustainability. Studies by Liang et al. [9] and Eštoková et al. [10] highlight that traditional construction methods contribute significantly to carbon emissions, resource depletion, and waste generation, with 2.01 billion tons of solid waste produced. Despite growing awareness, many companies still rely on outdated practices due to cost concerns and resistance to change. However, Liu et al. [11] argue that sustainable construction is an environmental necessity and a long-term economic benefit, as green buildings reduce energy consumption and operational costs. While some research supports the idea that strict policies and regulations can force industries to adopt sustainable practices [12], Yan-Ning and Wellington [13] note that voluntary industry-led initiatives can be equally effective when supported by incentives and technological advancements. This contrast highlights the ongoing debate on whether external regulations or internal industry efforts should drive change.

Despite these discussions, a significant barrier to change in the construction industry is the weak link between academic research and industry application. Aliu et al. [14] state that while universities continue to produce innovative solutions for sustainable construction, industries struggle to implement them due to financial, regulatory, and technical limitations. On the other hand, AlJaber et al. [15] suggest that industry reluctance is often due to a lack of awareness and communication rather than actual feasibility issues. This suggests that stronger academia–industry partnerships could bridge the gap and accelerate change. Furthermore, Lassen et al. [16] and Carlander and Thollander [17] emphasize that successful cases of sustainable construction, such as energy-efficient buildings in Scandinavia, demonstrate the potential of integrating research into practice. However, as Reuschl et al. [18] cautioned, even with research-backed solutions, change requires a shift in industry culture, investment in training, and long-term commitment. Therefore, while the need for change in the construction industry is widely recognized, its implementation requires overcoming financial, technical, and cultural challenges.

2.2. Partnerships for Sustainable Building

Effective partnerships between academia and industry are essential for advancing sustainable building practices. Fernandes and O’Sullivan [8] argue that when universities and industries collaborate, they can combine research-driven innovations with practical applications, leading to more efficient and environmentally friendly construction methods. However, Barnes et al. [19] note that these partnerships often face challenges such as differing priorities, communication gaps, and funding limitations. While universities focus on long-term research, industries are driven by immediate financial gains, making alignment difficult. Despite these barriers, a study by O’Dwyer et al. [3] highlights successful models of academia–industry collaboration, such as joint research programs and industry-funded university projects, which have led to breakthroughs in sustainable materials and energy-efficient designs. These findings suggest that with proper alignment of interests and shared goals, partnerships can significantly improve sustainable construction outcomes.

Another key aspect of successful partnerships is government and policy support. Yan-Ning and Wellington [13] emphasize that public policies are crucial in encouraging collaboration by offering incentives, grants, and regulatory support for sustainable construction projects. In countries like Germany and Sweden, strong government-backed partnerships between universities, construction firms, and policymakers have led to the development of smart, energy-efficient buildings [20]. In contrast, Kolk and Lenfant [21] argue that weak policy frameworks and lack of funding make it difficult to establish long-term collaborations in developing countries. This contrast shows that while partnerships can drive sustainable building, their success depends on external support and investment. Moreover, Plekhanov et al. [22] suggest that digital platforms and knowledge-sharing networks can enhance collaboration by allowing researchers and industry professionals to share insights, innovations, and best practices globally, further strengthening the impact of these partnerships.

The construction industry faces significant sustainability challenges in South Africa, but academia–industry partnerships have shown the potential to address them. South African universities have been researching innovative sustainable building materials, such as eco-friendly bricks and solar-integrated designs. However, these innovations often struggle to reach large-scale industry adoption. Malherbe et al. [23] argue that a significant barrier is the lack of structured collaboration channels and industry investment in research. However, some successful examples exist, such as partnerships between academia and construction firms working on low-cost, sustainable housing projects [24]. Furthermore, Ebekozien et al. [25] emphasize that government intervention, such as the Green Building Council of South Africa’s initiatives, can enhance partnerships by creating policies that encourage industries to work closely with universities. While challenges remain, these studies suggest that with stronger collaboration frameworks, South Africa’s construction industry can integrate research innovations more effectively and move toward more sustainable building practices.

2.3. Regional Diversity in Academia–Industry Partnerships for Sustainable Building in Sub-Saharan Africa

In Nigeria, the construction industry remains heavily informal, with a significant portion of the sector involving small-scale builders and artisans who operate outside the boundaries of formal regulation [26]. This informality presents a major challenge for integrating academia and industry collaboration, as many of the players in the sector do not engage with formal research institutions or policy frameworks. Universities in Nigeria often struggle to connect their research with the practical needs of the informal sector, where sustainability practices are not widespread and green building technologies remain largely unknown. However, there are emerging efforts to bridge this gap. Some universities in Nigeria are establishing partnerships with local trade associations and vocational institutions to develop training programs and vocational practices that promote sustainable building and innovation practices [27]. These initiatives are designed to train artisans in energy-efficient construction methods and environmentally friendly materials, ensuring that local knowledge is incorporated into academic research. Additionally, research efforts are increasingly focused on finding cost-effective, region-specific solutions that cater to the needs of informal construction workers. By using community-based models, these collaborations demonstrate that academia–industry partnerships in Nigeria can thrive by recognizing and leveraging the informal sector’s existing strengths.

In South Africa, the construction industry is more formalized, and the country has established robust institutional frameworks to support sustainable building practices. With stronger policies on green building and sustainability, South Africa offers an environment where universities and industry actors can collaborate more effectively [28]. In recent years, South African universities have been at the forefront of innovation in sustainable building materials, energy-efficient designs, and the development of low-cost housing solutions. Government policies such as the Green Building Council of South Africa (GBCSA) certification and initiatives from research councils facilitate stronger links between academia and industry, enabling universities to conduct research that is both practical and aligned with national development goals [29,30]. One such example is the collaboration between the University of Cape Town and several construction firms to develop energy-efficient building designs tailored for both urban and rural contexts. The collaboration has led to the widespread adoption of passive cooling and solar energy systems in new developments. South Africa’s experience illustrates how a more advanced regulatory environment can provide a framework for effective partnerships between academia and industry, particularly when backed by strong policy support and government investment in innovation.

As a rapidly developing economy in East Africa, Kenya faces challenges similar to Nigeria but with a stronger emphasis on urbanization and rapid infrastructure development. The country’s construction sector is characterized by a mix of formal and informal practices, with a growing demand for sustainable and affordable housing [31]. In Kenya, universities such as the University of Nairobi and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology have been pivotal in promoting sustainable building practices through research and collaboration with local construction firms [32,33]. For instance, research into low-cost, environmentally friendly materials, such as compressed earth blocks and eco-friendly cement, has gained traction, especially in informal settlements and peri-urban areas. Kenya also benefits from a more centralized policy framework supporting sustainable development, exemplified by the Kenya Green Building Society, which promotes green building standards [34]. However, like Nigeria, there is a need for greater outreach to small contractors and informal builders who may not have the financial or technical resources to implement sustainable innovations. The collaboration between academia and industry in Kenya highlights the importance of creating partnerships that are accessible to a wide range of stakeholders, including those in less formal sectors.

In contrast, smaller economies such as Malawi and Lesotho face significant challenges in terms of infrastructure, weak policy enforcement, and limited access to modern building materials and technologies [35,36]. The construction industries in these countries often operate on a smaller scale and with fewer resources, making it difficult to implement large-scale sustainability initiatives. Despite these constraints, local universities and polytechnics in Malawi, such as the Malawi University of Science and Technology, have begun to engage with communities and small-scale contractors through pilot projects focused on locally available materials, such as clay and stone. For instance, sustainable building projects in rural areas use compressed earth blocks or other natural resources that can be locally sourced, minimizing transportation costs and environmental impact [37]. International organizations often support these initiatives; some are research-driven collaborations with foreign universities. The adaptability of these small-scale, low-tech solutions illustrates how academia–industry partnerships can be successfully tailored to the unique circumstances of smaller, low-resource economies. By focusing on regional materials and knowledge, these partnerships demonstrate the potential of sustainable building practices even in contexts with limited infrastructure.

