Vertical Ground Displacements and Its Impact on Erosion along the Karachi Coastline, Pakistan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Vertical Ground Displacement Detection Using TCPInSAR
3.2. Coastline Change Estimation Using DSAS
4. Results
4.1. Displacement along the Karachi Coast (2004–2016)
4.1.1. Vertical Ground Displacement Time Series
4.2. Erosion Rate along the Karachi Coast (1989–2018)
4.3. Influence of Ground Displacement on Coastal Erosion in Karachi
5. Discussion
5.1. Potential Factors Inducing Ground Displacement
5.1.1. Role of Geology and Lithology
5.1.2. Unregulated and Excessive Groundwater Extraction
5.1.3. Structural Damage Due to Failed Sewerage System
5.1.4. Land Reclamation
5.1.5. Liquefaction
6. Limitation and Way Forward
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Zone | Sites | Envisat/ASAR | Sentinel/1A | Trend | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Towns) | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | Mean | ||
West Karachi | Baldia, S.I.T.E, Orangi | −10.81 | 24.04 | −0.21 | −18.93 | 33.082 | 0.58 | |
South Karachi | Kiamari, Saddar, Layari, Clifton, DHA, Manora | −9.92 | 5.96 | 0.797 | −37.96 | 12.792 | 0.46 | |
East Karachi | Shah Faisal, Korangi, Landhi, Korangi Creek Cantonment, Gulshan e Iqbal, Jamshed | −15.62 | 6.57 | −1.04 | −22.44 | 10.929 | −1.83 | |
Malir | Bin Qasim, Malir Cantonment, Gadap | −18.49 | 10.90 | 1.061 | −16.03 | 11.78 | −3.35 | |
Central Karachi | North Nazimabad, New Karachi, Gulberg, Liaqatabad | −5.28 | 5.86 | 0.134 | −16.23 | 12.683 | −0.97 | |
Section | Coastline Change Rate (m/yr)—Landsat | Coastal Zone Displacement Rate (m/yr)—TCPInSAR | Mean Sea Level (mm/yr) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | Mean | ||
West Karachi | −0.43 | −4.112 | 2.168 | −0.33 | −7.14 | 8.60 | 1.9 |
South Karachi | 8.34 | −74.59 | 62.04 | 0.22 | −5.8 | 2.92 | |
East Karachi | −2.43 | −10.66 | 2.5 | 2.1 | −13.95 | 7.7 |
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Kanwal, S.; Ding, X.; Wu, S.; Sajjad, M. Vertical Ground Displacements and Its Impact on Erosion along the Karachi Coastline, Pakistan. Remote Sens. 2022, 14, 2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092054
Kanwal S, Ding X, Wu S, Sajjad M. Vertical Ground Displacements and Its Impact on Erosion along the Karachi Coastline, Pakistan. Remote Sensing. 2022; 14(9):2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092054
Chicago/Turabian StyleKanwal, Shamsa, Xiaoli Ding, Songbo Wu, and Muhammad Sajjad. 2022. "Vertical Ground Displacements and Its Impact on Erosion along the Karachi Coastline, Pakistan" Remote Sensing 14, no. 9: 2054. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14092054