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Article

Spatial Variations of Late Quaternary Slip Rates along the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone in the Eastern Tibet

by
Kai Sun
1,
Chuanyou Li
1,*,
Mingjian Liang
2,3,
Xinnan Li
1,
Quanxing Luo
4,
Guangxue Ren
5,
Feipeng Huang
1,6 and
Junjie Li
1
1
State Key Laboratory of Seismic Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China
2
Sichuan Earthquake Administration, Chengdu 610041, China
3
Chengdu Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Earthquake Research Institute, China Earthquake Administration, Chengdu 610041, China
4
Surface Process Analysis and Simulation Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education, School of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
5
China Railway Design Corporation, Tianjin 300251, China
6
Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Remote Sens. 2024, 16(14), 2612; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16142612
Submission received: 4 May 2024 / Revised: 6 June 2024 / Accepted: 13 June 2024 / Published: 17 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Makes it Possible: Prediction and Evaluation of Natural Hazards)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone is a large-scale sinistral strike-slip fault zone on the eastern Tibet. As the boundary fault zone of the Bayankala Block and the Chuandian Block, it controls the clockwise rotation of the southeastern Tibet. However, there is still controversy regarding the activity changes between fault zones. Therefore, accurately determining the slip rates of faults in the area is crucial for characterizing regional plate motions and assessing associated seismic hazards. We focused on studying four fault segments near the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone, including the Manigango, Ganzi, Luhuo, and Daofu segments. In each segment, we selected typical sinistral piercing points and carried out Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry to obtain high-resolution terrain data. We utilized LaDiCaoz_V2.2 and GlobalMapper software (LaDiCaoz_V2.2 and Global Mapper v17.0) to measure the offsets, together with optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating, to constrain the timing of fault activity. The estimated slip rates for the Manigango, Ganzi, Luhuo, and Daofu segments are as follows: 9.2 ± 0.75 mm/yr, 9.59 ± 1.7 mm/yr, 4.23 ± 0.66 mm/yr, and 7.69 ± 0.76 mm/yr, respectively. Integrating previous results with slip rates estimated in this study, our analysis suggests the slip rate of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone is around 8–10 mm/year, exhibiting a consistent slip rate from northwest to southeast. This reflects the overall coordination of the movement on the eastern Tibet, with the strike-slip fault zone only controlling the direction of movement.

1. Introduction

A fault’s slip rate is an important quantitative parameter in fault kinematic analysis, geodynamic research, and seismic hazard assessment. It helps in understanding the regional tectonic evolution process and mechanisms for plate dynamics [1,2,3,4,5]. In recent decades, a series of earthquakes with magnitudes of 7 or higher have occurred on the periphery of the Bayankala Block within the Tibet. The deformation characteristics of internal and peripheral faults of the Bayankala Block have become a research hotspot (Figure 1). Establishing the spatiotemporal variations of slip rates of major fault zones, such as the Haiyuan Fault, Altyn Tagh Fault, and East Kunlun Fault, have provided a better understanding of the relative motion of the block and regional deformation transformation patterns [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. The Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone is a sinistral strike-slip fault zone located at the western boundary of the Bayankala Block. It controls the clockwise rotation of the southeastern Tibet. Due to factors such as in strike, presence of numerous secondary faults, diversity of fault properties, and complexity of structures, this fault zone exhibits different deformation transformation characteristics compared to other fault zones [14]. There are three prevailing theories on the spatial variations of the kinematic characteristics of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone which describe these as decreasing [15,16,17], consistent [18,19], and increasing [20,21] (Figure 2): (1) The Gongga Mountain hinders the relative motion between blocks. As a result, a portion of the strike-slip velocity is converted into vertical uplift, leading to a decrease in the rates of strike-slip motion from 12 mm/year to 9 mm/year along the Xianshuihe Fault. Chen et al. [15] suggests a decrease from 17 mm/year to 9.3 mm/year. (2) During the clockwise rotation process of the Tibet around the East Himalayan structure in the southeast direction, the Ganzi–Yushu Fault Zone, Xianshuihe Fault Zone, Anninghe Fault, and Zemuhe Fault control the block’s movement and extrusion. The overall slip rate of the fault zone remains at 12–15 mm/year, showing a highly coordinated clockwise rotation around the East Himalayan Syntaxis. GNSS observations indicate that the velocity does not show a regular increase with the increase of rotation radius [18]. (3) The slip rate gradually increases from 6–8 mm/year along the Ganzi–Yushu Fault to 10–12 mm/year along the Xianshuihe Fault towards the southeast [18,19]. The coordinated activity of the Longriba dextral strike-slip fault may lead to differential movement on the north and south sides of the Bayankala Block. However, the understanding of the gradually increasing slip rates is mainly based on results from geodetic measurements such as GPS and InSAR deformation, lacking geological evidence. Although there are many existing studies on slip rates, interpretations regarding spatial trends in slip rates remain controversial due to different time scales with which rates were estimated, effectively utilizing a mixture of geological, Late Quaternary, and geodetic slip rates. Additionally, variations in fault measurement methods and dating techniques can also lead to different results even at the same location along a fault. In the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone, which is mainly composed of the southeastern segment of the Ganzi–Yushu Fault Zone and the northwestern segment of the Xianshuihe Fault Zone, the two fault zones are arranged in a left-step pattern. The fault traces exhibit clear and straight geometric structures in satellite images, with the presence of prominent left-lateral strike-slip landforms, making it an excellent experimental site for studying the variations in motion characteristics and fault structure transformation mechanisms. In order to assess the regional seismic hazard more accurately and gain a deeper understanding of the structural transformation process of the eastern boundary fault zone of the Sichuan–Yunnan Block, in this study, we used Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry techniques to obtain high-resolution image data. We combined this with high-precision optically stimulated luminescence dating methods and utilized dislocation restoration software to characterize and analyze the Late Quaternary motion features of the fault zone in detail. This research not only provides important constraint information for the motion model and dynamic mechanism of the southeastern Tibet, but also enhances our comprehensive understanding of the geological activity in this region.
In this study, we investigated the Late Quaternary geometric and kinematic characteristics of the fault. Firstly, we selected four representative areas of sinistral displacement along the fault segment for image interpretation, field geomorphological surveys, topographic measurements, and sample collection for dating. We carried out Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry to construct high-resolution digital elevation models, and characterized the fault traces by mapping linear landforms such as terraces and gullies and identifying markers of geomorphic offset along the fault. Next, we collected samples on corresponding terraces to determine the ages of geomorphic surfaces through optically stimulated luminescence dating. Then, using the LaDiCaoz_V2.2 software, we measured the terrace displacements and quantified the Late Quaternary slip rates along different fault segments using a unified method. Finally, we integrated the results of previous studies to constrain the Late Quaternary slip rates of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone, revealing the spatial variations of kinematic changes along the fault and the tectonic patterns in the southeastern Tibet.

