Monitoring and Evaluating Restoration Vegetation Status in Mine Region Using Remote Sensing Data: Case Study in Inner Mongolia, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area and Remote Sensing Images Collection
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Collection
3. Methods for Restoration Vegetation Monitoring and Evaluation
3.1. Vegetation Growth Monitoring Methods
3.1.1. Vegetation Index and Growth Monitoring Methods
3.1.2. The Estimated Method of the Land Cover Type Change (LTC) Factor
3.1.3. Annual Variation of Restoration Vegetation Growth
3.2. Evaluation Method of Restoration Vegetation Effects
3.2.1. Annual Restoration Vegetation Effect Factor E
3.2.2. Restoration Effect of Area-Average Factor EAA
3.2.3. The Comprehensive Restoration Effect Factor CE
4. Restoration Vegetation Monitoring and Evaluation Results
4.1. Inter-Annual Vegetation Growth Results and Cross-Validation
4.2. Land Type Change Results
4.3. Restoration Vegetation and Surrounding Natural Vegetation Growth
4.4. Growth of Restoration Vegetation with Different Restoration Beginning Years
4.5. Evaluation of Restoration Vegetation Effects
5. Conclusions and Discussions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
GRNDVI Level | Year | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(0.00–1.22 for 2011 (0.00–1.24 for other years)) (Bare land) | Area/km2 | 0.414 | 2.365 | 2.059 | 2.471 | 3.778 | 4.206 | 5.017 | 6.236 |
Percentage | 1.30% | 7.42% | 6.46% | 7.75% | 11.85% | 13.19% | 15.74% | 19.56% | |
(1.22–1.50 for 2011 (1.24–1.50 for other years)) (Low-level vegetation growth) | Area/km2 | 31.301 | 21.941 | 3.210 | 3.884 | 8.745 | 3.575 | 12.795 | 5.685 |
Percentage | 98.18% | 68.82% | 10.07% | 12.18% | 27.43% | 11.21% | 40.13% | 17.83% | |
1.50–1.75 (Medium-level vegetation growth) | Area/km2 | 0.162 | 7.337 | 18.427 | 14.539 | 12.411 | 11.999 | 11.427 | 10.410 |
Percentage | 0.51% | 23.01% | 57.79% | 45.60% | 38.93% | 37.63% | 35.84% | 32.65% | |
1.75–2.00 (High-level vegetation growth) | Area/km2 | 0.006 | 0.236 | 7.534 | 8.546 | 4.848 | 8.490 | 2.260 | 6.185 |
Percentage | 0.02% | 0.74% | 23.63% | 26.80% | 15.21% | 26.63% | 7.09% | 19.40% | |
2.00–4.00 (Remarkably dense-level vegetation growth) | Area/km2 | 0.000 | 0.004 | 0.654 | 2.443 | 2.100 | 3.613 | 0.384 | 3.367 |
Percentage | 0.00% | 0.01% | 2.05% | 7.66% | 6.59% | 11.33% | 1.21% | 10.56% |
LTC | Year | 2011–2012 | 2012–2013 | 2013–2014 | 2014–2015 | 2015–2016 | 2016–2017 | 2017–2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
L-L-W | Area/km2 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 1.18 | 1.08 | 1.62 | 1.29 | 0.79 |
Percentage | 0.34% | 0.38% | 3.69% | 3.38% | 5.09% | 4.03% | 2.48% | |
V-L-W | Area/km2 | 2.16 | 0.61 | 0.98 | 1.84 | 1.71 | 1.26 | 3.48 |
Percentage | 6.78% | 1.93% | 3.06% | 5.77% | 5.35% | 3.95% | 10.91% | |