Ghana, a West African country with a growing construction sector, has made strides in integrating sustainability into its urban development plans [38]. However, like many of its neighbors, the country faces challenges in coordinating academic research with industry needs. While the formal sector is relatively more developed than in countries like Nigeria or Malawi, there remains a large informal construction segment that dominates the housing market [39]. Osabutey et al. [40] added that partnerships between academic institutions, such as the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), and local construction companies are slowly gaining momentum, with universities offering training and knowledge-sharing platforms on green building technologies. Additionally, Ghana’s government has introduced policies like the National Building Regulations and Codes, which aim to enforce sustainable construction practices. However, there is still a lack of widespread implementation in smaller towns and rural areas, where resources for sustainable development are limited. Here, academia and industry can play a key role in fostering localized innovation by focusing on practical, cost-effective solutions catering to the population’s socio-economic conditions.

In Côte d’Ivoire, the construction sector is growing rapidly, driven by urbanization and increased foreign investment [41]. The government has made some progress in encouraging green building practices, but implementation has been uneven, especially outside major cities like Abidjan. While some universities in the country are focusing their research on sustainable materials and energy-efficient technologies, there remains a gap in translating these findings into widespread industry practices. However, new collaborations between academic institutions and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are emerging, particularly in rural areas where the population often lacks access to modern building technologies [42]. These collaborations are experimenting with affordable, local materials like bamboo and mud bricks for sustainable housing projects. Côte d’Ivoire’s experience demonstrates the need for an integrated approach that accounts for both urban and rural disparities, ensuring that research findings are adaptable and applicable to diverse settings. Together, these varied country contexts illustrate the importance of tailoring academia–industry partnerships to each region’s specific challenges and capacities. By incorporating regional case studies and data, it becomes clear that while sub-Saharan Africa shares many common challenges, each country’s unique socio-economic and institutional conditions require customized strategies for integrating sustainable building innovations.

The literature shows that sustainable construction needs stronger partnerships between academia and industry, better integration of research into practice, and structured change adoption. Studies highlight challenges such as weak collaboration, financial constraints, and resistance to new ideas. While some countries have successful models, gaps remain, especially in developing regions like Malawi, Lesotho, and Côte d’Ivoire, where policy support and industry investment are limited. A major gap is the lack of clear frameworks for linking academic research with industry needs. This study contributes by developing a structured change framework that strengthens partnerships, improves research adoption, and provides practical steps for integrating innovation into sustainable building practices.

2.4. Theoretical Background

Theories such as the Triple Bottom Line, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Compass, Life Cycle Thinking, Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations, and the Multi-Level Perspective help to understand how sustainable development can be achieved, especially in complex systems like the building industry. The Triple Bottom Line encourages looking at three main areas: people, planet, and profit, instead of just focusing on financial gain [43]. This theory pushes industries to think about social and environmental impacts and economic benefits. The SDG Compass connects business actions to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), guiding organizations in aligning their strategies with global sustainability goals [44]. Life Cycle Thinking looks at the full impact of a product or building from raw materials, construction, use, and finally, disposal so that every stage is planned with sustainability in mind [45]. These theories give a strong foundation for building sustainable systems in sub-Saharan Africa, where both environmental and social needs are critical.

These theories help to guide change by showing how different players, like universities, industries, and governments, can work together toward common sustainability goals. For example, Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations explains how new ideas, such as green construction methods or eco-friendly materials, spread through a community or market [46]. This is especially useful in sub-Saharan Africa, where many people still use traditional building techniques. Rogers’ theory shows that innovators and early adopters, such as research institutions or forward-thinking construction firms, can influence others to follow, especially when there are clear benefits. Wang et al. [47] added that the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) adds another layer by explaining how change happens at three levels: the small niche (innovators), the larger system (industry norms), and the wider environment (policies and culture). In sustainable building, universities can act in the niche space by testing new ideas while policies and markets slowly adapt and support these changes at the larger levels.

Table 1. Relationships between key authors and theoretical variables.

Author	People	Environmental Impact	SDG Alignment	Progress Tracking	Material Lifecycle	Carbon Footprint	Innovation Spread	Early Adoption	Niche Innovation	Policy Influence
Nogueira et al. [43]	*	*	*		*	*	*	*	*	*
Aibar-Guzmán and Aibar-Guzmán [44]	*	*	*	*		*	*			*
Van Tulder et al. [50]	*	*	*	*			*
Huang et al. [45]	*	*	*	*	*	*	*	*	*	*
Chan et al. [48]	*	*	*	*	*	*	*	*	*	*
Parthasarathy et al. [46]	*	*			*	*	*	*	*
Menzli et al. [51]	*	*	*	*	*	*	*	*
Wang et al. [47]		*				*			*	*
Shao and Huang [49]				*					*	*
TOTAL	7	8	6	6	5	7	7	5	6	6

* This represents variables that have been previously identified across the literature by several authors.

illustrates the relationships between key authors and theoretical variables drawn from five major sustainability theories, showing how each author contributes to different aspects of sustainable building research. Chan et al. [48] demonstrate a broad engagement, contributing across almost all variables. This suggests that their work provides a well-rounded understanding of the field, from people-focused concerns to innovation and policy influence. This supports the earlier discussion on how multiple theories, such as Life Cycle Thinking and the Triple Bottom Line, are needed to fully address the complex challenges in sub-Saharan Africa’s construction sector. Conversely, authors such as Wang et al. [47] and Shao and Huang [49] engage with fewer variables, indicating a more specialized focus, which still plays a critical role in shaping specific parts of the framework, especially around niche innovation and policy. However, two notable gaps appear in the table. First, “Material Lifecycle” and “Early Adoption” are addressed by only five authors each, suggesting a limited exploration of how sustainable materials are evaluated over time and how new building practices gain acceptance. Second, no single author covers all variables, highlighting the need for more integrative research that connects technical, social, and policy dimensions holistically. These gaps point to opportunities for future studies to bridge isolated efforts and support stronger academia–industry collaboration in sustainable construction.

In practice, these theories drive real transformation by helping to shape partnerships between academia and industry. For instance, Chan et al. [48] explained that universities can research better building materials with lower carbon footprints through Life Cycle Thinking and then share this knowledge with construction companies. Furthermore, the SDG Compass helps both parties track their progress and understand how their work fits into the bigger picture of sustainable development [50]. Shao and Huang [49] added that using the Multi-Level Perspective, policymakers can support these partnerships by creating incentives and laws that encourage green building. Meanwhile, Diffusion of Innovations helps change mindsets, showing that new, sustainable ways of building are possible and worth adopting [51]. Altogether, these theories not only form the background of the study but also show how academic research and industry practices can join together to create real, lasting change in the building sector across sub-Saharan Africa.

3. Methodology

Similar to the studies by Van Dinter et al. [52] and Mangaroo–Pillay and Coetzee [53], this study used a qualitative method through a systematic literature review (SLR) to explore ways to enhance academia–industry partnerships for sustainable building. Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) were the main databases used to collect peer-reviewed articles. Both are trusted sources that provide quality global research and citations and help identify research gaps [54,55]. The same set of keywords was used for both databases: “Academia and industry partnerships” OR “Collaboration frameworks for research and innovation” OR “Industry sustainability” OR “Innovative sustainable development” OR “Knowledge exchange for green development” OR “Sustainable research integration models” OR “Academia-industry collaboration for climate action” OR “Sustainability through academic and industrial cooperation” OR “Research-driven sustainable innovation” OR “Carbon-neutral strategies partnerships” OR “AI-enabled collaboration for sustainable development” OR “Resilient integration” OR “Sustainable development innovation ecosystems” OR “Smart industry-academia alliances” OR “Future-ready collaboration for sustainable innovation” OR “Urban sustainability through academic-industry frameworks” OR “Energy-efficient technologies” OR “Low-carbon solutions through research and industry partnerships”. The search focused on English-language articles in subject areas such as Environmental Sciences, Engineering, Energy, and related fields.

For Scopus, the search was conducted in March 2025, limited to the years 2015–2025. From an initial 2921 documents, filtering by subject areas and language reduced the results to 917, as shown in PRISMA, Figure 1 below. For Web of Science, the search followed a similar approach but focused on article-type documents published between 1986 and 2025. It first retrieved 96 documents and then narrowed them to 40 after refining them by subject areas like Business Economics, Environmental Sciences, Ecology, Energy Fuels, and Construction Building Technology. In both cases, relevant articles were selected and analyzed using VOSViewer 1.6.20 software for bibliometric and network analysis to identify research trends, subject categories, and countries and create visual maps [56]. The software enabled co-occurrence analysis of keywords and citation analysis to highlight influential research, providing valuable insights into existing gaps and trends in the field. This structured methodology ensures a credible, data-driven foundation for developing a framework that strengthens academia–industry collaboration and improves research and innovation integration in sustainable construction.