2. Tectonic Setting

The formation of the Tibet is a complex geological process involving multiple stages of convergence and collision. Since the Late Proterozoic, the successive opening and closing of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, the Neo-Tethys Ocean, and the Tethys Ocean have resulted in the continuous uplift of mountain ranges and crustal growth, ultimately shaping the present-day Tibet. The Tibet is not a singular geological unit but rather consists of multiple micro-continental blocks that are assembled into a complex collage [29]. Since the Neogene, the continuous compression and collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate have caused the uplift of the Tibet, which is an important tectonic event. Current geodetic observations show that the Tibet exhibits internal extension, with the development of north–south trending normal faults such as the Yadong–Gulu Rift. The surrounding areas are characterized by a series of thrust faults, such as the East Kunlun Fault Zone and the Longmen Shan Fault Zone. In the central portion of the plateau, large strike-slip faults, such as the Ganzi–Yushu Fault and the Xianshuihe Fault, are mainly formed due to shear deformation [1,30,31,32]. These fault zones divide the Tibet into multiple secondary active blocks. Among them, the peripheral area of the Bayankala Block has experienced a series of strong earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 7 in recent decades. It is the most seismically active region in the Tibet [33]. The western limit of the Bayankala Block is bound by the Ganzi–Yushu–Xianshuihe Fault Zone, which is a large and active Late Quaternary strike-slip fault zone in the central part of the Tibet. The southwestern side is bordered by the Qiangtang Block and the Sichuan–Yunnan Block. It is also an important component of the North–South Seismic Belt and plays a major role in regional deformation by controlling the clockwise rotation and extrusion of the southeastern Tibet [30].
The Bayan Har block is bounded by three major fault zones: the East Kunlun Fault Zone to the northeast, the Longmen Mountain Fault Zone to the southeast, and the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone to the southwest [14,16]. The predecessors of the East Kunlun and Longmen Mountain Fault Zones are mountain belts that have undergone long-term geological activity. The East Kunlun orogenic belt has experienced multiple stages of evolution from the Caledonian to the Indosinian period, gradually forming through a series of south-to-north collage processes [34]. During this process, the Proto-Tethys Ocean, Paleo-Tethys Ocean, Neo-Tethys Ocean, and Tethys Ocean successively evolved, laying a solid foundation for the tectonic pattern in this region. Since the Late Quaternary, the East Kunlun Fault Zone has exhibited significant left-lateral strike-slip characteristics, with a sliding rate decreasing gradually from 10 mm/a in the northwestern segment to 2 mm/a in the southeastern segment [35]. The Longmen Mountain thrust fold belt is the result of the long geological history from the Paleozoic to the present [36]. The formation process involves Paleozoic inter-plate collision orogeny, Indosinian intra-plate (intra-continental) folding orogeny, and the Himalayan thrust orogeny, all of which played important roles. These geological activities collectively shaped the present-day form of the Longmen Mountain thrust fault zone, exhibiting thrust characteristics with a shortening rate of approximately 1–2 mm/a [37]. The Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone has undergone multiple stages of complex structural deformation and transformation since the Permian, leading to a transition from extensional and tensile activity, through compressional and right-lateral activity, to its current left-lateral strike-slip [38]. These changes are the result of crustal shortening and thickening, detachment and subsidence, and folding and backthrusting, revealing the complexity of the origin of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone.
The Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone is one of the highest slip-rate faults in the Tibet. This fault zone is characterized by rapid strain accumulation and is highly tectonically active [17,30].The Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone spans approximately 1200 km in length from Qinghai Zado through Yushu, Ganzi, and Daofu towards the northwest near Kangding. It then bends and switches to a nearly north–south strike, passing through Moxi and reaches the vicinity of Shimian. Along this fault zone, the Ganzi–Yushu Fault Zone and the Xianshuihe Fault Zone develop successively from south to north. Since 1500 AD, more than 20 strong earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 6.5 have occurred (Figure 1) [22,23]. This study focuses on the southeastern segment of the Ganzi–Yushu Fault and the northwestern segment of the Xianshuihe Fault. These two fault zones exhibit an oblique-sinistral arrangement, comprising typical landforms such as the Ganzi pull-apart basin, Kasa Lake, and Luoguo Liangzi. Starting from Shiqu Dengke, through Manigango, Ganzi, Luhuo, and to the vicinity of Dongpoxia in Daofu, the total length is approximately 360 km. The area is primarily characterized by elevation glacial landforms, river terraces, and mountainous terrain. The southeastern segment of the Ganzi–Yushu Fault is divided into the Manigango segment and the Ganzi segment, striking southeast with an azimuth of 116°. The northwestern segment of the Xianshuihe Fault is divided into the Luhuo segment and the Daofu segment, striking southeast with an azimuth of 133° and a dip of 70–80°.

3. Methods

In this study, we first carried out Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry to obtain high-resolution topographic data at the centimeter scale. Subsequently, we utilized Global Mapper software (v17.0) to measure the displacement of terrace risers on both sides of the fault. We validated the optimal fault slip using the LaDiCaoz_V2.2 software [39]. Furthermore, we combined optically stimulated luminescence dating methods with geomorphic surface age constraints to determine the slip rates along the fault segments.

3.1. Fault Mapping

High-precision topographic data is crucial for accurately delineating geomorphic features and facilitating further quantitative analysis. With advancements in technology, acquiring high-precision topographic data has become more efficient and convenient [40,41]. In this study, we used a DJI Phantom 4 unmanned aerial vehicle to conduct photogrammetric surveys at four representative geomorphic sites: Wangqing in the Manigango segment, Shengkang Village in the Ganzi segment, Gengda Village in the Luhuo segment, and Mazixiang in the Daofu segment. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV, DJI Phantom 4 Real-Time Kinematic [RTK]). The DJI Phantom 4 RTK uses a RTK dGPS module to provide real-time, centimeter-level positioning accuracy without the need for ground control points (GCPs) that are generally required in traditional UAV surveys. High-precision digital terrain models were generated using the aerial photographs. First, flight parameters such as altitude and overlap were set based on the study area and the complexity of the terrain. The flight route was automatically set by the UAV. In this study, the flight altitude ranged from 120 to 200 m, with an overlap rate of 30–40%. Subsequently, the collected images were processed using Agisoft Metashape software (v2.1.1) to create three-dimensional panoramic images and digital elevation models with a resolution of 3–5 cm. ArcGIS software (10.8) was then utilized to perform hillshade processing, enhancing the visibility of geomorphic features, and adding contour lines. Next, Adobe Illustrator was employed to divide the terraces and alluvial fans based on their elevations, slopes, orientations, and sedimentary sequences. Furthermore, the fault traces were identified based on steep terrain observed both in map view and on elevation profiles [42].