V-V-W | Area/km2 | 0.82 | 0.86 | 11.10 | 20.71 | 4.51 | 25.43 | 1.53 |
Percentage | 2.58% | 2.71% | 34.82% | 64.95% | 14.16% | 79.77% | 4.81% | |
L-L-B | Area/km2 | 0.07 | 1.32 | 0.32 | 0.86 | 0.88 | 2.47 | 1.97 |
Percentage | 0.22% | 4.15% | 1.00% | 2.71% | 2.75% | 7.76% | 6.17% | |
L-V-B | Area/km2 | 0.23 | 0.92 | 0.56 | 0.53 | 1.28 | 0.45 | 2.26 |
Percentage | 0.73% | 2.89% | 1.77% | 1.66% | 4.01% | 1.40% | 7.09% | |
V-V-B | Area/km2 | 28.48 | 28.04 | 17.75 | 6.87 | 21.88 | 0.99 | 21.85 |
Percentage | 89.34% | 87.94% | 55.66% | 21.54% | 68.64% | 3.09% | 68.55% | |
(L-V-B)- (V-L-W) | Area/km2 | −1.93 | 0.31 | −0.41 | −1.31 | −0.43 | −0.81 | −1.22 |
Restoration Beginning Year | Analysis Year | 0.00–1.24 (Bare Land) | 1.24–1.75 (Low-Level Vegetation Growth) | 1.50–1.75 (Medium-Level Vegetation Growth) | 1.75–2.00 (High-Level Vegetation Growth) | 2.00–4.00 (Remarkably Dense-Level Vegetation Growth) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area/km2 | Percentage | Area/km2 | Percentage | Area/km2 | Percentage | Area/km2 | Percentage | Area/km2 | Percentage | ||
2013 | 2013 | 0.000 | 0.00% | 0.885 | 96.03% | 0.035 | 3.82% | 0.001 | 0.15% | 0.000 | 0.00% |
2014 | 0.113 | 12.26% | 0.694 | 75.30% | 0.058 | 6.30% | 0.028 | 3.00% | 0.029 | 3.15% | |
2015 | 0.160 | 17.37% | 0.637 | 69.08% | 0.097 | 10.55% | 0.027 | 2.92% | 0.001 | 0.07% | |
2016 | 0.128 | 13.94% | 0.545 | 59.17% | 0.156 | 16.92% | 0.026 | 2.85% | 0.066 | 7.12% | |
2017 | 0.161 | 17.46% | 0.647 | 70.17% | 0.108 | 11.69% | 0.006 | 0.67% | 0.000 | 0.00% | |
2018 | 0.088 | 9.59% | 0.516 | 56.02% | 0.200 | 21.72% | 0.044 | 4.72% | 0.073 | 7.95% | |
2014 | 2014 | 0.000 | 0.00% | 0.335 | 59.26% | 0.094 | 16.64% | 0.084 | 14.93% | 0.052 | 9.18% |
2015 | 0.016 | 2.75% | 0.283 | 50.03% | 0.240 | 42.57% | 0.023 | 4.16% | 0.003 | 0.49% | |
2016 | 0.010 | 1.71% | 0.145 | 25.62% | 0.094 | 16.64% | 0.084 | 14.80% | 0.233 | 41.23% | |
2017 | 0.015 | 2.60% | 0.283 | 50.06% | 0.256 | 45.39% | 0.011 | 1.96% | 0.000 | 0.00% | |
2018 | 0.009 | 1.59% | 0.103 | 18.28% | 0.140 | 24.83% | 0.105 | 18.60% | 0.207 | 36.70% | |
2015 | 2015 | 0.000 | 0.00% | 0.460 | 86.73% | 0.070 | 13.27% | 0.000 | 0.00% | 0.000 | 0.00% |
2016 | 0.043 | 8.07% | 0.235 | 44.30% | 0.071 | 13.40% | 0.054 | 10.15% | 0.128 | 24.07% | |
2017 | 0.043 | 8.07% | 0.295 | 55.50% | 0.175 | 32.92% | 0.019 | 3.51% | 0.000 | 0.00% | |
2018 | 0.013 | 2.47% | 0.208 | 39.23% | 0.103 | 19.39% | 0.053 | 10.02% | 0.153 | 28.89% | |
2016 | 2016 | 0.000 | 0.00% | 0.858 | 67.19% | 0.211 | 16.54% | 0.126 | 9.89% | 0.082 | 6.38% |
2017 | 0.098 | 7.63% | 0.597 | 46.74% | 0.565 | 44.22% | 0.017 | 1.30% | 0.001 | 0.11% | |
2018 | 0.021 | 1.68% | 0.224 | 17.51% | 0.202 | 15.84% | 0.393 | 30.76% | 0.437 | 34.22% | |
2017 | 2017 | 0.000 | 0.00% | 0.448 | 100.00% | 0.000 | 0.00% | 0.000 | 0.00% | 0.000 | 0.00% |
2018 | 0.009 | 2.00% | 0.128 | 28.52% | 0.224 | 50.12% | 0.082 | 18.28% | 0.005 | 1.08% | |