4. Discussion

Figure 2 shows that China (17 publications) leads in research on academia–industry partnerships for sustainable building, followed by the USA (11 publications). This suggests that China and the USA have strong research output in this field, likely due to significant government funding, industry collaboration, and advanced research institutions. India, Sweden, and the UAE each have 3 publications, indicating moderate research engagement, possibly reflecting emerging but growing interest in sustainable construction partnerships. England, Switzerland, and Turkey each have only 2 publications, suggesting that while there is some academic contribution, it remains limited compared to leading countries. The dominance of China and the USA in publications implies that developed nations with strong economies and advanced construction industries are more actively involved in research-driven innovation for sustainable building. However, the lower publication numbers from other regions highlight a research gap in academia–industry collaboration, particularly in developing countries, especially in SSA.

This finding is important because it shows that global efforts to enhance research integration in sustainable construction are uneven, with some countries contributing far more than others. The findings suggest that academia–industry partnerships for sustainable building are more advanced in China and the USA, mainly due to strong government funding, industry collaboration, and advanced research institutions. This shows that developed countries with strong economies and modern construction industries are leading in research-driven innovation. However, the low number of publications from countries like India, Sweden, the UAE, England, Switzerland, and Turkey indicates that while there is interest in sustainable building partnerships, research engagement is still growing. More importantly, the findings highlight a significant research gap in academia–industry collaboration in developing regions, including sub-Saharan Africa. This means that sub-Saharan African countries must increase research efforts, strengthen industry–academia partnerships, and secure government support to drive innovation in sustainable construction [57]. Without stronger collaborations and investments in research, the region may struggle to adopt modern, energy-efficient, and low-carbon building practices, limiting progress toward sustainable development goals.

Figure 3 and Figure 4 show the analysis of Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus subject areas, revealing that sustainable building research is heavily focused on technical and environmental aspects rather than economic or policy-driven discussions. In WoS, the highest number of publications appears in Business Economics (21) and Environmental Sciences (20), showing interest in both financial feasibility and ecological impact. Meanwhile, Scopus shows a much higher volume of research due to broader keywords in Environmental Sciences (417), Engineering (406), and Energy (379), indicating a strong emphasis on scientific and technological advancements in sustainable construction. The significant difference in research volume between economic and technical subjects suggests a gap in integrating business strategies with scientific innovations.

The findings indicate that sustainable building research heavily focuses on technical and environmental aspects, with less emphasis on economic and policy-driven discussions [58]. While scientific and engineering advancements dominate research in Scopus, WoS data highlight some interest in business economics and financial feasibility. However, the large gap between economic and technical research suggests that sustainable construction efforts often prioritize technological innovation over business strategies and policy integration [59]. This has major implications for academia–industry partnerships in sub-Saharan Africa, as effective research integration requires balancing technical solutions with economic feasibility and supportive policies. To strengthen sustainable building efforts, there is a need for more research on business models, financial incentives, and regulatory frameworks that help industries adopt and implement green building innovations successfully. Without addressing this gap, many research-driven solutions may struggle to be commercially viable or widely adopted by the construction sector.

To obtain the visualized analysis described in this subsection, the number of occurrences was set at 15, which generated 8814 keywords. Out of the keywords, 84 met the threshold used to create the visualization map in Figure 2. Setting the number of occurrences at 15 helped to filter out less relevant keywords, ensuring that only frequently mentioned terms were included in the analysis. This made the visualization more meaningful by focusing on the most significant keywords. The map showed five clusters, with each cluster having different variables, summarized to make the study’s framework. The summary for all the variables in each cluster represents steps taken toward developing the proposed change framework.

Figure 5 presents an analysis of research clusters related to sustainable building, grouped into five thematic areas: Adaptation (Red), Technology (Green), Transformation (Blue), Sustainability (Yellow), and Policy (Purple). Each cluster highlights key themes and research focuses that contribute to the overall discussion on academia–industry partnerships in sustainable construction. Cluster 1 (Red)—Adaptation focuses on energy efficiency, climate change, and cost-effectiveness in the construction industry. Research in this cluster emphasizes decision-making, cost-benefit analysis, emission control, and energy management, highlighting efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve sustainability in construction practices [60]. This cluster aligns with studies on how industries adopt energy-efficient technologies to reduce their environmental impact [6,14]. Cluster 2 (Green)—Technology explores technological advancements in energy efficiency, including air conditioning, energy conservation, and energy-efficient technologies. The focus is on the practical applications of new building technologies, such as heating, cooling, and housing innovations, which contribute to more energy-efficient construction practices [61]. This cluster represents research on how academia and industry can collaborate to develop and implement new technologies that enhance sustainability in the built environment.

Cluster 3 (Blue)—Transformation shifts toward economic and environmental transformation, focusing on carbon emissions, economic development, and environmental protection. Research in this cluster discusses economic and social effects, financial investments, and economic growth alongside environmental protection technologies [62]. This suggests that sustainable building transformation requires economic and environmental shifts, balancing business needs with ecological responsibility. Cluster 4 (Yellow)—Sustainability focuses on alternative energy sources and resource optimization, covering topics such as biomass, solar energy, and desalination. This aligns with global efforts to transition to renewable energy sources in construction and energy management [63]. Lastly, Cluster 5 (Purple)—Policy highlights the role of policies in sustainable building, supporting renewable energy policies, regulatory frameworks, and climate-related strategies for reducing carbon footprints. This cluster underscores the importance of government intervention, policymaking, and regulations in facilitating academia–industry collaboration [64]. Together, as summarized in Table 2 along with theories, these clusters illustrate that successful integration of research and innovation in sustainable construction requires technological advancements, economic investments, industry adaptation, sustainability efforts, and supportive policies.

Based on the five themes obtained from the bibliographic data, all the elements work together to drive change. Adaptation is closely connected to technology, transformation, sustainability, and policy because it helps industries and societies adjust to new advancements and changes [65]. Technology helps industries and societies adapt by introducing new tools, energy-efficient systems, and smart innovations that improve efficiency [66]. This leads to transformation, where businesses and industries shift from old methods to more advanced, sustainable practices [67]. Sustainability plays a key role in adaptation because industries must adjust to climate challenges, resource limitations, and environmental regulations to ensure long-term growth [68]. However, successful adaptation is only possible with strong policies that guide industries toward adopting new technologies, encourage transformation, and promote sustainable practices through regulations, incentives, and strategic planning [69]. Together, adaptation, technology, transformation, sustainability, and policy create a cycle of progress, helping industries evolve and meet modern challenges effectively. The theories supporting this are discussed below, along with the implications.

Table 2. Cluster summary with theories.

Summary	Literature	Authors	Theories
Adaptation	Adaptation pathways for effective responses to climate change risks	Muccione et al. [70]	Adaptive Management Theory
	Adaptation pathways: A review of approaches and a learning framework	Werners et al. [71]	Resilience Theory
	A global assessment of actors and their roles in climate change adaptation	Petzold et al. [72]	Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Technology	COVID-19 sentiments in smart cities: The role of technology anxiety before and during the pandemic	Troisi et al. [73]	Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
	Industry 4.0 technology provision: the moderating role of supply chain partners to support technology providers	Benitez et al. [74]	Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
	The impact of modern technology on the teaching and learning process	Ghory and Ghafory [75]	Disruptive Innovation Theory
Transformation	Digital transformation: An overview of the current state of the art of research	Kraus et al. [76]	Change Management Theory (Kotter’s 8-Step Model)
	Digital transformation: A review and research agenda	Plekhanov et al. [22]	Socio-Technical Transition Theory
	Perspectives on urban transformation research: transformations in, of, and by cities	Hölscher and Frantzeskaki [77]	Sustainability Transition Theory
Sustainability	Prelims, Stealth Construction: Integrating Practices for Resilience and Sustainability	Stephen et al. [78]	Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Theory
	Sustainable AI: AI for sustainability and the sustainability of AI	Van Wynsberghe [79]	Circular Economy Theory
	The interlink between digitalization, sustainability, and performance: An Italian context	Broccardo et al. [80]	Ecological Modernisation Theory
Policy	Policy capacities and effective policy design: A review	Mukherjee et al. [81]	Policy Cycle Theory
	The new economics of industrial policy	Juhász et al. [82]	Institutional Theory
	A comprehensive AI policy education framework for university teaching and learning	Chan [83]	Public Choice Theory

Source: Authors’ summary.

