Review of Image Classification Algorithms Based on Convolutional Neural Networks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of CNNs
2.1. Neural Network
2.1.1. Neuron
2.1.2. Multilayer Perceptron (MLP)
2.2. CNN Architecture
2.2.1. Convolutional Layer
2.2.2. Pooling Layer
2.2.3. Nonlinear Activation Function
2.2.4. Fully Connected (FC) Layer
2.2.5. Loss Function
2.2.6. Optimizer
3. Image Classification Based on CNN
3.1. Classic CNN Models
3.1.1. LeNet Network
3.1.2. AlexNet Network
- ReLU [73]. The activation function is changed from sigmoid to ReLU, it accelerates the model convergence and reduces the gradient disappearance.
- Dropout [79]. the model uses dropout to control the model complexity of the fully connected layer with to alleviate the overfitting problem.
- Data augmentation. Introduced a large number of Data augmentation, such as flipping, cropping, and color changes, to further enlarge the datasets to alleviate the overfitting problem. Dropout and Data augmentation methods are widely used in subsequent convolutional neural networks.
- Overlapping pooling. There will be overlapping areas between adjacent pooling windows, which can improve model accuracy and alleviate overfitting.
3.1.3. VGGNet
- Modular network. VGGNet uses a lot of basic modules to construct the model, this idea has become the construction method of DCNNs.
- Smaller convolution. A lot of 3 × 3 convolution filters are used on VGGNet, which can ensure that the depth of the network is increased, and the model parameters are reduced under the same receptive field compared with a larger convolution filter [102].
- Multi-Scale training. It first scales the input image to a different size , and then randomly crops it to a fixed size of 224 × 224 and trains the obtained data of multiple windows together. This process is regarded as a kind of scale jitter processing, which can achieve the effect of data augmentation and prevent the model from overfitting [102].
3.1.4. Network in Network (NIN)
- Mlpconv. MLP layer is equivalent to a 1 × 1 convolutional layer. Now, it is usually used to adjust the channels and the parameters, and there are also explanations that cross-channel interaction and information integration are possible.
- Global average pooling (GAP). The FC layer is no longer used for output classification, but a micro-network block with the number of output channels equal to the number of label categories is used, and then all elements in each channel are averaged through a GAP layer to obtain the classification confidence.
3.2. GoogLeNet/InceptionV1 to V4
3.2.1. InceptionV1
- Inception module. Although the early traditional neural networks used random sparse connections, computer hardware was inefficient in computing non-uniform sparse connections. The proposed Inception module can not only maintain the sparsity of the network structure but also use the high computational performance of the dense matrix, thereby effectively improving the model’s utilization of parameters.
- GAP. Replaced the fully connected layer to reduce the parameters.
- Auxiliary classifier. An auxiliary classifier used for a deeper network is a small CNN inserted between layers during training, and the loss incurred is added to the main network loss.
3.2.2. InceptionV2
- (1)
- Smaller convolution. The 5 × 5 convolution is replaced by the two 3 × 3 convolutions. This also decreases computational time and thus increases computational speed because a 5 × 5 convolution is 2.78 more expensive than a 3 × 3 convolution.
- (2)
- Batch Normalization (BN). BN is a method used to make ANNs faster and more stable through normalization of the layers’ inputs by re-centering and re-scaling for each mini-batch.
- /mini-batch mean:
- /mini-batch variance:
- /normalize:
- /scale and shift:
3.2.3. InceptionV3
- Factorized convolutions. This helps to reduce the computational efficiency as it reduces the number of parameters involved in a network. It also keeps a check on the network efficiency. This part contains the following (2) and (3).
- Smaller convolutions. replacing bigger convolutions with smaller convolutions definitely leads to faster training.
- Asymmetric convolutions. A 3 × 3 convolution could be replaced by a 1 × 3 convolution followed by a 3 × 1 convolution. The number of parameters is reduced by 33%.
- Grid size reduction. Grid size reduction is usually done by pooling operations. However, to combat the bottlenecks of computational cost, a more efficient technique is proposed. Say for example in the Figure 12, 320 feature maps are done by conv with stride 2. 320 feature maps are obtained by max pooling. And these 2 sets of feature maps are concatenated as 640 feature maps and go to the next level of inception module.