2018 | 2018 | 0.000 | 0.00% | 1.726 | 76.40% | 0.481 | 21.30% | 0.052 | 2.31% | 0.000 | 0.00% |
Effect Level | Year | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 (Poor effect) | Area/km2 | 0.247 | 0.022 | 0.059 | 0.091 | 0.009 | 0.000 |
Percentage | 26.85% | 3.97% | 11.19% | 7.09% | 2.00% | 0.00% | |
1 (Inferior effect) | Area/km2 | 0.590 | 0.234 | 0.276 | 0.559 | 0.352 | 1.726 |
Percentage | 64.00% | 41.47% | 51.98% | 43.71% | 78.64% | 76.40% | |
2 (Medium effect) | Area/km2 | 0.066 | 0.207 | 0.129 | 0.431 | 0.087 | 0.481 |
Percentage | 7.12% | 36.70% | 24.33% | 33.73% | 19.35% | 21.30% | |
3 (Good effect) | Area/km2 | 0.019 | 0.101 | 0.066 | 0.196 | 0.000 | 0.052 |
Percentage | 2.02% | 17.86% | 12.49% | 15.35% | 0.00% | 2.31% | |
4 (Excellent effect) | Area/km2 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Percentage | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.00% | 0.11% | 0.00% | 0.00% | |
The total area/km2 | 0.921 | 0.565 | 0.531 | 1.278 | 0.448 | 2.259 |
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Year | Image Number | Sensor and Image Date List |
---|---|---|
2011 | 9 | TM: From 17 April 2011 to 24 September 2011 |
2012 | 9 | ETM+: From 27 April 2012 to 18 September 2012 |
2013 | 10 | OLI: From 3 April 2013 to 29 September 2013 |
2014 | 10 | OLI: From 9 April 2014 to 2 October 2014 |
2015 | 12 | OLI: From 12 April 2015 to 5 October 2015 |
2016 | 13 | OLI: From 14 April 2016 to 23 October 2016 |
2017 | 12 | OLI: From 1 April 2017 to 26 October 2017 |
2018 | 12 | OLI: From 20 April 2018 to 29 October 2018 |
Sentinal 2 Image Data | Classification Result Date | Overall Accuracy |
---|---|---|
19 May 2016 | 2016 | 93% |
7 August 2016 | 2016 | 92% |
26 October 2016 | 2016 | 94% |
24 May 2018 | 2018 | 92% |
28 June 2018 | 2018 | 93% |
11 October 2018 | 2018 | 91% |
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Wang, W.; Liu, R.; Gan, F.; Zhou, P.; Zhang, X.; Ding, L. Monitoring and Evaluating Restoration Vegetation Status in Mine Region Using Remote Sensing Data: Case Study in Inner Mongolia, China. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 1350. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13071350
Wang W, Liu R, Gan F, Zhou P, Zhang X, Ding L. Monitoring and Evaluating Restoration Vegetation Status in Mine Region Using Remote Sensing Data: Case Study in Inner Mongolia, China. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(7):1350. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13071350
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Wei, Rongyuan Liu, Fuping Gan, Ping Zhou, Xiangwen Zhang, and Ling Ding. 2021. "Monitoring and Evaluating Restoration Vegetation Status in Mine Region Using Remote Sensing Data: Case Study in Inner Mongolia, China" Remote Sensing 13, no. 7: 1350. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13071350