Table 2. Cluster summary with theories.

Summary	Literature	Authors	Theories
Adaptation	Adaptation pathways for effective responses to climate change risks	Muccione et al. [70]	Adaptive Management Theory
	Adaptation pathways: A review of approaches and a learning framework	Werners et al. [71]	Resilience Theory
	A global assessment of actors and their roles in climate change adaptation	Petzold et al. [72]	Diffusion of Innovation Theory
Technology	COVID-19 sentiments in smart cities: The role of technology anxiety before and during the pandemic	Troisi et al. [73]	Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
	Industry 4.0 technology provision: the moderating role of supply chain partners to support technology providers	Benitez et al. [74]	Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
	The impact of modern technology on the teaching and learning process	Ghory and Ghafory [75]	Disruptive Innovation Theory
Transformation	Digital transformation: An overview of the current state of the art of research	Kraus et al. [76]	Change Management Theory (Kotter’s 8-Step Model)
	Digital transformation: A review and research agenda	Plekhanov et al. [22]	Socio-Technical Transition Theory
	Perspectives on urban transformation research: transformations in, of, and by cities	Hölscher and Frantzeskaki [77]	Sustainability Transition Theory
Sustainability	Prelims, Stealth Construction: Integrating Practices for Resilience and Sustainability	Stephen et al. [78]	Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Theory
	Sustainable AI: AI for sustainability and the sustainability of AI	Van Wynsberghe [79]	Circular Economy Theory
	The interlink between digitalization, sustainability, and performance: An Italian context	Broccardo et al. [80]	Ecological Modernisation Theory
Policy	Policy capacities and effective policy design: A review	Mukherjee et al. [81]	Policy Cycle Theory
	The new economics of industrial policy	Juhász et al. [82]	Institutional Theory
	A comprehensive AI policy education framework for university teaching and learning	Chan [83]	Public Choice Theory

Source: Authors’ summary.

5. Theoretical Framework

5.1. Theories Supporting Adaptation

Several theories explain how businesses, industries, and societies adapt to environmental changes, such as climate change, technology advancements, and economic shifts, as illustrated in

Table 3. Theories regarding adaptation across sectors.

Theory	Summary	Sector	Author
Adaptive Management Theory	A learning-by-doing approach where strategies are continuously tested, monitored, and adjusted to environmental changes.	Environmental Science and Sustainability	Thomann et al. [84]
Technological Adaptation Theory	Explains how businesses and industries go through stages of awareness, evaluation, adoption, and full integration of new technologies.	Business and Industry	Murray [85]
Resilience Theory	Focuses on how societies and businesses absorb shocks, reorganize, and continue functioning after crises.	Economics and Disaster Management	Yates et al. [86]
Diffusion of Innovation Theory	Describes how new ideas, technologies, and practices spread across industries through different types of adopters.	General Adaptation Across Sectors	Sahin [87]
Institutional Theory	Suggests that organizations adapt due to policies, regulations, and societal norms rather than purely economic benefits.	Policy and Regulation	Eitrem et al. [88]

Source: Authors’ summary.

. Adaptive Management Theory suggests that industries should gradually adopt energy-efficient technologies, monitor their impact, and adjust strategies as needed [84]. Technological Adaptation Theory explains that businesses go through stages before fully adopting new technologies, such as smart building materials and digital tools [85]. Furthermore, Resilience Theory highlights that industries must prepare for climate risks and economic crises by investing in sustainable and disaster-resistant buildings [86]. Diffusion of Innovation Theory describes how new ideas and technologies spread, showing that some companies quickly adopt green construction methods while others delay until regulations push them [87]. Lastly, Institutional Theory explains that companies adopt sustainable building practices due to government policies, industry standards, and social expectations, not just financial reasons [88]. These theories help guide academia–industry partnerships by showing how businesses can successfully integrate research-based sustainable innovations into construction.

The findings highlight that adaptation theories are essential for strengthening academia–industry collaboration in sustainable building in sub-Saharan Africa. A learning-by-doing approach allows the construction industry to gradually integrate sustainable technologies, making partnerships more flexible and innovative. Sharma et al. [89] explained that the adoption of energy-efficient materials and digital tools like BIM depends on economic factors, organizational readiness, and external pressures, meaning academia must support the industry through cost-effective solutions and training. Adapting to climate risks, economic shifts, and policy changes requires a structured change framework that helps industries absorb shocks and reorganize effectively. Toșa et al. [90] emphasized that while some companies quickly embrace sustainability, others resist change, highlighting the need for awareness programs, incentives, and policy support to speed up adoption. Strong government policies and industry standards play a key role, as businesses often adopt sustainable practices due to regulations, certifications, and social expectations rather than just financial benefits. By applying these adaptation theories, this study presents a framework that improves academia–industry collaboration, encourages innovation adoption, and supports policy-driven sustainability in construction.

Further theories help drive change by encouraging people and organizations to adapt to better, more sustainable ways of doing things. The Triple Bottom Line makes companies think beyond profit, focusing also on people and the planet. This pushes them to change their goals and actions [43]. The SDG Compass gives a clear guide on how to link daily work to global sustainability goals, helping both industry and academia adjust their plans to make a bigger impact [44]. Furthermore, Life Cycle Thinking makes builders and researchers look at the whole life of a building, from start to finish, so that they can improve materials and methods at every stage [45]. Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations shows how new ideas, like eco-friendly buildings, spread through a group. It helps identify how to encourage more people to accept and use new solutions [46]. Finally, the Multi-Level Perspective explains how change happens at different levels, such as small groups, whole industries, and big systems like governments [47]. It helps people understand where and how to adapt, whether they are researchers, builders, or policymakers. Altogether, these theories show that real change comes from understanding and adjusting to different needs, ideas, and systems.

5.2. Theories Supporting Technology

Table 4. Technology theories across sectors.

Theory	Summary	Sector	Author
Diffusion of Innovation Theory	Explains how new technologies spread among users in stages (innovators to laggards).	Healthcare, Construction, Education	Qader et al. [91]
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)	Technology adoption depends on perceived usefulness and ease of use.	Business, IT, Banking	Musa et al. [92]
Disruptive Innovation Theory	New, cheaper, and simpler technologies replace older, complex ones, disrupting industries.	Manufacturing, Transportation, Education	Ho [93]
Socio-Technical Systems Theory	Technology and human systems must work together for successful adoption.	Healthcare, Public Services	Wei et al. [94]
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)	Social factors and ease of use influence technology adoption.	Education, Retail	Momani [95]

Source: Authors’ compilation.

summarizes several theories that explain how technology is developed, adopted, and integrated across different industries to promote growth and sustainability. Diffusion of Innovation Theory describes how new technologies spread over time, showing that some businesses adopt energy-efficient materials and smart buildings quickly while others delay [91]. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) explains that people adopt technology based on how useful and easy it is to use, meaning that businesses must design user-friendly and efficient solutions for better adoption [92]. Ho [93] stated that the Disruptive Innovation Theory highlights how new, cheaper, and simpler technologies replace older, complex ones, such as automation and digital learning platforms revolutionizing traditional industries. Socio-Technical Systems Theory emphasizes that technology alone is insufficient; industries need trained workers and supportive systems for successful implementation [94]. Lastly, Momani [95] showed that the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) shows that social influence and support systems help industries encourage technology adoption, as seen in the rise of e-learning and e-commerce platforms. These theories are crucial for academia–industry partnerships in sustainable building, ensuring that new construction technologies are effectively developed, accepted, and implemented in sub-Saharan Africa.