3.2.4. InceptionV4
- The initial set of layers to which the paper refers “stem of the architecture” (Figure 14) was modified to make it more uniform. These layers are used before the Inception block in the architecture.
- This model can be trained without partition of replicas unlike the previous versions of inceptions which required different replicas to fit in memory. This architecture uses memory optimization on backpropagation to reduce the memory requirement.
3.3. Residual Learning Networks
3.3.1. ResNet
- This method is easy to optimize, but the “plain” networks (that simply stack layers) show higher training error when the depth increases.
- It can easily gain accuracy from greatly increased depth, producing results that are better than previous networks.
3.3.2. Improvement of ResNet
- ResNet with Pre-activation. He et al. [109] proposed a pre-activation structure to pre-activate the BN and ReLU to further improve the network performance. Several experiments were carried out on the layout of BN and ReLU and the best performing structure was obtained in Figure 17(right). It can successfully train ResNet with more than 1000 layers. At the same time, they also proved the importance of identity mapping compared to other shortcut connections.
- Stochastic depth. The authors of [117] pointed out that there are many layers in the ResNet network that contribute little to the output result. In the network training process, the Stochastic depth method is used, and deleting some layers can greatly shorten the training time and effectively increase the depth of ResNet, even exceeding 1200 layers. The test error and the training time on CIFAR-10/100 still has a good improvement.
- Wide Residual Networks (WRNs). With the increasing depth of residual networks, the diminishing feature reuse will make the training of the network very slow [118]. To alleviate this problem, ref. [119] introduced a wide-dropout block that widens the weight layer of the original residual unit [25] Figure 15 (right) and adds dropout between the two weight layers. Compared with deeper ResNet, WRN with fewer layers greatly reduces the training time and has better performance on the CIFAR&ImageNet data set.
- ResNeXt [26]. Although Inception and ResNet have great performance, but these models are well-suited for several datasets. Due to the many hyperparameters and computations involved, adapting them to new datasets is no minor task. A new dimension “Cardinality C”—the number of paths in a block—is used to overcome this problem, and experiments demonstrate that increasing cardinality C is more effective than going deeper or wider when we increase the capacity. The authors compared the completely equivalent structures of the three mathematical calculations in Figure 18. The experimental results show that block Figure 18c with grouped convolution is more succinct and faster than the other two forms, and ResNeXt uses this structure as a basic block.
- Dilated Residual Networks (DRN). To solve the decrease in the resolution of the feature map and the loss of feature information caused by downsampling. However, simply removing subsampling steps in the network will reduce the receptive field. So, Yu et al. [120] introduced dilated convolutions that are used to increase the receptive field of the higher layers and replaced a subset of the internal downsampling layer based on the residual network, compensating for the reduction in receptive field induced by removing subsampling. Compared to ResNet with the same parameter amount, the accuracy of DRN is significantly improved in image classification.
- Other models. Veit et al. [121] drops some of the layers of a trained ResNet and still have comparable performance. Resnet in Resnet (RiR) [122] proposed a deep dual-stream architecture that generalizes ResNets and standard CNNs and is easily implemented with no computational overhead. DropBlock [123] technique discards feature in a contiguous correlated area called block, which is a regularization helpful in avoiding the most common problem data science professionals face i.e., overfitting. Big Transfer (BiT) [124] proposes a general transfer learning method to be applied to ResNet, which uses the minimal number of tricks yet attains excellent performance on many tasks. NFNet [125] proposes a ResNet-based structure without BN layer, by using adaptive gradient clipping technique to achieve amazing training speed and accuracy.
3.3.3. ResNet with Inception
- Inception-ResNet [107]. Tried to combine the Inception structure with the residual structure and achieved good performance. It comes from the same paper as inceptionV4 [107], and the combination is Inception-ResNet-V1/V2 as shown in Figure 19 and Figure 20. Inception-ResNet-V1 has roughly the computational cost of Inception-V3 [1], and it was training much faster but reached slightly worse final accuracy than InceptionV3. Inception-ResNet-V2 has roughly the computational cost of Inception-v4, and it was training much faster and reached slightly better final accuracy than InceptionV4 [107].
