Association of Dietary Fatty Acid Consumption Patterns with Risk of Hyper-LDL Cholesterolemia in Korean Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Subjects
2.2. Assessment of Dietary Intake
2.3. Identification of Dietary Fatty Acid Consumption Pattern
2.4. Ascertainment of Hyper-LDL Cholesterolemia
2.5. Measurement of Covariates
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Dietary Fatty Acid Consumption Pattern (FACP)
3.2. General Characteristics of Study Subjects
3.3. Association between Fatty Acid Consumption Patterns and Hyper-LDL Cholesterolemia
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Saturated Fatty Acids (SFA) | Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA) | Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) |
---|---|---|
Butyric acid (C4:0) | Myristoleic acid (C14:1) | Linoleic acid (C18:2, n-6) |
Caproic acid (C6:0) | Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) | α-linolenic acid (C18:3, n-3) |
Caprylic acid (C8:0) | Heptadecenoic acid (C17:1) | γ-linolenic acid (C18:3, n-6) |
Capric acid (C10:0) | Oleic acid (C18:1) | Eicosadienoic acid (C20:2, n-6) |
Lauric acid (C12:0) | Gadoleic acid (C20:1) | Icosatrienoic acid (C20:3, n-3) |
Tridecanoic acid (C13:0) | Erucic acid (C22:1) | Eicosatrienoic acid (C20:3, n-6) |
Myristic acid (C14:0) | Nervonic acid (C24:1) | Arachidonic acid (C20:4, n-6) |
Pentadecanoic acid (C15:0) | Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)(C20:5, n-3) | |
Palmitic acid (C16:0) | Docosadienoic acid (C22:2) | |
Heptadecanoic acid (C17:0) | Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA)(C22:5, n-3) | |
Stearic acid (C18:0) | Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)(C22:6, n-3) | |
Arachidic acid (C20:0) | ||
Henicosanoic acid (C21:0) | ||
Behenic acid (C22:0) | ||
Tricosanoic acid (C23:0) | ||
Lignoceric acid (C24:0) |
Pattern 1 | Pattern 2 | Pattern 3 | Pattern 4 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Long-chain FA pattern | Short and medium-chain SFA pattern | n-3 PUFA pattern | Long-chain SFA pattern | |
PUFA | ||||
C18:2, n-6 | 0.42 | - | - | 0.83 |
C18:3, n-3 | - | - | - | 0.74 |
C18:3, n-6 | - | - | 0.69 | - |
C20:2, n-6 | 0.95 | - | - | - |
C20:3, n-3 | 0.96 | - | - | - |
C20:3, n-6 | 0.79 | 0.48 | - | - |
C20:4, n-6 | 0.72 | - | 0.40 | - |
C20:5, n-3 | - | - | 0.94 | - |
C22: 2 | - | - | 0.41 | - |
C22:5, n-3 | 0.34 | - | 0.88 | - |
C22:6, n-3 | - | - | 0.93 | - |
SFA | ||||
C4:0 | - | 0.92 | - | - |
C6:0 | - | 0.95 | - | - |
C8:0 | - | 0.68 | - | - |
C10:0 | - | 0.93 | - | - |
C12:0 | - | 0.60 | - | - |
C13:0 | - | 0.90 | - | - |
C14:0 | 0.35 | 0.89 | - | - |
C15:0 | - | 0.87 | 0.34 | - |
C16:0 | 0.80 | 0.39 | - | - |
C17:0 | 0.75 | 0.49 | 0.35 | - |
C18:0 | 0.90 | 0.37 | - | - |
C20:0 | 0.51 | 0.30 | - | 0.69 |
C21:0 | - | 0.52 | - | 0.43 |