The findings indicate that technology adoption is crucial for strengthening academia–industry partnerships in sustainable building in sub-Saharan Africa. Stephen et al. [56] noted that sustainable construction technologies, such as energy-efficient materials and smart building systems, require time for widespread adoption, making it essential for academia to educate early adopters. The success of new technologies depends on their usefulness and ease of use, highlighting the importance of training on Building Information Modelling (BIM), AI, IoT, and automation to ensure smooth industry adoption, especially in developing nations [96]. Additionally, cost-effective innovations like 3D printing and automation have the potential to transform construction, emphasizing the need for continuous collaboration between academia and industry [97]. However, technology adoption also relies on skilled workers, supportive policies, and proper infrastructure, requiring government intervention to create an enabling environment. Social influence, financial incentives, and strong policy support further encourage industries to adopt sustainable technologies. These findings suggest that for sustainable construction to thrive, academia and industry must work together to provide training, funding, and policy frameworks that ensure affordable, accessible, and widely accepted technology adoption [98].

In addition, further theories drive change through technology by helping people understand where and how new tools and systems can make building more sustainable. The Triple Bottom Line supports using technology that helps protect the environment, saves money, and improves people’s lives, like solar panels or energy-saving designs. The SDG Compass guides businesses and universities to choose technologies that match global goals, such as clean energy or smart construction tools [48]. Life Cycle Thinking uses technology to study every stage of a building’s life, from material choice to waste, helping reduce environmental harm [45]. Furthermore, Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations explains how new technologies, like green roofing or water-saving systems, can spread from a few users to many, showing how adoption grows [46]. The Multi-Level Perspective shows how different groups, like small startups or big governments, can support technology change together, helping innovations move from research to real-world use. Together, these theories show that using the right technology is key to creating long-lasting change in building practices.

5.3. Theories Supporting Transformation

The theories below explain industry transformation, focusing on efficiency, sustainability, and innovation. Summarized in

Table 5. Transformation theories across sectors.

Theory	Summary	Sector	Authors
Lewin’s Change Management Theory	A three-stage model (unfreeze, change, refreeze) that helps businesses implement and sustain transformation.	Business	Phillips and Klein [99]
Socio-Technical Transition Theory	The shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy is explained through interactions between technology, policies, and consumers.	Energy	Wei et al. [94]
Diffusion of Innovation Theory	Describes how new technologies and medical treatments spread across different groups of adopters.	Healthcare	Qader et al. [91]
Constructivist Learning Theory	States that students learn best through active engagement and experience, supporting modern education reforms.	Education	Almulla [100]
Sustainability Transition Theory	Explains how the construction industry adopts green building standards, eco-friendly materials, and energy-efficient designs.	Construction	Biely and Chakori [101]

Source: Authors’ compilation.

, Change Management Theory highlights that businesses must follow a structured process to adopt new technologies and sustainable practices, ensuring long-term success [99]. Socio-Technical Transition Theory explains that energy transformation depends on technological advancements, government policies, industry investments, and consumer behavior, as seen in the shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy [94]. Furthermore, the Diffusion of Innovation Theory describes how new technologies spread at different rates, with early adopters leading change [91]. At the same time, others wait for proven benefits, such as in the healthcare and construction industries. Constructivist Learning Theory emphasizes that transformation in education happens when new learning methods and workforce training improve skills, making industries more adaptable to modern technologies [100]. Lastly, the Sustainability Transition Theory states that governments, industries, and researchers must collaborate to develop green buildings, eco-friendly materials, and energy-efficient designs for sustainable construction [101]. These theories show that academia–industry partnerships are essential for guiding structured transformation in sub-Saharan Africa’s construction sector, ensuring the successful integration of research-based innovations into industry practices.

The findings show that transformation is essential for improving academia–industry collaboration in sustainable building in sub-Saharan Africa. Wang et al. [102] illustrated that successful transformation requires a structured process and gradual implementation of green building technologies to ensure smooth adoption. Zhang et al. [62] and Olatunde et al. [61] stated that energy transformation depends on the right mix of technology, policy, industry investments, and consumer behavior, making joint research and training between academia and industry crucial. Since not all companies adopt sustainability at the same pace, early adopters must lead the way in demonstrating the benefits of innovation. To support this shift, hands-on training is necessary to help workers adapt to new technologies and materials, ensuring they are properly used in construction [5]. Additionally, governments, businesses, and researchers must collaborate to develop and implement green building standards that guide the industry [13]. These findings suggest that a structured change framework combining research, industry adoption, policy support, and education is needed to ensure long-term sustainable construction in sub-Saharan Africa.

Further theories drive change through transformation by helping people and systems move from old ways of building to new, better ones that care for people, the planet, and the future. The Triple Bottom Line pushes for a significant shift in thinking, where success means more than just profit but also includes social and environmental good [103]. The SDG Compass helps guide this change by showing clear steps that support global goals, leading to more responsible and meaningful actions [44]. In addition, Life Cycle Thinking transforms how buildings are planned and built by looking at the full process, from raw materials to end-of-life, encouraging better choices all along the way [104]. Furthermore, Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations explains how new ideas and methods can slowly replace old ones, helping people accept change over time [46]. The Multi-Level Perspective shows that real transformation happens when bigger systems like policies and markets support small innovations [105]. Together, these theories show that transformation needs new thinking, new tools, and strong teamwork at every level.

5.4. Theories Supporting Sustainability

Focusing on environmental, economic, and social well-being, several theories explain sustainability across industries, as shown in

Table 6. Sustainability theories across sectors.

Theory	Summary	Sector	Author
Triple Bottom Line (TBL)	Businesses should balance profit, social responsibility, and environmental impact.	Business and Economics	Guo et al. [106]
Circular Economy (CE)	Encourages reuse, recycling, and minimal waste to maintain environmental balance.	Manufacturing and Waste Management	Negrei and Istudor [107]
Ecological Modernisation (EM)	Suggests industries can achieve sustainability through clean technology and innovation.	Energy and Technology	Julkovski et al. [108]
Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF)	Focuses on improving resources and sustainability for rural communities and agriculture.	Agriculture and Rural Development	Kunjuraman [109]
Deep Ecology	Emphasizes that humans are part of nature and must protect ecosystems for sustainability.	Environmental Management and Conservation	Muzaffar et al. [110]

Source: Authors’ summary.

. Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Theory emphasizes that businesses should balance profit, environmental responsibility, and social impact, encouraging green building practices and corporate social responsibility [106]. Negrei and Istudor [107] stated that the Circular Economy Theory promotes resource efficiency, recycling, and waste reduction, ensuring that construction and manufacturing industries adopt sustainable materials and reusable designs. Also, the Ecological Modernisation Theory suggests that economic growth and environmental protection can coexist if industries adopt clean technologies, renewable energy, and energy-efficient systems [108]. Furthermore, the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) focuses on agriculture and rural development, promoting organic farming, water conservation, and access to sustainable resources for communities [109]. Lastly, Deep Ecology Theory stresses the need to protect natural ecosystems, encouraging forestry conservation, eco-friendly urban planning, and low-impact city designs [110]. These theories highlight that sustainability in construction requires strong academia–industry collaboration, where research institutions, businesses, and governments work together to develop, implement, and scale innovative green building solutions for long-term environmental and economic benefits in sub-Saharan Africa.

The findings show that sustainability is key to improving academia–industry collaboration in sustainable building in sub-Saharan Africa. To achieve this, construction must balance social, environmental, and economic sustainability by using green materials, reducing waste, and applying cost-effective innovations from academia [36]. A focus on resource efficiency and recycling can help industries develop reusable materials and effective waste management strategies. At the same time, Zhao et al. [111] added that economic growth and environmental protection can work together by promoting renewable energy and green infrastructure in construction. The study continued that sustainability should also benefit local communities by creating jobs, developing skills, and improving access to essential resources. Additionally, eco-friendly urban planning and low-impact construction should be prioritized to protect natural ecosystems [2]. These findings suggest that academia and industry must work together to ensure that economic, environmental, and social sustainability is fully integrated into building practices, creating a long-term positive impact on sustainable construction in sub-Saharan Africa.

In addition to the above, Triple Bottom Line teaches that true success means doing well in three areas: people, planet, and profit, which helps companies think long-term [43]. The SDG Compass connects daily actions to global sustainability goals, making it easier for organizations to stay focused on what really matters for the future [44]. Life Cycle Thinking encourages planning for the full life of a product or building so that waste is reduced and resources are used wisely [45]. Furthermore, Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations helps spread new, sustainable ideas by showing how early users can influence others to follow [46]. The Multi-Level Perspective shows that big changes happen when people, industries, and governments work together, making sure sustainability is supported at every level [47]. Together, these theories guide everyone toward a cleaner, fairer, and more balanced future.