3.2. Displacement Measurement

The software commonly used for measuring offset on strike-slip faults is 3D-Fault and LaDiCaoz_V2.2. 3D-Fault has the advantage of being able to provide higher image resolution and better symmetry for river terrain, but it has a more complex and non-reproducible user interface, limiting its application scenarios [39,43,44]. In the study area, the river channels are asymmetric and some channels have been eroded due to misalignment. Additionally, the study area is characterized by large gully landforms formed along the Xianshuihe and Yalongjiang rivers, including high-level terraces. Therefore, LaDiCaoz_V2.2 was deemed more suitable for this study. LaDiCaoz_V2.2 is a MATLAB-based visualization code [45]. After iterations from versions 1.3 to 2.1, it has been continuously improved and developed into the current version 2.2. This version provides higher visualization, saves operation logs, and achieves simplicity, convenience, and repeatability. The user interface is visually appealing, and the software offers diverse functions, including obtaining vertical displacement values and generating 2D and 3D backslip maps. The software also allows for exporting and saving processed results as images. Since the principle is based on data processing methods such as translation, uplift, and stretching of upstream and downstream river channels, it can be applied to various complex terrain measurements. The generated DEM image is converted to ASCII format using Global Mapper v17.0 and imported into LaDiCaoz_V2.2, which is developed using MATLAB (2021a). Following the instructions on the interface, the following steps were performed: hillshade processing, drawing fault traces, positioning profiles of upstream and downstream river channels, edge fitting, displacement calculation, backslip map generation, and export. Displacement values were estimated iteratively by utilizing different markers, providing an average error value at the end of the process.

3.3. Dating

Accurately determining the timing of fault activity is crucial for calculating slip rates. Previous studies in the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone have utilized thermoluminescence, terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide, and radiocarbon dating methods [22,24,25]. However, considering the sampling conditions and the complexity of geological processes, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating was chosen for its convenience and accuracy in this study. Six OSL age samples were collected in the field, with the samples taken 10–20 cm above the gravel layer. A 30 cm section was cleaned inward to define the age of the geomorphic surface. Stainless steel tubes, approximately 25 cm long and 5 cm in diameter, were used for sampling. The tubes were wrapped with tin foil and black plastic bags to prevent light exposure. Detailed sampling methods can be found in reference [46]. The OSL samples were analyzed at the Laboratory of Chronology in the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience and the State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics at the Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration. Different dating methods, including coarse-grain and fine-grain dating, were used based on the grain size. The OSL testing procedures which were followed in this study are detailed in references [42,46,47]. The dating results are shown in Table 1.

4. Results

4.1. Manigango Segment

The Manigango segment is approximately 165 km long, starting from the Dengke Basin and extending southeastward to the vicinity of Yakou, passing through Ezhizhi, Zhuqing, Manigango, and Cuo’a. The strike of the fault is 301° (NW). The fault cuts across ridges, river terraces, gullies, and alluvial fans. In Ezhizhi, it exhibits a fault trough topography. In Zhuqing, it cuts through glacial deposits, resulting in a displacement of nearly 100 m on the glacial ridges. In Muri Co, it forms a barrier lake. The fault also controls the growth and development of a series of small basins along its path, such as Manigango, Zhuqing, and Ezhi. It exhibits long-term left-lateral strike-slip motion characteristics.
Wangqing is located approximately 8.7 km northwest of Manigango Town (99.13°E, 31.97°N; 3953 m). It is situated at the confluence of Wangqian and Wangqiong gullies, which are tributaries of the Yuqu River. The area is characterized by three levels of glacial terrace surfaces [48]. The riverbed and floodplain of the Wangqing area are mainly composed of poorly sorted gravel and quartz sandstone. The glacial deposits have been eroded by the river, resulting in a flat erosion surface. There are scattered gravel stones with an average diameter of about 5 m on the terrace surface, along with deposits of fluvial sediments (Figure 3a). The terrace surface also features an 8-m-high fault scarp striking of 297° (NW). The scarp is clearly defined, facing the Yuqu River with a slope of 12°. This indicates the presence of a distinct fault trace, and the fault activity is synchronous with the development of the alluvial terrace.
Using Global Mapper v17.0, the estimated left-lateral displacement of the T2 terrace on both the upper and lower edges of the fault are 90.8 m, 83.4 m, 63.4 m, and 44.6 m (Figure 3a), indicating a good preservation level. By establishing the AA′/BB′/CC′ profile (Figure 3b), the estimated vertical components are 8.5 ± 1.0 m, 7.0 ± 0.6 m, and 15.7 ± 0.6 m, respectively. The main reason for the differences in horizontal and vertical displacement between the two locations is influenced by their unique sediment sources, depositional environments, and later modifications. The preservation of the southern and southeastern terraces is relatively intact due to the different sediment sources brought by different river channels and the protection provided by bedrock on the southeastern side, resulting in less erosion over time and the ability to record longer-term fault displacement changes. On the northwestern side of the terrace, there are several large glacial boulders, possibly indicating that following the formation of the alluvial fan, the northwestern side of the terrace may have been subsequently affected by glacial erosion, resulting in smaller recorded displacements. The two gullies on the northwestern and southeastern sides show more complete preservation of displaced features, with the average left-lateral displacement of the southeastern gully being 87.1 ± 3.4 m.
Near the fault at the edge of the T3/T2 terrace, a sample (GZ-OSL-01, Figure 3c,d) was collected 40 cm below the surface for OSL dating, yielding an age of 9.5 ± 0.4 ka (Table 1). Finally, matching the horizontal displacement of 87.1 ± 3.4 m and the vertical displacement of 15.7 ± 0.6 m with the age value, the estimated strike-slip rate is 9.2 ± 0.75 mm/yr, and the vertical slip rate was 1.66 ± 0.13 mm/yr (Figure 4).