C22:0 | - | - | - | 0.91 |
C23:0 | 0.34 | - | - | - |
C24:0 | - | - | - | 0.88 |
MUFA | ||||
C14:1 | 0.32 | 0.70 | - | - |
C16:1 | 0.81 | - | 0.49 | - |
C17:1 | - | - | 0.77 | - |
C18:1 | 0.86 | - | - | 0.36 |
C20:1 | 0.75 | - | 0.57 | - |
C22:1 | - | - | 0.85 | - |
C24:1 | - | - | 0.93 | - |
Variability (%) 2 | 8.16 | 7.72 | 6.90 | 4.03 |
Pattern 1: Long-Chain FA Pattern | Pattern 2: Short and Medium-Chain SFA Pattern | Pattern 3: n-3 PUFA Pattern | Pattern 4: Long-Chain SFA Pattern | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Item | r 1 | Item | r | Item | r | Item | r | |
Energy and Macronutrients 2 | Energy | 0.23 | Energy | 0.13 | Energy | 0.12 | Energy | 0.24 |
Carbohydrates | −0.75 | Carbohydrates | −0.31 | Carbohydrates | −0.36 | Carbohydrates | −0.45 | |
Fat | 0.79 | Fat | 0.36 | Fat | 0.26 | Fat | 0.43 | |
SFA | 0.74 | SFA | 0.57 | SFA | 0.19 | SFA | 0.28 | |
MUFA | 0.84 | MUFA | 0.23 | MUFA | 0.28 | MUFA | 0.39 | |
PUFA | 0.46 | PUFA | 0.02 | PUFA | 0.20 | PUFA | 0.82 | |
n-3 PUFA | 0.32 | n-3 PUFA | 0.04 | n-3 PUFA | 0.66 | n-3 PUFA | 0.58 | |
n-6 PUFA | 0.46 | n-6 PUFA | 0.01 | n-6 PUFA | 0.07 | n-6 PUFA | 0.84 | |
Protein | 0.53 | Protein | 0.14 | Protein | 0.52 | Protein | 0.43 | |
Food groups 3 | Meat and meat products | 0.87 | Milk and dairy products | 0.79 | Fish and shellfish | 0.76 | Bean and tofu | 0.54 |
Poultry | 0.40 | Snack | 0.35 | Seaweeds | 0.33 | Nuts and seeds | 0.40 | |
Fish and shellfish | 0.31 | Mushroom | 0.33 | Noodles and bread | 0.39 |
Long-Chain FA Pattern | p -Value 1 | Short and Medium-Chain SFA Pattern | p -Value | n-3 PUFA Pattern | p -Value | Long-Chain SFA Pattern | p -Value | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 (lowest) | T3 (highest) | T1 | T3 | T1 | T3 | T1 | T3 | |||||
N | 2180 | 2181 | 2180 | 2181 | 2180 | 2181 | 2180 | 2181 | ||||
Age (years) | 53.4 ± 9.1 2 | 48.6 ± 7.7 | <0.0001 | 52.7 ± 9.0 | 49.5 ± 8.2 | <0.0001 | 53.3 ± 9.1 | 48.8 ± 7.8 | <0.0001 | 52.2 ± 8.8 | 49.5 ± 8.4 | <0.0001 |
Men (%) | 750 (34.4) | 1284 (58.9) | <0.0001 | 1018 (46.7) | 962 (44.1) | <0.0001 | 1082 (49.6) | 987 (45.3) | 0.0147 | 1024 (47.0) | 1033 (47.4) | 0.6541 |
Urban residence 3 | 896 (41.1) | 1319 (60.5) | <0.0001 | 785 (36.0) | 1401 (64.2) | <0.0001 | 762 (35.0) | 1477 (67.7) | <0.0001 | 870 (40.0) | 1338 (61.4) | <0.0001 |
Higher income 4 | 99 (4.5) | 195 (8.9) | <0.0001 | 106 (4.9) | 202 (9.3) | <0.0001 | 88 (4.0) | 226 (10.4) | <0.0001 | 82 (3.8) | 226 (10.4) | <0.0001 |
Office workers | 107 (4.9) | 249 (11.4) | <0.0001 | 129 (5.9) | 230 (10.6) | <0.0001 | 141 (6.5) | 234 (10.7) | <0.0001 | 160 (7.3) | 222 (10.2) | <0.0001 |
Physical activity 5 | 24.5 ± 15.8 | 22.8 ± 15.0 | <0.0001 | 25.4 ± 16.3 | 22.0 ± 14.1 | <0.0001 | 26.0 ± 16.3 | 20.9 ± 13.7 | <0.0001 | 24.2 ± 15.9 | 22.4 ± 14.6 | 0.0009 |