5.5. Theories Supporting Policy

Several theories explain how policy shapes industries, guiding how governments, businesses, and stakeholders create and implement regulations.

Table 7. Policy theories across sectors.

Theory	Summary	Sector	Author(s)
Policy Cycle Theory	Describes policy-making as a step-by-step process from problem identification to evaluation.	Governance and Public Administration	Pluchinotta et al. [112]
Institutional Theory	Explains how social structures, rules, and norms shape policies.	Business and Governance	Glynn and D’aunno [113]
Public Choice Theory	Argues that the interests of individuals, businesses, and politicians drive policy decisions.	Economics and Governance	Buchanan and Tullock [114]
Advocacy Coalition Framework	Explains how groups with shared beliefs form coalitions to push for policy change.	Energy and Environmental Policy	Gabehart et al. [115]
Path Dependence Theory	Suggests that it is difficult to change once a policy direction is chosen due to industry dependence.	Technology and Infrastructure Policy	Trouvé et al. [116]

Source: Authors’ summary.

summarizes the Policy Cycle Theory, which describes how policies follow a step-by-step process, ensuring that laws and regulations in sustainable construction, business, and environmental protection are well-structured and adaptable [112]. Institutional Theory explains that social structures and industry norms influence policies, meaning that companies often adopt sustainable building standards due to government regulations and customer expectations [113]. Buchanan and Tullock [114] illustrated that the Public Choice Theory highlights that policy decisions are shaped by business interests, lobbying, and financial incentives, which means that political and economic pressures often influence renewable energy and green construction policies. Furthermore, the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) explains how groups of stakeholders work together to push for policy change, as seen in environmental coalitions advocating for stricter carbon regulations [115]. Lastly, Path Dependence Theory warns that change becomes difficult once industries rely on outdated systems, such as fossil fuels and traditional construction materials [116]. These theories highlight that academia–industry partnerships in sub-Saharan Africa must align with strong policy frameworks, ensuring that effective regulations, incentives, and industry-wide adoption strategies support research-driven innovations in sustainable building.

The findings show that policy theories are key in shaping sustainable construction by guiding how governments, industries, and stakeholders develop regulations. Paletta et al. [117] emphasized that effective policies require a structured, step-by-step process, ensuring that sustainability laws are clearly formulated, implemented, and evaluated. The study continued that industry norms and consumer expectations influence green building adoption, alongside lobbying, financial incentives, and political interests shaping sustainability policies. Kolk and Lenfant [21] explained that since policy change happens gradually, governments should introduce voluntary sustainability guidelines before making them mandatory, allowing industries time to adapt. Esangbedo et al. [64] added that collaborations between academia, environmentalists, and industry leaders are essential for pushing stronger sustainability laws. At the same time, outdated construction practices require strong policies and incentives to drive the transition toward green building methods. These findings suggest that academia–industry partnerships must align with policy frameworks to integrate sustainable innovations effectively, ensuring a gradual yet impactful transformation in sub-Saharan Africa’s construction sector.

Furthermore, the Triple Bottom Line helps shape policies that care for people and the environment, not just profit, leading to fairer and greener laws. The SDG Compass gives clear goals that governments and organizations can follow when making policies for clean energy, safe housing, and better jobs. Life Cycle Thinking supports policies that look at the full impact of buildings and products, helping reduce waste and protect natural resources. Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations shows how policies can support the early use of new ideas, making it easier for people to try and accept better building methods. The Multi-Level Perspective explains how change happens across different levels, helping leaders create policies that support both small local projects and big national plans. Together, these theories guide the creation of strong, smart policies that help move countries toward sustainable development.

5.6. Theories Supporting the Gaps

From the theories compiled in Table 1, two main gaps were highlighted. These are material lifecycle and early adoption. Theories that relate to material lifecycle and early adoption help explain how sustainable building practices can begin and grow over time. Life Cycle Thinking is the main theory for the material lifecycle because it looks at the full journey of building materials, from production to use and, finally, disposal [45]. This helps builders and researchers choose materials that cause less environmental harm, last longer, and can be reused or recycled. For example, using local materials like clay bricks or bamboo reduces transport pollution and waste. On the other hand, Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations Theory explains how a few people first use new materials and ideas and then spread them to others over time [46]. These first users, called early adopters, are important because they show that new, eco-friendly materials can work. If early adopters succeed and share their results, others are more likely to follow. Also, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) supports early adoption by showing that people are more likely to use a new material or method if they believe it is useful and easy to use [118]. When combined, these theories help guide how sustainable materials are chosen, tested, and accepted in the building industry, especially in places like sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria, Malawi, and so on, where local needs, costs, and trust in new methods are very important.

Material lifecycle helps drive change in sustainable building by making people think about the full life of a material, from when it is made to when it is used, and finally, how it is thrown away or reused [119]. This approach helps reduce waste, save money, and protect the environment. In sub-Saharan Africa, many countries are now looking at local and natural materials that are better for the environment. For example, in Burkina Faso, builders use compressed earth blocks that are made from local soil, which reduces the need for cement and cuts carbon emissions [120]. In Ghana, researchers are studying how to improve clay bricks to last longer and stay cooler in hot weather [121]. These materials are cheaper and better for the environment throughout their life. By using Life Cycle Thinking, countries like Kenya and Uganda can design buildings that last longer and use materials that do not harm the planet, creating a strong link between academic research and real building practices to solve housing issues in the countries [122].

Early adoption helps drive change by encouraging new building methods and materials to spread more quickly [123]. Early adopters are the first people or companies to try new ideas, and when they succeed, others begin to follow. In Rwanda, for example, some private developers are using green building designs early, supported by the Green Building Minimum Compliance System [124]. This shows other builders that eco-friendly methods can work and even bring benefits like lower energy costs. In South Africa, some schools and hospitals have already started using solar panels and rainwater collection systems, which others are now copying [125]. The Diffusion of Innovations Theory explains that once early adopters show success, more people are likely to try new technologies. This helps speed up change in the whole construction industry. Countries like Nigeria, Tanzania, and Zambia can promote faster and wider use of sustainable building practices by supporting early adopters through training, research, and government incentives.

5.7. Theoretical Application in Sub-Saharan Africa

Adaptation theories are highly relevant to sub-Saharan Africa, where climate change, rapid urbanization, and limited access to new technologies make sustainable building a major challenge. Countries like Nigeria, Kenya, and Ghana are under pressure to provide more housing while protecting the environment. Adaptive Management Theory supports a “learning-by-doing” method, which is helpful in these fast-changing environments. For example, in Kenya, the government has supported solar energy use in housing through the Kenya Off-Grid Solar Access Project (KOSAP) and Kenya Green Economy Strategy and Implementation Plan (GESIP), helping builders and communities test and improve clean energy solutions [126]. In Nigeria, the National Building Energy Efficiency Code (NBEEC) encourages energy-saving designs in new buildings, showing how policy and testing go hand-in-hand [127]. In Uganda, vocational schools, supported by the Uganda Green Building Council, train builders in using eco-friendly materials like interlocking bricks. These projects reflect how adaptive strategies supported by policy can promote innovation. Furthermore, Technological Adaptation Theory is also useful in countries with new digital tools like Building Information Modelling (BIM). In South Africa, despite its low adoption, BIM is gradually integrated into public infrastructure through the National Development Plan 2030, showing that even developing nations can gradually adopt new technologies [128]. Through its Energy Efficiency in Buildings Code and collaboration with academic institutions, Ghana promotes digital design tools in architecture schools to prepare future builders for sustainable practices [129].

Resilience Theory helps countries prepare for disasters like floods, droughts, and economic shocks. For instance, Mozambique, frequently hit by floods and cyclones, has developed climate-resilient housing guidelines supported by UN-Habitat to help communities build safer homes. In Namibia, the Integrated Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan supports “climate-smart” housing using water-saving systems and heat-resistant designs [130]. Ghana also promotes resilient building through the National Climate Change Policy, which includes housing as a key sector [131]. These policies show how planning for risk and working with academic institutions helps create buildings that can survive extreme weather. Diffusion of Innovation Theory is seen in action in Rwanda, where the Green Building Minimum Compliance System helps spread sustainable ideas by offering rewards like tax relief and fast-tracking permits [124]. In Tanzania, although still early in its implementation, Urban Development Planning encourages innovation in housing and infrastructure by partnering with universities to test sustainable construction models [132]. These examples show that new building ideas can grow faster when supported by clear policies and local champions.