- Xception [126]. It is based on the design point of InceptionV3 [1]. The author believes that the correlation between channels and spatial correlation should be handled separately, using modified depthwise separable [127] convolution to replace the convolution operation in InceptionV3. Refs. [128,129] also show that using separable convolution can reduce the size and computational cost of CNNs. But the modification in Xception aims to improve performance. The accuracy of Xception on ImageNet is slightly higher than that of Inception-v3, while the parameters is slightly reduced. The experiment in [126] also shows that the residual connection mechanism similar to ResNet added to Xception can significantly speed up the training times and obtain a higher accuracy rate.
- PolyNet [130]. Many studies tend to increase depth and width in image classification tasks to obtain higher performance. But very deep networks will have trouble that is a diminishing return and increased training difficulty. A quadratic growth in both computational cost and memory demand is caused by a widening network. This method explores the structural diversity of Inception and ResNet that a new dimension beyond just depth and width, which introduced a better-mixed model from the perspective of polynomials.
3.3.4. DenseNet
3.4. Attention Module for CNNs
3.4.1. Residual Attention Neural Network
- Stacking multi-attention modules has made RAN very effective at recognizing noisy, complex, and cluttered images.
- RAN’s hierarchical organization gives it the capability to adaptively allocate a weight for every feature map depending on its importance within the layers.
- Incorporating three distinct levels of attention (spatial, channel, and mixed) enables the model to use this ability to capture the object-aware features at these distinct levels.
3.4.2. SENet
3.4.3. BAM and CBAM
3.4.4. GENet
3.4.5. SKNet
3.4.6. GSoP-Net
3.4.7. ECA-Net
3.4.8. Coordinate Attention
3.4.9. Other Attention Modules and Summary
3.5. Smaller or More Efficient Network
3.5.1. SqueezeNet
3.5.2. MobileNet V1 to V3
3.5.3. ShuffleNet V1 to V2
3.5.4. PeleeNet
3.5.5. MnasNet
3.5.6. More Backbone Networks for Real-Time Vision Tasks
- CSPNet. Wu et al. [169] proposed Cross Stage Partial Network (CSPNet) to solve the problem of heavy inference computations, which is caused by the duplicate gradient information within network optimization. A large amount of gradient information in DenseNet [131] is reused for updating weights of different dense layers, which will result in different dense layers repeatedly learning copied gradient information. The network modifies the equations of the feed-forward pass and weight updating that the gradients coming from the dense layers are separately integrated and the feature map that did not go through the dense layers is also separately integrated. It preserves the advantages of DenseNet’s feature reuse characteristics but at the same time prevents an excessive amount of duplicate gradient information by truncating the gradient flow. It also designed partial transition layers is to maximize the difference of gradient combination. CSPNet can be easily applied to DenseNet [131], ResNet [25] and ResNeXt [26].
- VarGNet. In 2019, Variable Group Network (VarGNet) [170], by Zhang et al. makes a compromise between the lightweight models and the optimized hardware-side configurations methods. This embedded-system-friendly network is well suited to the targeted computation patterns and the ideal data layout because the computation patterns of a chip in an embedded system is strictly limited. The question of the State-Of-The-Art (SOTA) network is so complex that some layers can be accelerated by hardware design while others cannot. VarGNet sets the channel numbers in a group in a network to be constant, to balance the computation intensity. Later, VarGFaceNet [171] introduced Variable Group Convolution into the task of face recognition.
- VoVNet/OSANet. In 2019, Lee et al. [172] proposed VoVNetV1 that the One-shot aggregation (OSA) module is designed which is more efficient than Dense Block [131]. Reducing FLOPs and model sizes does not always guarantee the reduction of GPU inference time and real energy consumption. Dense connections induce high MAC which is paid by energy and time, and the use of bottleneck structure Figure 21 which harms the efficiency of GPU parallel computation. The redundant information is also generated. VoVNet proposed an OSA module to aggregate its feature in the last layer at once that the MAC is much smaller than dense blocks and the GPU is more computationally efficient. It is also named as OSANet and further discussed in Scaled-YOLOv4 [173]. In 2020, the residual connection [25] and SE modules [27] are used in VoVNetV2 [174].