Current alcohol use | 804 (36.9) | 1321 (60.6) | <0.0001 | 1078 (49.5) | 1038 (47.6) | 0.0093 | 1006 (46.2) | 1117 (51.2) | 0.0009 | 1046 (48.0) | 1122 (51.4) | 0.2406 |
Current smoking | 424 (19.5) | 719 (33.0) | <0.0001 | 584 (26.8) | 539 (24.7) | 0.0010 | 623 (28.6) | 557 (25.5) | 0.0689 | 603 (27.7) | 554 (25.4) | 0.1127 |
BMI 6 | 24.2 ± 3.3 | 24.2 ± 3.0 | 0.6558 | 24.3 ± 3.1 | 24.1 ± 3.0 | 0.1402 | 23.9 ± 3.1 | 24.5 ± 3.0 | <0.0001 | 24.1 ± 3.1 | 24.2 ± 3.1 | 0.0954 |
Supplementation 7 | 402 (18.4) | 408 (18.7) | 0.9704 | 342 (15.7) | 487 (22.3) | <0.0001 | 362 (16.6) | 454 (20.8) | 0.0015 | 342 (15.7) | 469 (21.5) | <0.0001 |
Nutrient intake | ||||||||||||
Total energy 8 | 1824.6 ± 616.6 | 2123.7 ± 648.2 | <0.0001 | 1854.3 627.1 | 2010.7 ± 609.5 | <0.0001 | 1891.1 ± 626.1 | 2039.1 ± 644.8 | <0.0001 | 1812.5 ± 613.9 | 2077.9 ± 633.5 | <0.0001 |
Carbohydrates 9 | 76.3 ± 4.9 | 64.7 ± 5.9 | <0.0001 | 73.1 ± 7.2 | 68.4 ± 6.2 | <0.0001 | 73.2 ± 6.9 | 67.5 ± 6.6 | <0.0001 | 74.1 ± 7.3 | 67.5 ± 6.0 | <0.0001 |
Protein 9 | 12.2 ± 2.0 | 14.8 ± 2.2 | <0.0001 | 13.1 ± 2.5 | 13.8 ± 2.1 | <0.0001 | 12.2 ± 1.9 | 14.9 ± 2.3 | <0.0001 | 12.4 ± 2.4 | 14.4 ± 2.1 | <0.0001 |
Fat 9 | 11.6 ± 3.3 | 20.5 ± 4.3 | <0.0001 | 13.8 ± 5.2 | 17.8 ± 4.6 | <0.0001 | 14.6 ± 5.4 | 17.6 ± 4.9 | <0.0001 | 13.6 ± 5.3 | 18.1 ± 4.6 | <0.0001 |
SFA 9 | 3.5 ± 1.6 | 7.2 ± 1.9 | <0.0001 | 3.9 ± 2.0 | 6.7 ± 1.9 | <0.0001 | 4.9 ± 2.4 | 5.8 ± 2.1 | <0.0001 | 4.6 ± 2.4 | 5.9 ± 2.1 | <0.0001 |
MUFA 9 | 2.4 ± 1.1 | 6.1 ± 1.8 | <0.0001 | 3.7 ± 2.2 | 4.6 ± 1.8 | <0.0001 | 3.6 ± 2.1 | 4.8 ± 1.9 | <0.0001 | 3.4 ± 2.1 | 4.9 ± 1.9 | <0.0001 |
PUFA 9 | 2.7 ± 0.9 | 3.7 ± 0.8 | <0.0001 | 3.1 ± 1.0 | 3.2 ± 0.9 | 0.1656 | 3.0 ± 1.0 | 3.4 ± 0.9 | <0.0001 | 2.4 ± 0.6 | 4.0 ± 0.8 | <0.0001 |
n-3 PUFA 9 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | <0.0001 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.2 | 0.0911 | 0.4 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | <0.0001 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.2 | <0.0001 |
n-6 PUFA 9 | 2.3 ± 0.8 | 3.1 ± 0.7 | <0.0001 | 2.6 ± 0.9 | 2.7 ± 0.7 | 0.3842 | 2.6 ± 0.9 | 2.7 ± 0.7 | <0.0001 | 2.0 ± 0.5 | 3.4 ± 0.7 | <0.0001 |
Tertile of Pattern Score | p for Trend | p for Interaction 3 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
T1 | T2 | T3 | |||
Long-chain FA pattern | |||||
Total (n = 6542) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 511/19,930.1 | 520/19,886.7 | 471/20,382.7 | ||
RR (95% CI) 2 | 1.00 | 1.09 (0.96–1.24) | 1.05 (0.91–1.20) | 0.651 | 0.791 |
Men (n = 3111) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 111/7137.0 | 183/10,297.3 | 205/12,463.6 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.12 (0.88–1.42) | 1.04 (0.82–1.33) | 0.975 | |