Institutional Theory explains how companies and construction firms change not only for profit but also due to public policies, rules, and expectations. In Ethiopia, the Building Proclamation 624/2009 includes sustainability goals that encourage companies to use local, renewable materials [133]. In Botswana, the National Development Plan (NDP 11) outlines sustainable urban development with support from the government and educational institutions, leading to eco-friendly housing projects in Gaborone [134]. Furthermore, Zambia has introduced the National Housing Policy (2020), which promotes the use of green building technologies and encourages collaboration with academic institutions like the University of Zambia for research support [135]. These policies prove that institutions play a major role in pushing businesses to adopt sustainable methods, especially when policies are backed by training, certification, and awareness campaigns. Countries that combine rules with research partnerships can move more quickly toward greener building practices that are accepted and understood by both the public and private sectors.

These theories offer a strong roadmap for improving academia–industry collaboration in sustainable construction across sub-Saharan Africa. Countries can learn from each other and from both developed and developing regions on the continent. For example, the South African Green Building Council’s GBCSA rating system has already been applied to commercial projects and could be adjusted for affordable housing in Zambia, Mali, or Tanzania. In Burkina Faso, architect Francis Kéré has led successful community-based projects using local materials like clay and thatch, which can be studied and adapted in Nigeria and Uganda. In Ghana, policy and academic partnerships have led to pilot projects using compressed earth blocks in rural areas. These examples show that there is no single solution. However, by using theories of adaptation and learning from working policies, each country can build a strategy that fits its own culture, economy, and climate while moving toward long-term sustainable development.

6. Discussion

As shown in Figure 6, the change framework for research and innovation was designed based on the findings across the literature and theories. The figure represents a change framework highlighting five key components: adaptation, technology, transformation, sustainability, and policy, which are crucial for enhancing academia–industry partnerships in sustainable building. Adaptation focuses on how industries adjust to new building materials, energy-efficient designs, and environmental challenges through research-backed strategies. Technology emphasizes the need for academia to support the industry with innovative tools like smart building systems, digital modeling, and renewable energy solutions. Transformation represents the shift from traditional to modern, eco-friendly construction practices, requiring structured collaboration between researchers and construction firms. Furthermore, sustainability ensures that all changes support long-term environmental, economic, and social well-being, making it necessary for academia and industry to jointly develop low-carbon, resource-efficient building methods. Lastly, policy plays a vital role in guiding change, as government regulations, industry standards, and academic research must align to drive the adoption of sustainable building practices. This framework suggests that to succeed in sustainable construction in sub-Saharan Africa, academia and industry must work together, using research, technology, and policy-driven strategies to create a greener, more innovative built environment.

Academics, industry, and government must collaborate to drive sustainable building by integrating research-driven innovations into real-world construction. Almulla [74] and Esangbedo et al. [64] explain that academics play a vital role in developing knowledge, technologies, and strategies that reduce the environmental impact of buildings, such as energy-efficient materials and green designs. However, a gap often exists between academic research and practical implementation, making strong industrial partnerships crucial. Industries help bridge this gap by adopting innovations like solar-integrated buildings, recycled materials, and smart energy systems. Bodolica and Spraggon [5] and Yan-Ning and Wellington [13] suggested that joint research projects, pilot studies, and training programs allow companies to benefit from academic expertise while improving sustainability. However, challenges such as cost concerns, lack of technical knowledge, and resistance to change slow down innovation adoption. Benitez et al. [74] and Yan-Ning and Wellington [13] expressed that government support is essential for strengthening these partnerships by providing funding, policy alignment, and incentives encouraging businesses to invest in green technologies. The authors reiterated that initiatives like public/private partnerships (PPPs) help industries in regions like sub-Saharan Africa overcome financial barriers and access research-driven solutions. Successful collaboration examples include, firstly, in South Africa and other regions, this support has led to academic collaborations with international institutions, such as universities in the US, to create tourism-related programs and educational materials, provide training in teaching methods, conduct joint research, and work with industry and government bodies [136]. Secondly, US/Africa Materials Workshops were held in the United States, bringing together academics and government representatives from Africa, the Caribbean, and South America. This led to co-funded materials research and education programs in sub-Saharan Africa [137]. Lastly, a successful collaboration example is EMSAfrica’s partnership with the University of Venda (South Africa), where the Vuwani Science Resource Centre promotes climate change education through the EC tower, information posters, and a GHG demonstrator, helping students and the local community in Limpopo understand climate change impacts [138]. These cases highlight how academia, industry, and government can work together to integrate research into practical applications. Moving forward, effective partnerships, research, and innovation integration require policies that promote sustainability, industries that actively engage in research collaborations, and academia that produces practical solutions. By ensuring these collaborations, sustainable building can become a mainstream practice, benefiting the environment, economy, and society.

The two gaps above, material lifecycle and early adoption, are closely connected and very important for building a strong change framework for sustainable construction in sub-Saharan Africa. These gaps show that more work is needed to understand how materials behave over time and how users first accept new building ideas. If a material’s lifecycle is not considered, buildings may be built with weak or harmful materials, which creates more waste, higher costs, and short lifespans. At the same time, if early adopters are not supported, new green solutions will spread very slowly. Both gaps slow down the process of adapting to better building methods. When we close these gaps, it becomes easier for the construction sector to make needed changes. For example, in Kenya, Ghana, and South Africa, some early projects are already using locally-made eco materials and obtaining good results, encouraging others. This shows that early adoption is important in helping new ideas grow and that material lifecycle thinking supports better choices from the start.

These two gaps fit clearly into the change framework, which includes seven key components in the following order: adaptation, technology, material lifecycle, early adoption, transformation, policy, and sustainability. First, adaptation is the process of responding to environmental, social, or economic changes, such as climate risks or new construction demands [71]. Once a country or sector starts to adapt, technology becomes a tool for making this shift easier and more effective. The next step is focusing on the material lifecycle, making sure that materials used in buildings are safe, long-lasting, and reusable [45,104]. Then comes early adoption, where a few people or companies try new ideas first and help others follow [14,102]. After enough adoption happens, transformation begins, with wider changes across the industry [105]. To support this, good policies, rules, and incentives are needed that make it easier for everyone to join the change [112,115]. Finally, when all these parts work together, we reach sustainability, where building practices are good for the environment, the economy, and the people [4,7]. Filling the gaps in the material lifecycle and early adoption will make this framework stronger and more useful for real-world progress in sub-Saharan Africa.

As shown in Figure 7, enhancing academia–industry partnerships for sustainable building in sub-Saharan Africa depends on several key drivers linked to each part of the change framework. For adaptation, raising climate awareness and building capacity through training helps both sectors respond to change. In technology, access to digital tools like BIM, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the Internet of Things (IoTs) and strong research funding allow universities and companies to work together on smart building solutions. Using local materials and creating eco-innovations for material lifecycle help reduce waste and lower costs. Early adoption is pushed by starting pilot projects and offering incentive programs to support those who try new ideas first. Transformation needs skills training and strong institutional support to make big changes in how building is performed. Policy plays a key role through clear regulatory frameworks and government incentives that encourage green practices. Finally, sustainability is driven by setting green standards and focusing on community impact so that buildings support both people and the environment.

6.1. Change Framework Application in Sub-Saharan Africa

The framework in the figure above shows a step-by-step process that helps strengthen partnerships between academia and industry to support sustainable building in sub-Saharan Africa. It begins with adaptation, which is very important because many countries in the region face serious challenges like climate change, urbanization, and resource shortages. For example, Mozambique often faces floods and storms that damage housing, while Ethiopia experiences drought and water shortages [133,139]. In these places, awareness campaigns and capacity-building programs, led by universities and supported by industry, can teach local builders and planners how to adapt. Kenya, through its Green Economy Strategy and Implementation Plan (GESIP), is already working with academic institutions to train communities in climate-smart building methods [32,126]. This kind of early response helps both sectors adjust their practices to meet local needs, reduce risk, and prepare for future challenges.