4.2. Ganzi Segment

The Ganzi segment of the fault extends from Yakou to near Kuisha Village in Ganzi, with a total length of ~55 km. It strikes 293° (NW) and cuts across alluvial fans and river terraces. It features fault scarps, surface ruptures, and blocked ponds, with a fault zone width of several tens of meters.
Shengkang Village is located 25 km northwest of Ganzi County (99.88°E, 31.62°N; 3410 m). Satellite image interpretation reveals significant displacement in this area. During field investigations, it was observed that the Niyadake River flows in an east–west direction and joins the Yalong River, forming a fourth-level terrace. The elevation of the T3 terrace is approximately 100–110 m (Figure 5). The heights above the riverbed of the T2 terrace is about 60–70 m, and both the T3 and T2 terraces have gravel layers with thicknesses exceeding 20 m. The gravel stones are coarse, mixed with some boulders. The gravel stones are generally subrounded or subangular and are interbedded with coarse sand layers, indicating fluvial deposition. The heights above the riverbed of the T1 terrace is about 15–25 m, with a well-rounded gravel layer in the lower part and a sandy clay layer in the upper part. The T0 terrace of the Yalong River is at an elevation of 3–5 m and consists of a gravel layer with well-rounded clasts, with occasional occurrences of sand layers or lenses. The upper part of the T1 terrace is exposed and consists of a sandy clay layer approximately 1.5 m thick.
Shengkang Village is mainly characterized by Late Quaternary alluvial deposits in the middle section of the Upper Pleistocene and is overlain by Ganzi loess. The surface has undergone anthropogenic modification, such as building and farming. Compared to the northwestern side, the terraces on the southeastern side are more complete in their sequence. The fault activity has resulted in the displacement of the T4 terrace, forming a trough-like topography, with left-lateral displacement of the river. However, due to downcutting and erosion by the Niralangguo River, which joins the Yalong River, the terrace surfaces that were incorrectly located within the river channel have been eroded. On the northwestern side, the terrace surface has been displaced out of the river channel. Measurement of the displacement values on the northwestern side of the T2 terrace using drone imagery and LaDiCaoz_V2.2 yielded estimates of 465 ± 10 m (Figure 5b).
In order to constrain the timing of fault activity, samples were collected from the gravel layers beneath the T5/T3 terraces to obtain OSL ages. Samples SK-OSL-05/21 (Figure 5c–f) were collected, and the age results are shown in Table 1. The oldest age obtained for the T3 terrace is 182.11 ± 17.36/115.1 ± 7.6 ka, and the abandonment age of the T2 terrace is 53.01 ± 4.70/44.19 ± 2.13 ka. Previous studies have reported ages ranging from 46.1 to 75.600 ka [19]. This study shows that the age of the T4 terrace is close to that range, with an average age of 49.89 ± 7.83 ka. By combining the displacement value of 465 ± 10 m (Figure 6) with the age results, the estimated horizontal slip rate is 9.59 ± 1.7 mm/year.

4.3. Luhuo Segment

The Luhuo segment is located in the northwestern section of the Xianshuihe fault along the Xianshui River. It extends from Kaxu in Ganzi, through Zhuwo, Dandu, and Gelu, to Zhandui Village in Renda Township, with a total length of approximately 88 km. The fault cuts through Permian limestone and Triassic sandstone, crossing the terraces of the Xianshui River and the alluvial fans in the piedmont. Due to left-lateral slip, it is associated with the formation of Kasa Lake near Chonggu Township and the trough valley southwest of Luhuo County.
The village of Gèngdá is located approximately 3.6 km northwest of Lake Kasa at a bearing of 334°. The overall geomorphological features are relatively simple, with a gully extending in a 204° (SW) direction for about 17.8 km and merging into the Xianshui River. Three terraces are developed on both sides of the gully, with flat surfaces mainly composed of Late Pleistocene deposits. Due to the left-lateral strike-slip motion of the fault, the terraces on the southeast side have been eroded by the river, while the terraces on the northwest side are well preserved as a consequence of being displaced out of the river channel (Figure 7a). The fault activity has formed steep counterslope scarps on the T3 and T2 terraces. Four elevation profiles (AA’/BB’/CC’/DD’) perpendicular to the fault were constructed. The upper limit elevation of the AA’ and CC’ profiles were selected for linear fitting, resulting in scarp heights of 8.3 ± 1.9 m and 6.9 ± 0.5 m, respectively (Figure 7b). The incision heights of the T3 and T2 terrace are 64 m and 20.3 m, respectively. Both the T3 and T2 terraces have undergone anthropogenic modification, such as building houses and cultivating fields. The displacement values on the T3 and T2 terraces are 117.77 m (Figure 8a,b).
OSL samples were collected from the T3 and T2 terraces. Samples GD-OSL-22 and GD-OSL-25 were collected from the T3 and T2 terraces, respectively (Figure 7c–g). The results show that the ages of the T3 and T2 terraces are 28.14 ± 2.05 ka and 2.99 ka, respectively. By combining the ages of the upper terrace with the displacement values on the T3 and T2 terraces, the estimated horizontal left-lateral slip rate of the Luhuo segment is 4.23 ± 0.66 mm/year, and the vertical slip rate is 0.30 ± 0.09 mm/year. Since the edge of the terraces on this side has been eroded by the river, the displacement value is underestimated. On the other side, where the displacement is not obvious, the calculated slip rate represents a minimum value.

4.4. Daofu Segment

The Daofu segment is a component of the Xianshuihe Fault, which is aligned with the Xianshui River. Stretching from Luhuo Xialatuo, through Luhuo County, Kongse, and Mazixiang, to Dongpoxia, the fault strikes 314° (NW) and spans approximately 86 km. It traverses the Middle to Upper Triassic sandstone, Permian limestone, and basalt formations. Along its path, the fault intersects the terraces of the Xianshui River and the alluvial fans in the foothills. In the northwest of Daofu County, the fault has sculpted a trough valley in the Juri area.
Daofu Mazi (101.05°E, 31.03°N; 3125 m) is approximately 8.9 km northwest of Daofu County. The area exhibits three terraces, with T2/T3 representing the Xianshui River terrace and T1 formed during the later stage of gully erosion (Figure 9). In the early stage, fault extension led to the formation of a wide valley. Subsequently, due to tectonic activity, river downcutting resulted in the formation of three terraces. The fault cuts through the back edge of the T3 terrace, creating a trough valley. The water flowing from the mountains erodes the terraces and joins the Xianshui River, accumulating a left-lateral displacement in the gully. The estimated displacement is 426.12 ± 14.91 m (Figure 9e). Sample DF-OSL-13 was collected from the edge of the T3 terrace (Figure 9c,d), yielding an age of 55.75 ± 3.56 ka. The calculated slip rate is 7.69 ± 0.76 mm/year.