Women (n = 3431) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 400/12,793.1 | 337/9589.4 | 266/7919.0 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.09 (0.94–1.27) | 1.06 (0.90–1.25) | 0.530 | |
Short and medium-chain SFA pattern | |||||
Total (n = 6542) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 470/20,325.2 | 449/20,380.6 | 583/19,493.6 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.92 (0.80–1.05) | 1.17 (1.03–1.32) | 0.004 | 0.042 |
Men (n = 3111) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 139/9889.8 | 1642/10,953.6 | 198/9054.5 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.74–1.17) | 1.34 (1.07–1.69) | 0.003 | |
Women (n = 3431) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 331/10,435.4 | 287/9427.0 | 385/10,439.1 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.77–1.07) | 1.08 (0.92–1.26) | 0.196 | |
n-3 PUFA pattern | |||||
Total (n = 6542) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 487/20,404.1 | 485/20,338.6 | 530/19,456.8 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.79–1.02) | 0.96 (0.84–1.10) | 0.809 | 0.071 |
Men (n = 3111) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 156/10,679.1 | 167/9938.3 | 176/9280.5 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.06 (0.85–1.33) | 1.09 (0.87–1.37) | 0.485 | |
Women (n = 3431) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 331/9725.0 | 318/10,400.3 | 354/10,176.3 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.83 (0.71–0.98) | 0.91 (0.77–1.06) | 0.427 | |
Long-chain SFA pattern | |||||
Total (n = 6542) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 514/20,036.2 | 517/19,920.6 | 471/20,242.6 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.83–1.06) | 0.82 (0.72–0.94) | 0.004 | 0.070 |
Men (n = 3111) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 165/10,022.8 | 187/9966.9 | 147/9908.2 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.81–1.25) | 0.73 (0.58–0.93) | 0.007 | |
Women (n = 3431) | |||||
Cases/person-years | 349/10,013.4 | 330/9953.7 | 324/10,334.4 | ||
RR (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.77–1.05) | 0.86 (0.73–1.01) | 0.064 |
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Choi, E.; Ahn, S.; Joung, H. Association of Dietary Fatty Acid Consumption Patterns with Risk of Hyper-LDL Cholesterolemia in Korean Adults. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051412
Choi E, Ahn S, Joung H. Association of Dietary Fatty Acid Consumption Patterns with Risk of Hyper-LDL Cholesterolemia in Korean Adults. Nutrients. 2020; 12(5):1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051412
Chicago/Turabian StyleChoi, Eunhee, Seoeun Ahn, and Hyojee Joung. 2020. "Association of Dietary Fatty Acid Consumption Patterns with Risk of Hyper-LDL Cholesterolemia in Korean Adults" Nutrients 12, no. 5: 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051412