The next part of the framework includes technology, material lifecycle, and adoption, which work together to create practical solutions for better buildings. In South Africa, the government and universities can use digital tools like Building Information Modelling (BIM), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Internet of Things (IoTs) in public infrastructure projects to improve planning and efficiency [25,28]. Ghana has also been investing in eco-innovation, such as using improved clay bricks and other sustainable materials that academic researchers test. These materials are not only cheaper and locally available but also reduce carbon emissions. By thinking about the material lifecycle, countries like Nigeria can start to promote the use of long-lasting and recyclable building products [38,40,127]. The next step, adoption, is supported by real-life pilot projects and incentive programs. Rwanda is also encouraging companies to try green designs by offering tax benefits and faster approval. This kind of support helps early adopters lead the way and makes it easier for others in the construction industry to follow [124].

Finally, the framework ends with transformation, policy, and sustainability, which are needed for long-term and large-scale change. Once new ideas are tested and adopted, full transformation happens when they become normal practices in schools, companies, and government projects. This requires strong skills training and institutional support, as seen in Botswana, where the National Development Plan supports education in sustainable urban development [134]. Policy is also key, and countries like Zambia are leading by creating regulatory frameworks and offering government incentives under the National Housing Policy to support green building [135]. These policies give businesses a clear path and a reason to invest in sustainable methods. The final goal is sustainability, where green standards are followed, and communities see real benefits. Uganda, for example, focuses on community impact through eco-friendly planning and job creation in the green building sector [122]. This full change framework, when applied in the right order and supported by good partnerships, can help sub-Saharan Africa build a future where construction is smart, clean, and inclusive.

6.2. Change Framework and Other Collaborative Frameworks

This new framework differs from older frameworks because it brings academia and industry together at every stage, from adaptation to sustainability, in a clear and connected way. Many past frameworks focused more on technical solutions or policy changes but did not fully include universities and research institutions in the process. For example, the UN-Habitat Sustainable Building Framework and the World Bank’s Green Building Toolkit mostly provide guidelines for green construction but do not explicitly explain how to build strong partnerships between researchers and builders [140,141]. Additionally, while useful for setting building standards, the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) system is often too complex or expensive for many sub-Saharan African countries [142]. In contrast, this new framework focuses on local context, using simple tools like pilot projects, local materials, and skills training to make change possible even in low-resource settings.

Another thing that makes this new framework special is the clear step-by-step flow, starting from adaptation, moving through technology, material lifecycle, early adoption, and transformation, and ending with policy and sustainability. Many older models, like the Global Sustainability Assessment System (GSAS) or the Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies (EDGE) tool, focus mostly on building performance, such as energy use and water savings [143]. While these are important, they often leave out how change actually happens in a community or system. This new framework includes change drivers like awareness, institutional support, and community impact, which help make sustainability real and lasting. It also allows different groups to understand their roles, universities test new ideas, industries apply them, and governments create the rules. This makes the framework not just a guide for better buildings but a full system for real change in how buildings are taught, built, and used across sub-Saharan Africa.

The new framework is unique in its integrated, step-by-step structure that directly addresses local challenges, especially in the construction sector. Compared to Soumonni and Ojah’s [144] framework, which focuses on financing renewable energy through mission-driven investment, the new framework goes further by combining financial aspects and technical, educational, policy, and community-based drivers across a full change process. While both frameworks aim to support sustainability, the new one is more detailed in showing how knowledge from academia turns into industry practice. When compared to Buchana and Sithole’s [145] innovation framework in agriculture, which focuses mainly on how to measure innovation performance in rural areas, the new framework is more action-oriented, offering clear pathways for adaptation, technology use, and transformation that are not limited to measurement but also drive implementation. In contrast to the Empower Eco multi-actor HUB by Rowan and Casey [146], which uses a triple helix model (academia, industry, authority) under the SDG framework to promote green innovation, the new framework simplifies the process by focusing directly on how academia and industry can work together with shared drivers and tools like pilot projects and skills training, making it more adaptable to resource-limited environments in sub-Saharan Africa. Unlike Tabunshchyk et al. [147], who focus on Ukraine with a general model for academia–industry partnership, the new framework is deeply context-specific, responding to African realities like limited infrastructure, policy gaps, and informal construction. Finally, while Kadhila et al. [57] propose a strong model for university–industry collaboration in Africa, their focus is broad across education and employment sectors. The new framework, however, zooms into sustainable building, aligning environmental goals with practical construction needs and offering clear, modular components that make it more applicable for designing local, impactful solutions in countries like Kenya, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa.

6.3. Case Studies Validating the Framework’s Applicability in SSA

In the past, several infrastructure projects across sub-Saharan Africa have followed elements similar to those in the new framework, even if they were not formally structured. One clear example is the Lake Turkana Wind Power Project in Kenya, one of the largest wind farms in Africa [148]. While mainly an energy project, it included partnerships between the government, private companies, and universities to support technology development, policy creation, and adaptation to energy shortages in rural areas. However, the project focused more on technical implementation and less on community training or material sustainability. The new framework could improve future renewable infrastructure by ensuring that academia is involved in early testing, providing community-level skills training, and integrating local sustainability goals throughout the project’s lifecycle. This would make similar future projects more inclusive and environmentally responsible.

Another example is the Green Building Council of South Africa’s (GBCSA) initiative to promote sustainable buildings in cities like Cape Town and Johannesburg [149]. Commercial buildings are now certified for energy and water efficiency using the Green Star rating system. The model has worked well in large urban developments but has not fully reached low-income or rural areas. The new framework offers a path forward by including steps like early adoption support, policy integration, and academia–industry collaboration, which could extend these green standards to affordable housing and schools in underdeveloped regions. Similarly, Ethiopia’s Integrated Housing Development Program (IHDP) aimed to reduce housing shortages while boosting local employment [150]. Though impactful, it lacked strong sustainability and research links. The framework can improve future phases by embedding material lifecycle thinking, using local eco-friendly resources, and supporting innovation through research and pilot testing.

Furthermore, the Water-Energy-Food Nexus project in Ghana and Nigeria, supported by the West African Science Service Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL), also shows how academic institutions have played a key role in solving real-world problems [151], with a further example in the heritage building preservation of Puerto de Santa María [152]. The project introduced solar-powered irrigation, energy-efficient buildings, and climate-smart agriculture, demonstrating early signs of adaptation, technology adoption, and policy influence. However, its full impact on the construction sector has been limited. The new framework could enhance such multi-sector projects by providing a clear route for scaling up successful pilots into full transformation, connecting policy support, material use, and sustainability goals.

7. Conclusions

This study aims to develop and validate a new change framework for enhancing academia–industry partnerships in sustainable building across sub-Saharan Africa. The key findings show that seven interconnected components, adaptation, technology, material lifecycle, early adoption, transformation, policy, and sustainability, are critical for creating meaningful and lasting change in the built environment. Unlike past models or frameworks that often lacked regional and contextual relevance or focused narrowly on policy or technology, this framework addresses both practical and theoretical needs. Through case studies from countries such as Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa, Rwanda, Ethiopia, and Burkina Faso, the framework’s applicability and flexibility are demonstrated in various real-world settings. The study fills gaps in the literature by connecting material lifecycle thinking and early adoption to broader systemic change, areas often overlooked in previous frameworks. Its unique contribution lies in blending academic theory with grassroots practice. It offers a step-by-step, easy-to-follow model that speaks directly to the realities of sub-Saharan African architecture, urbanism, and construction industries. This approach advances the discourse in architectural sustainability by emphasizing collaboration, local context, and knowledge integration.

The broader implications of this work are both practical and theoretical. On a practical level, the framework provides clear guidance for policymakers, actionable tools for industry, and research direction for academia, helping to build trust and alignment among these sectors. It supports the design of training programs, pilot projects, and local innovation hubs that can scale sustainable construction practices. Theoretically, the framework deepens understanding of how change happens in complex systems, especially where resources are limited and infrastructure is evolving. Limitations include the unavailability of detailed performance data on long-term material impacts, government influence, and the uneven pace of policy enforcement across different countries. Additionally, pertinent data could be sourced from UN-Habitat, WASCAL, and government policy documents and references to African Journals Online. Future research should explore deeper integration of digital technologies, cross-border collaboration strategies, and the role of cultural practices in shaping sustainability. Overall, this study highlights the importance of unified, adaptable strategies that can bridge gaps between knowledge and practice. It reaffirms that with the right structure, sub-Saharan Africa can lead in innovative, climate-resilient, and community-focused architecture and urban development.