- Lite-HRNet. The HRNet proposed by Wang et al. [175] maintains high-resolution representations by connecting high-to-low resolution convolutions in parallel and strengthens high-resolution representations by repeatedly performing multi-scale fusions across parallel convolutions, which is a model with a powerful performance in multiple visual tasks. Later, in 2021, Lite-HRNet [176] applies efficient shuffle blocks [166,167] to HRNet [175]. It introduces a lightweight unit, conditional channel weighting, to replace costly 1 × 1 pointwise convolutions in shuffle blocks.
3.5.7. EfficientNet V1 to V2
3.5.8. Other Technical Support
- On the trained model: Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) [186] can achieve the effect of model compression by compressing the weight matrix of the fully connected layer in the network, Low-rank filter [187] uses two 1 × K conv instead of one K × K conv to remove redundancy and reduce weight parameters; The network pruning [188,189,190,191,192] method is to discard the connections with lower weights in the network, to reduce the network complexity; Quantization [193,194,195,196,197,198,199] reduces the space required for each weight by sacrificing the accuracy of the algorithm; Binarization of neural networks [195,200] can be regarded as a kind of extreme quantification, which uses a binary representation of the network weights and greatly reduces the model size; Deep Compression [159] uses three steps of Pruning, Quantization and Huffman Coding to compress the original model, and achieves an amazing compression rate without loss of accuracy. This method is of landmark significance, leading a new frenzy of miniaturization and accelerated research of CNN models.
- NAS Search: A lightweight network usually needs to be smaller and faster with as high an accuracy as possible. There are too many factors to consider, which is a huge challenge to design an efficient model. To automate the architecture design process, RL was first introduced to search for efficient architectures with competitive accuracy [201,202,203,204,205]. A fully configurable search space can grow exponentially large and intractable. So early works of architecture search focus on the cell level structure search, and the same cell is reused in all layers. Ref. [164] explored a block-level hierarchical search space allowing different layer structures at different resolution blocks of a network. To reduce the computational cost of search, a differentiable architecture search framework is used in [206,207,208,209,210,211,212] with gradient-based optimization. Focusing on adapting existing networks to constrained mobile platforms, refs. [164,165,213,214] proposed more efficient automated network simplification algorithms.
- Knowledge Distillation (KD): KD [215,216] refers to the idea of model compression by teaching a smaller network, step by step, exactly what to do using a bigger already trained network. This training setting is sometimes referred to as “teacher-student”, where the big one is the teacher, and the small model is the student. In the end, the student network can achieve a similar performance to the teacher network.
3.6. Competitive Methods and Training Strategy
3.6.1. Vision Transformer
3.6.2. Self-Training
3.6.3. Transfer Learning
3.6.4. Data Augmentation
3.6.5. Other Training Strategies
- Optimizer. The optimizer effectively minimizes the loss function to achieve ever better performance, such as SGD [113], Adam [252], PMSProp [253]. Sharpness-Aware Minimization (SAM) [254], as the best solution at present, alleviates the relationship between minimizing loss function and model generalization ability.
- Normalization. BN [106] is a key component of most image classification models, which can achieve higher accuracies on both the training set and the test set. More variants also extend this idea such as layer normalization [255] and group normalization [256]. But the recent research shows that some important flaws of BN will affect the long-term development of CNN [125,257,258,259,260]. NFNet [125] trains deep model without normalization, by using core technology called Adaptive Gradient Clipping (AGC).
4. Comparison of Various Image Classification Methods
4.1. Common Data Sets for Image Classification
- MNIST [262]: The image resolution of this dataset is a 28 × 28 grayscale image. Each picture has 784-pixel grayscales with an integer value of [0, 255]. It contains a training set of 60,000 examples and a test set of 10,000 examples. And it is composed of handwritten numbers (0–9) from 250 different people, see Figure 38a.
- CIFAR-100 [263]: The dataset image resolution is 32 × 32 RGB images, including 60,000 images, divided into 100 categories and independent of each other. Each category includes 500 training images and 100 test images. Compared with the data set CIFAR-10, this dataset divides 100 classes into 20 super classes, see Figure 38c.