5. Discussion

5.1. Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Late Quaternary Slip Rates

In estimating the slip rate of the Wangqing site, previous studies mainly used thermoluminescence dating to constrain the initiation age of the fault displacement, along with calipers for fault measurement. However, due to technological limitations at the time, there were significant errors in these measurements [16,19,22,24]. Previous research used cosmogenic nuclide dating in conjunction with LIDAR technology to scan the topography but obtained multiple slip rates, which failed to explain the matching of multiple fault values and ages [24]. In terms of age constraints, previous studies have estimated ages of terraces near Manigango Town, such as Manigango, Ri’a, and Guoluoma [22]. Despite the significant differences between the results obtained using thermoluminescence and optically stimulated luminescence methods, these still provided some constraints on the timescale and indirectly reflected the relative ages of the stratigraphic units. Previous research suggests that the age of the T2 terrace is between 5.5 and 8.0 ka, while the age of the T3 terrace ranges roughly from 8.5 to 12.0 ka [19,22]. Combining this information with regional geological survey reports, it has been determined that the sampling location belongs to the T3 terrace. The estimated age of 9.5 ± 0.5 ka is consistent with previous studies. Therefore, the estimated horizontal slip rate is 9.2 ± 0.75 mm/year.
In previous studies, the measurement of displacement at the Shengkang site was based on aerial photo interpretation, while thermoluminescence dating was used for age constraints [19,22]. In this study, high-resolution topographic data was obtained through UAV photogrammetry, and the landform surfaces were finely interpreted to identify four terraces based on elevation and sediment characteristics. The main point of contention in previous research was the age of the upper and lower terraces. Wen et al. (2003) obtained a strike-slip rate of 11.5 ± 2.4 mm/year based on the age of the lower terrace, while Shi et al. (2016) obtained a rate of 8 ± 1 mm/year based on the age of the upper terrace [19,25]. Regional stratigraphic age results revealed the ages of relevant horizons obtained through thermoluminescence dating at the top surfaces of T5/T3 terraces: 46.1 ± 3.5 ka, 16.29 ± 2.7 ka, and T4 with an age of 75.6 ± 5.8 ka [19,22]. The age of the T3 terrace at the Xiahuogou section of the Yalong River tributary was determined to be 49–50.6 ka [22]. Therefore, considering the ~50 ka age of the Shengkang T3 terrace and the 454 ± 10 m left-lateral slip displacement, the estimated slip rate is 9.14 ± 1.44 mm/year.
The terraces at Gengda Village are primarily formed by alluvial processes. Through UAV photogrammetry, we estimated a displacement of 117.77 ± 10 m. The OSL age obtained from the T3 terrace is 28.14 ± 2.05 ka, which represents the abandonment age of the terrace. The estimated minimum slip rate based on these measurements is 4.23 ± 0.66 mm/yr. Although Liang Mingjian used paleoseismic methods to determine a slip rate of 3.8 mm/yr for the past 1500–3000 years [23], which appears to be similar to the results of this study, there are two factors to consider. Firstly, the slip rate at Gongru Village is 8 mm/yr for the past 15,000 years [49], and paleoseismic methods suggest a slip rate less than 8.4 mm/yr since the Holocene [23], Secondly, the selected piercing point on the terrace is on the side eroded by the river, which may lead to an underestimation of the actual displacement [50]. Considering the aforementioned, the strike-slip rate in the Luhuo segment should be between 3.6 and 8.4 mm/yr.
There are limited studies on the Late Quaternary slip rate of the Daofu Fault. Earlier studies based on thermoluminescence dating methods obtained high slip rate values ranging from 12 to 18 mm/yr [16,17,19,38]; however, recent studies indicate that the slip rate does not exceed 10 mm/yr. InSAR and GPS studies have reported slip rates of 8.12–9.3 mm/yr [51], while measurements using gravity field and short baseline techniques yielded a rate of 8.57 mm/yr [52]. In this study, 426.12 ± 14.91 m of displacement was measured on the T3 terrace, which combined with an OSL age of 53.93 ± 3.72 ka, yields a slip rate of 7.94 ± 0.83 mm/yr that is consistent with previous research results.

5.2. Spatial Variation of Late Quaternary Slip Rates of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault

The precise determination of slip rates along fault zones enables the analysis of spatial variations in fault activity, providing crucial information for seismic hazard analysis. With the advent of high-resolution remote sensing satellites and UAV photogrammetry techniques, it has become increasingly convenient to obtain high-quality topographic data. Coupled with improved dating accuracy, these technologies have made it possible to conduct detailed characterization of regional tectonic motion patterns. Studies on the northeastern margin of the Tibet suggest that faults maintain relatively high slip rates in the central part, while at the termini, slip is accommodated through reverse faults, folds, or uplift, converting the horizontal component into a vertical component [8,35,53,54,55]. The southeastern margin of the Tibet, controlled by strike-slip faults, exhibits a distinct overall rotational extrusion pattern, which differs from the movement pattern between the Haiyuan Fault and the Liupanshan Fault [14].
Due to differences in the techniques, dating methods, and assumption used in the quantitative determination of slip rates, there are different interpretations of the variation trends in slip rates along the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone (Table 2). The slip rates obtained from previous research is an interval,in order to facilitate the study, the data format is unified. For example, the sliding rate in the original text is 3–8.3 mm/a, which is converted into 5.65 ± 2.65 mm/a. The Late Quaternary activity of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone has been extensively studied, and the slip rate variation trends can be divided into three main categories (Figure 10). The first category is based on measurements of slip displacement using a ruler or aerial photo interpretation combined with thermoluminescence dating, which yields relatively high slip rates of 10–19 mm/year for the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone [16,19]. In recent years, as dating methods have continued to develop, they have gradually been replaced by OSL and carbon-14 dating, which provide better constraints on the timing of fault activity based on actual landform surface ages [46]. Additionally, using age models based on lower terraces tends to underestimate the ages and overestimate the slip rates [7,33,50]. Similar issues have also been observed in the early studies of large fault zones such as the Altyn Tagh and Kunlun Faults, where later research suggested slip rates of around 10 mm/yr [30]. The second type of result is represented by Zhou et al. (1996) and Peng et al. (2006), who obtained slip rates of 3–5 mm/year [22,26]. Peng et al. (2006) estimated the timing of fault activity based on geological and geomorphological features, often using the maximum age, which leads to lower slip rate values. Zhou et al.’s (1996) estimation of slip rates in the past two thousand years only recorded the cumulative displacement of coseismic slip. However, current geodetic measurements show that there is no creep behavior along the Ganzi Fault [20], indicating that the post-seismic locking of the fault has ceased and the fault segments are no longer moving relative to each other. This incomplete accumulation of fault displacement can also result in lower slip rate values. The third category involves the use of high-precision methods such as terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide, carbon-14, and optically stimulated luminescence dating, combined with high-resolution (cm-scale) topographic data. These studies have provided slip rate estimates between 6 and 10 mm/yr [21,24,56]. Integrating the results from this study—slip rates of 9.2 ± 0.75 mm/yr, 9.36 ± 1.47 mm/yr, 4.23 ± 0.66 mm/yr, and 7.94 ± 0.83 mm/yr for the Manigango, Ganzi, Luhuo, and Daofu Faults—it can be concluded that the overall slip rate of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone is between 7 and 10 mm/yr. This supports the view that the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone exhibits a consistent and coordinated motion [18,19].
The broad Xianshuihe fault system includes the Ganzi–Yushu Fault, Xianshuihe Fault Zone, Anninghe–Zemuhe Fault Zone, Daliangshan Fault Zone, and Xiaojiang Fault Zone from north to south [57]. The northwestern segment of the Ganzi–Yushu Fault is composed of the Dangjiang Fault and Yushu Fault, intersecting with the Batang secondary fault. Geological surveys and geodetic measurements indicate a sliding rate of approximately 8–10 mm/a [19,22,58,59]. The southeastern segment of the Xianshuihe Fault is composed of the Yala River, Selaha, and Zheduotang secondary faults, which are distributed in a near-spindle shape [15,16,60]. These faults primarily exhibit horizontal strike-slip motion with a sliding rate of 9–11 mm/a and a small vertical component.
The central part of the Xianshuihe fault system is composed of the Anninghe–Zemuhe Fault Zone, the Daliangshan Fault Zone, and the previously thought inactive segment. However, subsequent studies revealed that the Daliangshan Fault Zone is a newly active fault. The sliding rate of the Anninghe–Zemuhe and Daliangshan Fault Zones is approximately 6–7 mm/a, while the sliding rate of the Daliangshan Fault Zone is 3–4 mm/a [61,62,63]. They collectively share the sliding rate of the Xianshuihe Fault Zone. The sliding rate of the Xiaojiang Fault Zone in the Late Quaternary is 8–12 mm/a [16,64,65,66], indicating an overall sliding rate of the Xianshuihe fault system at around 10 mm/a, without significant crustal shortening or eastward extrusion. This phenomenon may be attributed to the fact that the southeastern Tibet, in a relatively open divergent setting during the crustal compression and shortening caused by the Indo–Eurasian plate collision, did not encounter rigid obstacles during southward motion. The Tibet as a whole exhibits a clockwise rotational movement, with the strike-slip fault zones primarily controlling the direction of motion [14,30].

