System Merits or Failures? Policies for Transition to Sustainable P and N Systems in The Netherlands and Finland
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theory: Systemic Failures Preventing Sustainable Transitions
3. Methods
3.1. Case Selection
3.2. Comparative Analysis of Failures that Prevent Sustainable Transformative Change
4. Results
4.1. Case Study: The Netherlands
4.1.1. Nutrient Governance and Policies
4.1.2. Nutrient Management in the Agriculture Sector
4.1.3. Nutrient Management in the Water, Industrial, and Municipal Sectors
4.1.4. Impact of Sustainable Nutrient Management Policies
4.1.5 Innovative Trends in Sustainable Nutrient Management
4.2. Case Study of Finland
4.2.1. Nutrient Governance and Policies
4.2.2. Nutrient Management in the Industrial and Municipal Sectors
4.2.3. Nutrient Management in the Agriculture Sector
4.2.4. Impact of Sustainable Nutrient Management Policies
4.2.5. Innovative Trends in Sustainable Nutrient Management
4.3. Results of the Comparative Analysis
4.4. Drivers of Successful Nutrient Management
4.5. Key Failures Revealed
4.5.1. Directionality Failure
4.5.2. Policy Coordination Failure
4.5.3. Institutional Failure
4.5.4. Capabilities Failure
4.5.5. Infrastructural Failure
4.5.6. Demand Articulation Failure
4.5.7. Reflexivity Failure
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Failure | Failure Mechanism/Operationalization |
---|---|
Market failures | |
Information asymmetries | Uncertainty and short-term horizon strategies of private investors lead to undersupply of R & D funding |
Knowledge spill-over | The “collective good” character of knowledge leads to underinvestment in basic research |
Overexploitation of the commons | Public resources are over-used in the absence of institutions restricting their exploitation |
Externalization costs | Externalization of environmental and social costs leads to innovations damaging these agents |
Structural system failures | |
Infrastructure failure | Hard institutional failure: Lack of physical or financial infrastructure due to large-scale, long time horizon, and too poor a return on investment for private investors Soft institutional failure: Lack of knowledge and science infrastructure |
Institutional failure Hard Soft | Hard institutional failure: absence, excesses or shortcomings of formal institutions Soft institutional failure: social norms, values, culture, entrepreneurial spirit, trust, etc. can hinder innovation |
Interaction failure | Strong interaction failure: strong interaction leading to lock-in into established trajectories, lack of new ideas, inward-looking behavior, lack of weak ties, and dependence of dominant actors Weak interaction failure: limited interaction and knowledge exchange inhibiting exploitation of available knowledge and interactive learning |
Capabilities | Lack of appropriate competencies and resources to adapt to changing circumstances and switch to alternative trajectory |
Transformative functioning failures | |
Directionality | Lack of shared long-term vision, insufficient instruments to guide and consolidate the direction of change, lack of targeted funding, inability of collective coordination |
Policy coordination | Lack of multi-level policy coordination across different levels and between different sectors, lack of horizontal and vertical coordination, no temporal coherence, no coherence between public policies and private institutions |
Demand articulation | Insufficient spaces for anticipating and learning about user needs and user uptake of innovations, absence of orienting and stimulating signals from public demand, lack of demand-articulating competence |
Reflexivity | Insufficient systems ability to monitor, anticipate, and involve actors in self-governance, lack of distributed reflexive arrangements, lack of space for experimentation and learning, no adaptive policy portfolios for diversity of options dealing with uncertainty |
Some Indicators in 2012 | Unit | The Netherlands | Finland |
---|---|---|---|
GNP | Euro/person in 2012 | 42,193 | 35,928 [28] |
Land area | km2 | 41,543 | 304,331 [29] |
Freshwater area | km2 | 33,815 [29] | |
Population | 16,788,973 | 5,426,674 [28] | |
Population density | Persons/km2 | 404.8 | 18 |
Indicators of agricultural production | |||
| Million Liter | 11.675 | 2330.10 |
| Million kg | 373.53 | 83.07 |
| Million kg | 1331.73 | 186.13 |
| Million kg | 942 | 113.37 |
| Million kg | NA | 6705 [30] |
Arable land | kg/ha of arable land [29] | ||
| % | 11 | 50 |
| % | 53 | 29 |
Nutrient use in mineral fertilizers | |||
| kg/ha of arable land | 210 | 60 |
| kg/ha | 20 | 8 |
Nutrient loadings into water from agricultural soil | |||
| ktonne/year | 50 (2013) | 30 (2014) |
| ktonne/year | 4 (2013) | 1.8 (2014) [31] |
Nutrient regulation: | |||
Agriculture | |||
| Total N depending on soil and crop type (150–385 kg N/ha) [32] | N from mineral fertilizer depending on soil and crop type (60–120 kgN/ha) and manure N (10–30 t/ha) | |
| Total P depending on soil P (24–50 kg P/ha/a) [33] | P from mineral fertilizers depending on soil and crop type (4–34 kg/ha) and P from manure (0–40 kg/ha) | |
Dominant sewage sludge disposal (2010) [34] | Incineration (100%); agricultural use (0%) | Landscaping, road construction (≈40%); agricultural use (3%) |
Key Commonalities | Key Differences |
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Year | Country | Key Policy Instruments and Incentives |
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1986–1990 | The Netherlands | Interim Act on Manure Management (1984). Manure Act (1987). Soil protection Act (1986). Levy system (production) “Super levy” (1983). Compensatory provisions by provincial governments. |
1998–2002 | The Netherlands | EU Nitrate Directive (1992) and EU Water Framework Directive (2000): intensification of Dutch manure regulations (1995). MINAS (manure registration system which emphasized “loss” standards and which was accompanied by manure transfer agreements; 1998). |
2004–2007 | The Netherlands | EU Nitrate Directive, EU Water Framework Directive and EU-NEC Directive (via implementation in national regulations). “New manure policy” (replacing the MINAS system, with usage standards for N and P; 2004). Production rights in the form of tradable quotas and manure production rights. TransForum, innovation and sustainable transition program. |
1987–1990 | Finland | Fertilizer taxation (in the period 1976–1994) Fallow regulations |
1995–2005 | Finland | EU Nitrate Directive (1992) implementation in national regulations (from 2000). Agri-environmental (AE) subsidy programs (1995). |
Type of Failure | Implication in the Dutch and Finnish Case Studies |
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Directionality failure |
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Policy coordination failure |
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Institutional failure |
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Capabilities failure |
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Infrastructural failure |
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Demand articulation failure |
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Reflexivity failure |
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Hoppe, T.; Kuokkanen, A.; Mikkilä, M.; Kahiluoto, H.; Kuisma, M.; Arentsen, M.; Linnanen, L. System Merits or Failures? Policies for Transition to Sustainable P and N Systems in The Netherlands and Finland. Sustainability 2016, 8, 463. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8050463
Hoppe T, Kuokkanen A, Mikkilä M, Kahiluoto H, Kuisma M, Arentsen M, Linnanen L. System Merits or Failures? Policies for Transition to Sustainable P and N Systems in The Netherlands and Finland. Sustainability. 2016; 8(5):463. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8050463
Chicago/Turabian StyleHoppe, Thomas, Anna Kuokkanen, Mirja Mikkilä, Helena Kahiluoto, Miia Kuisma, Maarten Arentsen, and Lassi Linnanen. 2016. "System Merits or Failures? Policies for Transition to Sustainable P and N Systems in The Netherlands and Finland" Sustainability 8, no. 5: 463. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8050463