- ImageNet [101]: The dataset has approximately 1.5 million annotated images, at least 1 million images provide border annotations, and contain more than 20,000 categories, and each category has no less than 500 images. Beginning in 2010, the ImageNet Large-Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC) held every year will end after 2017. Competition items include image classification, target positioning, target detection, video target detection, scene classification, and scene analysis. The data used in ILSVRC is only a part of the ImageNet dataset, see Figure 38d.
4.2. Comparison and Results
5. Conclusions
- Summarizing our review
- The classic models from 2012 to 2017 provided the basis for the structural design of the CNN-based image classification method, so that many later studies have been established on their basis.
- The attention mechanism is introduced into CNN to form an embedded module, which can be easily and quickly inserted into any network to improve performance. For example, many models currently have SE blocks implanted.
- The networks designed for mobile platforms have smaller and more efficient network structures, which are generally in the extreme use of characteristics. It is the best choice to consider their characteristics comprehensively on a resource-constrained platform.
- The choice of hyperparameters has a great impact on the performance of CNN. Many works will reduce the amount of hyperparameters and replace them with other composite coefficients.
- Manually designing a network to achieve higher performance often requires more effort. NAS search can make this job much easier. It is a good choice to use NAS as the main tool or auxiliary tool to design the network.
- The CNN model relies on sizeable datasets to predict unlabeled data. Transfer learning and data augmentation can not only alleviate it effectively but also can increase the performance of the model.
- Not only designing efficient networks can improve performance, but training strategies can also help CNN models gain huge benefits.
- The challenges of the CNN model
- Lightweight models often need to sacrifice accuracy to compensate for efficiency. Currently, the efficiency of using CNN is still being explored in embedded and limited systems.
- Although some models have achieved great success in semi-supervised learning, most CNN models have not transitioned to semi-supervised or unsupervised learning to manage data. In this regard, the NLP field is doing better.
- The future directions
- Vision Transformer’s achievements in image classification tasks cannot be underestimated. How to effectively combine convolution and Transformer has become one of the current hot spots. They have their own advantages and can complement each other such as the current SOTA network CoAtNet. This type of mixed model also needs further exploration.
- There are some stereotypical components in CNN may become factors hindering development, such as activation functions, dropout, or batch normalization. Various studies have achieved amazing results after breaking the convention, and such ideas are also worthy of further study.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Loss Function | Equation | Characteristic |
---|---|---|
L1 (MAE) | This function is widely used in regression problems. L1 Loss is called mean absolute error (MAE) | |
L2 (MSE) | This function is widely used in regression problems. L2 Loss is called mean square error (MSE) | |
Softmax + Cross-Entropy | This function usually employed as a substitution of the MSE in multi-class classification problems. It is also commonly used in CNN models |
Name | Method | Characteristics |
---|---|---|
Batch Gradient Descent (BGD) | It calculates the gradient of the whole training set and subsequently uses this gradient to update the parameters. | 1. For a small-sized dataset, the CNN model converges faster and creates an extra-stable gradient using BGD. 2. Generally not suitable fora large training dataset 3. It requires a substantial amount of resources. |
Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) | It samples by arbitrarily selecting part of the training sample. | 1. For a large-sized training dataset, this technique is both more memory-effective and much faster than BGD. 2. Randomness and noise are introduced due to its frequent updates. Its convergence is not stable, but the expectation is still equal to the correct gradient descent. |
Mini-batch Gradient Descent | It partitionss the training samples into several mini-batches, and then parameter updating is performed following gradient computation on every mini-batch. | This method combines the technical advantages of SGD and SGD, which has a steady convergence, more computational efficiency and extra memory effectiveness. |
Momentum | It introduces a momentum parameter into SGD that accumulates historical gradient information. | When training falls into a local minimum, the gradient information with momentum can help the network escape and find the global minimum |
Adaptive Moment Estimation (Adam) | It calculates an adaptive learning rate for each parameter in the model | The advantages of momentum and RMSprop are combined. It is widely used in deep learning and represents the latest trend of optimization. |
Model | Year | Depth/Version | Data Set | BFLOPs | Params | Accuracy(%) ImageNet, Top-1 | Accuracy(%) CIFAR 10 | Accuracy(%) CIFAR 100 | Characteristics | Approach |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AlexNet | 2012 | 8 | ImageNet | - | 60M | 63.3 | - | - | ReLU and Dropout | CNN |
NIN | 2013 | 3 | CIFAR 10/100 | - | - | 91.19 | 64.33 | “mlpconv” layer and GAP | CNN | |
VGGNet | 2014 | 16 | ImageNet | - | 138M | 74.4 | - | - | Small filter size, Blocks of layers | CNN |
InceptionV1 (GoogLeNet) | 2014 | 22 | ImageNet | 1.45 | 6.8M | - | - | - | Inception block with different filter size | CNN |
InceptionV2 | 2015 | - | ImageNet | 1.94 | 11.2M | 74.8 | - | - | BN, Small filter size | CNN |
InceptionV3 | 2015 | 48 | ImageNet | 5.73 | 24M | 78.8 | - | - | Using small filter size to burn less computational power | CNN |
ResNet | 2015 | 50, 101 110, 1202 | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | 3.86, 7.57 | 25.6M, 44.5M 1.7M, 10.2M | 77.15, 78.25 | 93.57, 92.07 | 74.84, 72.18 | Residual learning | CNN |
ResNet (pre-activation) | 2016 | 200 164, 1001 | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | - | 64.7M 1.7M, 10.2M | 79.9 | 93.63, 95.38 | -, 77.29 | pre-activation structure | CNN |
Stochastic Depth | 2016 | 110, 1202 | CIFAR 10/100 | - | 1.7M, 10.2M | - | 94.77, 95.09 | 75.09, - | Stochastic delete some layers | CNN |
WRN | 2016 | 50 16, 28 | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | - | 68.9M 11.0M, 36.5M | 78.1 | 95.74, 96.00 | 79.57, 80.75 | Wider and shallower | CNN |
DRN-A | 2016 | 50 | ImageNet | - | 25.6M | 78.7 | - | - | Using Dilated convolutions to increase the receptive field | CNN |
DenseNet | 2016 | 264 190 | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | 6 | - 25.6M | 77.85 | 96.54 | 82.82 | Each layer connects to every other layer | CNN |
Inception-ResNet-v2 | 2016 | 164 | ImageNet | 11.75 | 55.8M | 80.1 | - | - | Combined residual connection and Inception | CNN |
Xception | 2016 | 71 | ImageNet | 8.4 | 22.8M | 79 | - | - | Combined residual connection and Inception Depthwise separable convolutions | CNN |
InceptionV4 | 2016 | 70 | ImageNet | 13 | 48M | 80 | - | - | Divided transform and integration concepts | CNN |
ResNeXt | 2016 | 101(32×4d) 101(64×4d) | ImageNet | 7.508 32 | 44.18M 83.6M | 78.80 80.90 | - | - | Combined residual connection and Inception Grouped convolution | CNN |
DropBlock | 2018 | 50 | ImageNet | 3.86 | 25.6M | 78.35 | - | - | Dropout the units with a contiguous region | CNN |