6. Conclusions

In this study, we used UAV photogrammetry to investigate the Late Quaternary fault activity along the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone and to determine the variation trends in slip rates. By utilizing UAV imagery and digital terrain models generated from the images, combined with software tools such as Global Mapper v17.0 and LaDiCaoz_V2.2, we measured and restored the left-lateral offsets of stream terraces at four locations along the fault zone. We also used optically stimulated luminescence dating of samples to constrain the ages of landform surfaces. Based on these analyses, we determined the slip rates along the Manigan, Ganzi, Luhuo, and Daofu segments of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone as follows: 9.2 ± 0.75 mm/yar, 9.59 ± 1.7 mm/yr, 4.23 ± 0.66 mm/yr, and 7.69 ± 0.76 mm/yr, respectively. Considering previous research, we conclude that the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone exhibits a consistent slip rate pattern, reflecting an overall coordinated motion along the eastern Tibet. The Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone, as the main boundary fault, controls the movement direction of the southeastern of the Tibet Plateau.
Key Points:
  • The slip rates of each section of the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone are limited, respectively. The Manigango section is 9.2 ± 0.75 mm/yr, the Ganzi section is 9.59 ± 1.7 mm/yr, the Luhuo section is 4.23 ± 0.66 mm/yr, and the Daofu section is 7.69 ± 0.76 mm/yr.
  • The late Quaternary deformation of the Ganzi–Xianshui Fault Zone exhibits a consistent pattern of slip rates, indicating that this fault zone, as a major boundary fault, controls the clockwise rotational movement along the southeastern of the Tibetan Plateau.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: K.S.; Data curation: K.S.; Formal analysis: K.S.; Funding acquisition: C.L.; Investigation: J.L., K.S., M.L., G.R., F.H. and Q.L.; Methodology: K.S. and C.L.; Project Administration: C.L.; Resources: K.S.; Software: K.S., Q.L., F.H. and X.L.; Supervision: C.L., M.L., X.L. and Q.L.; Visualization: K.S., X.L. and Q.L.; Writing—original draft: K.S.; Writing—review & editing: J.L., K.S., C.L., M.L., Q.L. and X.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research (STEP) program (2019QZKK0901) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (42072250).