Attention | 2017 | 92 92, 452 | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | 10.4 | 51.3M 1.9M, 8.6M | 80.50 - | - 95.01, 96.10 | - 78.29, 79.55 | Stacked attention modules based on residual connections | CNN +Attention’ |
PolyNet | 2017 | - | ImageNet | 34.7 | 92M | 81.3 | - | - | Combined residual connection and Inception | CNN |
SENet | 2017 | 101 152 | ImageNet | 8.00 42 | 49.2M 146M | 81.36 82.72 | - | - | Channel attention Implantable lightweight module | CNN +Attention’ |
DPN | 2017 | 131 | ImageNet | 16 | - | 81.38 | - | - | Combination of residual learning and dense connection | CNN |
NASNet-A | 2017 | - | ImageNet | 23.8 | 88.9M | 82.7 | - | - | NASNet search space | CNN +NAS |
PNASNet | 2017 | - | ImageNet | 25 | 86.1M | 82.9 | - | - | Smaller NASNet search space Sequential Model-based Optimization | CNN +NAS |
ResNeXt (32×4d) + BAM | 2018 | 101 | ImageNet | 8.05 | 44.6M | 80.85 | - | - | Channel attention and spatial attention Implantable lightweight module | CNN +Attention’ |
ResNeXt (32×4d) + CBAM | 2018 | 101 | ImageNet | 7.519 | 49.2M | 80.58 | - | - | Channel attention and spatial attention Implantable lightweight module | CNN +Attention’ |
AmoebaNet-A | 2018 | - | ImageNet | 23.1 104 | 86.7M 469M | 82.8 83.9 | - | - | NASNet search space and genetic algorithm | CNN +NAS |
GPipe | 2018 | - | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | - | 557M | 84.3 | 99 | 91.3 | Using Pipeline Parallelism to train effectively | CNN |
ResNet + GE | 2019 | 101 | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | 7.59 | 58.4M - | 79.26 - | - 95.07 | - 79.15 | Feature context exploitation Implantable lightweight module | CNN +Attention’ |
ECA-Net | 2019 | 101 | ImageNet | 7.35 | 42.45M | 78.65 | - | - | No channel dimensionality reduction Portable lightweight modul | CNN +Attention’ |
SKNet | 2019 | 101 29 | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | 8.46 | 48.9M 27.7M | 79.81 - | - 96.53 | - 82.67 | Adaptively adjust receptive field Implantable lightweight module | CNN +Attention’ |
GSoP-Net | 2019 | 50 | ImageNet | 6.56 | 58.65M | 78.81 | - | - | Global Second-order Pooling Implantable lightweight module | CNN +Attention’ |
EfficientNetV1 | 2019 | B0 - B7, L2 | ImageNet | 0.39, 0.70, 1.0, 1.8, 4.2, 9.9, 19, 37, - | 5.3M, 7.8M, 9.2M 12M, 19M, 30M 43M, 66M, 480M | 77.1, 79.1, 80.1, 81.6, 82.9, 83.6, 84.0, 84.3, 85.5 | 98.9 (B7) | 91.7 (B7) | Utilizes effective compound coefficient to scale up CNNs | CNN +NAS |
BiT | 2019 | -L | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | - | - | 87.54* | 99.37 | 93.51 | Transfer learning Better training and fine-tuning strategies | CNN Transfer-learning |
NoisyStudent | 2019 | -L2 | ImageNet | - | 480M | 88.4* | - | - | Self traning / Semi-Supervised add noise to the student | CNN Semi-Supervised |
FixEfficientNet | 2020 | -B7 -L2 | ImageNet | - | 66.4M 480M | 85.3, 87.1* 85.7, 88.5* | - | - | A training strategy that employs different train and test resolutions | CNN |
ViT-H/14 | 2020 | -L, -H | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | - | 307M, 632M | 87.76*, 88.55* | 99.42, 99.50 | 90.54, 90.72 | Pure transformer model for Computer vision | Vision Transformer |
Meta Pseudo Labels | 2020 | -L2 | ImageNet | - | 480M | 90.2* | - | - | Self traning / Semi-Supervised Update teacher based on student performance | CNN Semi-Supervised |
EfficientNetV2 | 2021 | -S, -M, -L | ImageNet CIFAR 10/100 | 8.8, 24, 53 | 22M, 54M, 120M 24M, 55M, 121M | 83.9, 85.1, 85.7 | 98.7, 99.0, 99.1 | 91.5, 92.2, 92.3 | FixRes, Fused-MBConv, NAS | CNN +NAS |
NFNet | 2021 | F6+SAM, F4+ | ImageNet | 337.28, - | 438.4M, 527M | 86.5, 89.2* | - | - | Adaptive gradient clipping technique, Without Normalization | CNN |
ViT-G/14 | 2021 | -G/14 | ImageNet | - | 1843M | 90.45* | - | - | Pure transformer model for Computer vision | Vision Transformer |
CoAtNet | 2021 | -7 | ImageNet | 2586 | 2440M | 90.88* | - | - | Mixed methods, Convolutional + Transformer | CNN + Transformer |
Model | Year | Version/Baseline | Data Set | MFLOPs | Params | Accuracy(%) Top-1 | CPU Latency | Characteristics | Approach |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SqueezeNet | 2016 | - | ImageNet | 1700 | 1.25M | 57.5 | - | Decreased 3×3 conv, deep compression | CNN |
MobileNetV1 | 2017 | 1.0 | ImageNet | 569 | 4.2M | 70.6 | 113ms | Depthwise separable convolution | CNN |
ShuffleNetV1 | 2017 | 2×(g=3), +SE | ImageNet | 527 | - | 75.3 | - | Group pointwise convolution, channel shuffle | CNN |
PeleeNet | 2018 | - | ImageNet | 508M | 2.8M | 72.6 | - | Improved DenseNet | CNN |
MobileNetV2 | 2018 | 1.0 1.4 | ImageNet | 300 585 | 3.4M 6.9M | 72.0 74.7 | 75ms 143ms | Inverted residual block | CNN |
ShuffleNetV2 | 2018 | 2×(g=3), +SE | ImageNet | 597 | - | 75.4 | - | More consideration for MAC | CNN |
MnasNet | 2018 | A3 | ImageNet | 391 | 5.2M | 76.7 | 103ms | Factorized hierarchical search space Reinforcement search algorithm | CNN +NAS |
ECA-Net | 2019 | MobileNetV2-1.0 | ImageNet | 319 | 3.34M | 72.5 | - | Channel Attention Implantable lightweight module | CNN +Attention |
MobileNetV3 | 2019 | 1.0 Large | ImageNet | 219 | 5.4M | 75.2 | 61ms | SE block, NAS, h-swish activation function | CNN +NAS |
MobileNeXt | 2020 | 1.0 1.4 | ImageNet | 300 590 | 3.4M 6.1M | 74.0 76.1 | 211ms - | Improved inverted residual block Proposed sandglass block | CNN |
CA | 2021 | MobileNetV2-1.0 MobileNeXt-1.0 | ImageNet | 310 330 | 3.95M 4.09M | 74.3 75.2 | - | Positional information + channel attention Implantable lightweight module | CNN +Attention |
Model | Initial LR | Batch Size | Epochs | Optimizer | Regularization |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
VGG | 0.01 | 256 | 74 | SGD + Momentum 0.9 | weight decay Scale augmentation Dropout 0.5 |
ResNet | 0.1 | 256 | 85 | SGD + Momentum 0.9 | weight decay Scale augmentation BN |
InceptionV3 | 0.045 | 32×(50) | 100 | RMSProp with decay 0.9 | Label Smoothing Gradient clipping BN |
DenseNet | 0.1 | 256 | 90 | SGD + Nesterov momentum 0.9 | weight decay Augmentation BN |
ResNeXt | 0.1 | 256 | 100 | SGD + Momentum 0.9 | weight decay Scale augmentation BN |
SENet | 0.6 | 1024 | 100 | SGD + Momentum 0.9 | Label Smoothing Random horizontal flipping BN |
SENet for mobile network | 0.1 | 256 | 400 | SGD + Momentum 0.9 | Label Smoothing Random horizontal flipping BN |
MobileNetV3 | 0.1 | 4096 | 120 | RMSProp with decay 0.99; momentum 0.9; batch norm momentum 0.99 | weight decay Exponential moving average Dropout BN |
EfficientNetV2 | 0.256 | 4096 | 350 | RMSProp with decay 0.9; momentum 0.9; batch norm momentum 0.99 | weight decay Exponential moving average RandAugment and Mixup Dropout andstochastic depth BN |
Convolutional Neural Networks | CNNs | Multilayer Perceptron | MLP |
Artificial Neural Networks | ANNs | Convolutional | Conv |
Deep Convolutional Neural Networks | DCNNs | Fully Connected | FC |
Reinforcement Learning | RL | Global Average Pooling | GAP |
Natural Language Processing | NLP | Batch Normalization | BN |
State-Of-The-Art | SOTA | Neural Architecture Search | NAS |
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Chen, L.; Li, S.; Bai, Q.; Yang, J.; Jiang, S.; Miao, Y. Review of Image Classification Algorithms Based on Convolutional Neural Networks. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4712. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13224712
Chen L, Li S, Bai Q, Yang J, Jiang S, Miao Y. Review of Image Classification Algorithms Based on Convolutional Neural Networks. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(22):4712. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13224712
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Leiyu, Shaobo Li, Qiang Bai, Jing Yang, Sanlong Jiang, and Yanming Miao. 2021. "Review of Image Classification Algorithms Based on Convolutional Neural Networks" Remote Sensing 13, no. 22: 4712. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13224712