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Nicholas Stewart and Ryan Gold for sharing their Matlab codes for displacement measurements and slip rate determinations. The authors also acknowledge the guidance provided by Lv Lixing, Liu Jinrui, Hu Zongkai, Chen Yong, and Luo Jiahong in map production. The authors would also like to thank Yang Huili and Zhao Junxiang for their assistance with OSL age testing and calculations.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Guangxue Ren was employed by the China Railway Design Corporation. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Location map showing the Ganzi Yushu Xianshuihe fault and the study area. (a): Location map of the research area relative to the Tibet. (b): Distribution map of active faults in western Sichuan. The terrain data with 2 km resolution is derived from the global topographic relief data provided by Generic Mapping Tools 6.5. Black and grey lines indicate active fault traces from the Seismic Active Fault Survey Data Center (http://www.activefault-datacenter.cn/, accessed on 12 June 2024). Blue dots represent historical earthquakes. The seismic data are from the China Earthquake Information Network. QB: Qaidam block; BHB: Bayan Har block; LMSF: Longmenshan fault; GZYSF: Ganzi–Yushu fault; XSHF: Xianshuihe fault; DLSF: Daliangshan fault; ANHF: Anninghe fault; ZMHF: Zemuhe fault; XJF: Xiaojiang fault; RRF: Red River fault.
Figure 1. Location map showing the Ganzi Yushu Xianshuihe fault and the study area. (a): Location map of the research area relative to the Tibet. (b): Distribution map of active faults in western Sichuan. The terrain data with 2 km resolution is derived from the global topographic relief data provided by Generic Mapping Tools 6.5. Black and grey lines indicate active fault traces from the Seismic Active Fault Survey Data Center (http://www.activefault-datacenter.cn/, accessed on 12 June 2024). Blue dots represent historical earthquakes. The seismic data are from the China Earthquake Information Network. QB: Qaidam block; BHB: Bayan Har block; LMSF: Longmenshan fault; GZYSF: Ganzi–Yushu fault; XSHF: Xianshuihe fault; DLSF: Daliangshan fault; ANHF: Anninghe fault; ZMHF: Zemuhe fault; XJF: Xiaojiang fault; RRF: Red River fault.
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Figure 2. Ganzi Yushu Xianshuihe fault strip map [16,17,19,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28], featuring the distribution of slip rate research (represented by points); ‘Be10’ represents the cosmogenic nuclide, ‘estimate’ refers to the age range roughly judged by regional sediment strata, ‘TL’ refers to thermoluminescence, and ‘C14’ refers to radiocarbon ages.
Figure 2. Ganzi Yushu Xianshuihe fault strip map [16,17,19,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28], featuring the distribution of slip rate research (represented by points); ‘Be10’ represents the cosmogenic nuclide, ‘estimate’ refers to the age range roughly judged by regional sediment strata, ‘TL’ refers to thermoluminescence, and ‘C14’ refers to radiocarbon ages.
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Figure 3. Manigangowangqing gully dislocation map (99.13°E, 31.97°N; 3953 m). (a) field landform map; The red arrow indicates the location of the fault, the white dashed line indicates the edge of the terrace, and the blue arrow indicates the direction of the river; (b) Geomorphological surface interpretation map based on 0.3 m resolution digital elevation hillshade image; The black lines indicate the location of the terrain profile, the red arrows indicate the relative direction of fault movement, and the red circles with cross symbols indicate the sampling location. (c,d) Sampling point photo and interpretation map.
Figure 3. Manigangowangqing gully dislocation map (99.13°E, 31.97°N; 3953 m). (a) field landform map; The red arrow indicates the location of the fault, the white dashed line indicates the edge of the terrace, and the blue arrow indicates the direction of the river; (b) Geomorphological surface interpretation map based on 0.3 m resolution digital elevation hillshade image; The black lines indicate the location of the terrain profile, the red arrows indicate the relative direction of fault movement, and the red circles with cross symbols indicate the sampling location. (c,d) Sampling point photo and interpretation map.
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Figure 4. Dislocation measurement and restoration map of Wangqing site. (a) In the corresponding geomorphic interpretation of the Wangqing site. The black thin line indicates a contour line with a 3-meter interval; the white dotted line indicates the edge of the terrace; (b) The red dot line indicates the terrace edge of the upper wall of the fault, and the blue dot line indicates the terrace edge of the lower wall of the fault; (c) 87.1 m slip-back recovery diagram of fault; (d) The topographic profiles on both sides of the fault.
Figure 4. Dislocation measurement and restoration map of Wangqing site. (a) In the corresponding geomorphic interpretation of the Wangqing site. The black thin line indicates a contour line with a 3-meter interval; the white dotted line indicates the edge of the terrace; (b) The red dot line indicates the terrace edge of the upper wall of the fault, and the blue dot line indicates the terrace edge of the lower wall of the fault; (c) 87.1 m slip-back recovery diagram of fault; (d) The topographic profiles on both sides of the fault.
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Figure 5. Measurement and recovery of point dislocation in Shengkang Township of Ganzi Fault. (a) Hillshade map of the high-resolution digital elevation model of Shengkang site; (b) Shengkang landform surface interpretation map. The red boxes represent the locations where age samples were collected in previous studies [19]. The red line indicates the location of the fault, the black dotted line indicates the edge of the terrace, and the blue line indicates the direction of the river. Light gray line indicates contour line; (c,d) Photos and interpretation maps of SK-OSL-21 sampling point in T2 terrace, the black circle and white cross indicate the position of the sample, the black point indicates fine silt, and the white circle indicates gravel; (e,f) Photo and interpretation map of SK-OSL-05 sampling point in T3 terrace.
Figure 5. Measurement and recovery of point dislocation in Shengkang Township of Ganzi Fault. (a) Hillshade map of the high-resolution digital elevation model of Shengkang site; (b) Shengkang landform surface interpretation map. The red boxes represent the locations where age samples were collected in previous studies [19]. The red line indicates the location of the fault, the black dotted line indicates the edge of the terrace, and the blue line indicates the direction of the river. Light gray line indicates contour line; (c,d) Photos and interpretation maps of SK-OSL-21 sampling point in T2 terrace, the black circle and white cross indicate the position of the sample, the black point indicates fine silt, and the white circle indicates gravel; (e,f) Photo and interpretation map of SK-OSL-05 sampling point in T3 terrace.
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Figure 6. Measurement and recovery of point dislocation in Shengkang site of Ganzi Fault. (a) The fault trace line of Shengkang site of Ganzi Fault, the red dot line indicates the terrace edge of the upper wall of the fault, and the blue dot line indicates the terrace edge of the lower wall of the fault.; (b) 465 m slip-back recovery diagram of fault. The white dot line indicates the terrace edge.
Figure 6. Measurement and recovery of point dislocation in Shengkang site of Ganzi Fault. (a) The fault trace line of Shengkang site of Ganzi Fault, the red dot line indicates the terrace edge of the upper wall of the fault, and the blue dot line indicates the terrace edge of the lower wall of the fault.; (b) 465 m slip-back recovery diagram of fault. The white dot line indicates the terrace edge.
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Figure 7. Geomorphic map of Luhuo fault Kale site (100.25°E, 31.68°N; 3512 m). (a) Geomorphological surface interpretation map of Kale site, black lines indicate the location of the terrain profile, red line indicates the location of the fault, the red arrows indicate the relative direction of fault movement, and the black circles with cross symbols indicate the sampling location. The white dot line indicates the terrace edge; blue line indicates the direction of the river; (b) The topographic profiles on both sides of the fault; (c,d) Photo and interpretation map of GD-OSL-25 sampling point in the T2 terrace,the white circle indicates gravel; (e–g) Field photo, and photo and interpretation map of GD-OSL-22 sampling point in the T3 terrace.
Figure 7. Geomorphic map of Luhuo fault Kale site (100.25°E, 31.68°N; 3512 m). (a) Geomorphological surface interpretation map of Kale site, black lines indicate the location of the terrain profile, red line indicates the location of the fault, the red arrows indicate the relative direction of fault movement, and the black circles with cross symbols indicate the sampling location. The white dot line indicates the terrace edge; blue line indicates the direction of the river; (b) The topographic profiles on both sides of the fault; (c,d) Photo and interpretation map of GD-OSL-25 sampling point in the T2 terrace,the white circle indicates gravel; (e–g) Field photo, and photo and interpretation map of GD-OSL-22 sampling point in the T3 terrace.
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Figure 8. Measurement and recovery of point dislocation in Shengkang site of Ganzi Fault. (a) The fault trace line of Kallie site of Luhuo fault. The white dot line indicates the terrace edge, contour interval is 10 m; (b) 117.77 m slip-back recovery diagram of fault.
Figure 8. Measurement and recovery of point dislocation in Shengkang site of Ganzi Fault. (a) The fault trace line of Kallie site of Luhuo fault. The white dot line indicates the terrace edge, contour interval is 10 m; (b) 117.77 m slip-back recovery diagram of fault.
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Figure 9. Geomorphic map of Daofu fault Mazi site (101.05°E, 31.03°N; 3125 m). (a) Field geomorphological photos of Mazi site, red line indicates the location of the fault, the red arrows indicate the relative direction of fault movement, and the black circles with cross symbols indicate the sampling location. The white dot line indicates the terrace edge; (b) Topographic surface interpretation map, blue line indicates the direction of the river; (c,d) sampling point photo and interpretation map; (e) 426 m slip-back recovery diagram of fault (blue indicates the location of the gully river).
Figure 9. Geomorphic map of Daofu fault Mazi site (101.05°E, 31.03°N; 3125 m). (a) Field geomorphological photos of Mazi site, red line indicates the location of the fault, the red arrows indicate the relative direction of fault movement, and the black circles with cross symbols indicate the sampling location. The white dot line indicates the terrace edge; (b) Topographic surface interpretation map, blue line indicates the direction of the river; (c,d) sampling point photo and interpretation map; (e) 426 m slip-back recovery diagram of fault (blue indicates the location of the gully river).
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Figure 10. Slip rate distribution diagram. (a) The previous slip rate comparison diagram; different colored circles represent different dating methods, red box represents the results obtained by using the OSL dating method, and the numbers in the sliding rate box represent the reference numbers of different researchers. (b) Slip rate research point distribution map, red line indicates the location of the main fault [16,17,19,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28].
Figure 10. Slip rate distribution diagram. (a) The previous slip rate comparison diagram; different colored circles represent different dating methods, red box represents the results obtained by using the OSL dating method, and the numbers in the sliding rate box represent the reference numbers of different researchers. (b) Slip rate research point distribution map, red line indicates the location of the main fault [16,17,19,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28].
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Table 1. Optically stimulated luminescence dating results of Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone.
Table 1. Optically stimulated luminescence dating results of Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone.
Sample
Code		Laboratory
Code		Longitude (°E)Latitude (°N)Elevation (m)Depth (m)Analysis
Method		Grain
Size (um)		U-238 (Bg/Kg)Th-232 (Bg/Kg)K-40 (Bg/Kg)Water
Conten%		Dose
Rate (Gy/ka)		De (Gy)Age a (kyr)
GZ-OSL-01 bLED21-33399.12731.96733390.60SMAR4~1155.1 ± 10.366.2 ± 1.2468.3 ± 17.0104.2 ± 0.139.9 ± 0.89.5 ± 0.4
SK-OSL-05 c21-OSL-34299.88231.62634302.3SMAR4~112.74 ± 0.1016.0 ± 0.42.24 ± 0.01104.67 ± 0.32247.60 ± 13.9853.01 ± 4.70
SK-OSL-22 c23-OSL-61199.87331.63033861.2SAR90~1502.8 ± 0.0316.4 ± 0.232.15 ± 0.012.734.13 ± 0.17182.4 ± 4.6544.19 ± 2.13
GD-OSL-11 c21-OSL-345100.24431.68735121.7SMAR4~112.44 ± 0.0313.3 ± 0.161.91 ± 0.0215.044.02 ± 0.27113.201 ± 3.0428.14 ± 2.05
GD-OSL-25 c23-OSL-614100.24531.68634250.8SAR90~1501.79 ± 0.039.99 ± 0.231.67 ± 0.013.373 ± 0.127.32 ± 0.152.44 ± 0.11
DF-OSL-13 c23-OSL-616101.04831.03531180.7SAR90~1502.7 ± 0.0617.2 ± 0.292.3 ± 0.011.964.35 ± 0.18242.7 ± 11.8155.75 ± 3.56
The error of an optically stimulated luminescence sample is 2δ; a The age uncertainty is 2 sigma. b State Key Laboratory of Seismic Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration; c Institute of Natural Disaster Prevention and Control, Ministry of Emergency Management.
Table 2. Summary table of Late Quaternary slip rate of Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone.
Table 2. Summary table of Late Quaternary slip rate of Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone.
Fault SegmentSiteSlip Rate (mm/a)Error (mm/a)LatLongElevationDating MethodReferences
ManigangoZhuqing7+1.1/–1.032.1198.854088Be10[24]
Zhuqing3.30.332.1198.863940Estimate[26]
Zhuqing70.732.1198.863937TL[22]
Ria70.731.9799.133946TL[22]
Ria12.81.731.9799.133977TL[19]
Ria9.20.7531.9799.133977OSLThis Study
Ria4.30.331.9799.133977Estimate[26]
Ria SE5.652.6531.9699.143987Be10[24]
Ria SE70.731.9599.163974TL[22]
Manigango80.531.9199.213960Estimate[26]
Manigango70.731.9399.213863TL[22]
Yulong S5.50.531.8599.333940Estimate[26]
Cuo’a13.91.431.8299.413796TL[19]
Cuo’a70.731.8299.413796TL[22]
Cuo’a7.50.531.8199.413731Estimate[26]
Cuo’a100.431.8199.413731C14[25]
Cuo’a13.4231.8199.413730TL[16]
GanziSixty-six Daoban8.5+0.8/–0.731.7399.584005Be10[24]
Sixty-six Daoban3.40.331.7399.583955TL[22]
Nawa West3.40.331.6999.663654TL[22]
Nawa8.91.131.6999.663650TL[19]
Cha La13.31.331.6799.723483TL[19]
Renguo5.452.5531.6499.783513C14[25]
E‘zhong10.9231.6499.803406TL[19]
E‘zhong14.3331.6399.813415TL[16]
Shengkang80.331.6299.883408C14[25]
Shengkang11.52.431.6399.883408TL[19]
Shengkang9.361.4731.6299.883408OSLThis Study
LuhuoKasu NE10.640.5731.72100.183688TL[27]
Gongru Village8.111.831.71100.193529TL[21]
Gengda4.230.6631.68100.253529OSLThis Study
Gru18-31.49100.533352TL[17]
Gru13.8-31.49100.533249TL[28]
Gu Li14.923.8131.44100.593284TL[16]
Chaqika10.581.1631.41100.623342TL[27]
Laohekou9.6-31.37100.663438TL[28]
Laohekou9.6-31.37100.673468TL[17]
Douri Gou11.091.2231.36100.683536TL[27]
Yousi8.4-31.34100.703572C14[23]
DaofuChang Zi2.5-31.18100.893327C14[23]
Mazi14.92331.04101.053174TL[16]
Mazi7.940.8331.04101.053174OSLThis Study
Xin Ke Wu10.50.530.97101.122990TL[27]
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Sun, K.; Li, C.; Liang, M.; Li, X.; Luo, Q.; Ren, G.; Huang, F.; Li, J. Spatial Variations of Late Quaternary Slip Rates along the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone in the Eastern Tibet. Remote Sens. 2024, 16, 2612. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16142612

AMA Style

Sun K, Li C, Liang M, Li X, Luo Q, Ren G, Huang F, Li J. Spatial Variations of Late Quaternary Slip Rates along the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone in the Eastern Tibet. Remote Sensing. 2024; 16(14):2612. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16142612

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sun, Kai, Chuanyou Li, Mingjian Liang, Xinnan Li, Quanxing Luo, Guangxue Ren, Feipeng Huang, and Junjie Li. 2024. "Spatial Variations of Late Quaternary Slip Rates along the Ganzi–Xianshuihe Fault Zone in the Eastern Tibet" Remote Sensing 16, no. 14: 2612. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16142612

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