Dietary Behaviors That Place Young Adults at Risk for Future Osteoporosis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Data Collection, Demographics Characteristics and Anthropometry
2.3. Nutrients and Nutrient Densities
2.4. Serves for Selected Food Groups
2.5. Assessment of Calcium Contribution by Food Categories
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics
3.2. Comparing Energy and Nutrient Densities Between Genders and Socio-Economic Status
3.3. Intake of Fruit, Vegetables and Dairy/or Alternatives by Serves
3.4. Contribution of Different Foods to Calcium in the Diet
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Peck, W.A.; Burckhardt, P.; Christiansen, C.; Fleisch, H.A.; Genant, H.K.; Gennari, C.; Martin, T.J.; Martini, L.; Morita, R.; Ogata, E.; et al. Consensus Development Conference—Diagnosis, Prophylaxis, and Treatment of Osteoporosis. Am. J. Med. 1993, 94, 646–650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kanis, J.A. Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis: Synopsis of a WHO report. WHO Study Group. Osteoporos. Int. 1994, 4, 368–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Reginster, J.Y.; Burlet, N. Osteoporosis: A still increasing prevalence. Bone 2006, 38, S4–S9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tatangelo, G.; Watts, J.; Lim, K.; Connaughton, C.; Abimanyi-Ochom, J.; Borgström, F.; Nicholson, G.C.; Shore-Lorenti, C.; Stuart, A.L.; Iuliano-Burns, S.; et al. The Cost of Osteoporosis, Osteopenia, and Associated Fractures in Australia in 2017. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2019, 34, 616–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sozen, T.; Ozisik, L.; Basaran, N.C. An overview and management of osteoporosis. Eur. J. Rheumatol. 2017, 4, 46–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baxter-Jones, A.D.; Faulkner, R.A.; Forwood, M.R.; Mirwald, R.L.; Bailey, D.A. Bone mineral accrual from 8 to 30 years of age: An estimation of peak bone mass. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2011, 26, 1729–1739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weaver, C.M.; Gordon, C.M.; Janz, K.F.; Kalkwarf, H.J.; Lappe, J.M.; Lewis, R.; O’Karma, M.; Wallace, T.C.; Zemel, B.S. The National Osteoporosis Foundation’s position statement on peak bone mass development and lifestyle factors: A systematic review and implementation recommendations. Osteoporos. Int. 2016, 27, 1281–1386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Winpenny, E.; Penney, T.; Corder, K.; White, M. Change in diet in the period from adolescence to early adulthood: A systematic scoping review of longitudinal studies. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2017, 14, 60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nielsen, S.J.; Siega-Riz, A.M.; Popkin, B.M. Trends in food locations and sources among adolescents and young adults. Prev. Med. 2002, 35, 107–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- National Health and Medical Research Council. Australian Dietary Guidelines. 2013. Available online: https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/australian-dietary-guidelines (accessed on 24 April 2020).
- Brondani, J.E.; Comim, F.V.; Flores, L.M.; Martini, L.A.; Premaor, M.O. Fruit and vegetable intake and bones: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0217223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Prynne, C.J.; Mishra, G.D.; O’Connell, M.A.; Muniz, G.; Laskey, M.A.; Yan, L.; Prentice, A.; Ginty, F. Fruit and vegetable intakes and bone mineral status: A cross sectional study in 5 age and sex cohorts. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 1420–1428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cashman, K.D. Diet, nutrition, and bone health. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 2507S–2512S. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Maurel, D.B.; Boisseau, N.; Benhamou, C.L.; Jaffre, C. Alcohol and bone: Review of dose effects and mechanisms. Osteoporos. Int. 2012, 23, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bedford, J.L.; Barr, S.I. Higher urinary sodium, a proxy for intake, is associated with increased calcium excretion and lower hip bone density in healthy young women with lower calcium intakes. Nutrients 2011, 3, 951–961. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Massey, L.K.; Whiting, S.J. Caffeine, urinary calcium, calcium metabolism and bone. J. Nutr. 1993, 123, 1611–1614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wellard-Cole, L.; Jung, J.; Kay, J.; Rangan, A.; Chapman, K.; Watson, W.L.; Hughes, C.; Mhurchu, C.N.; Bauman, A.; Gemming, L.; et al. Examining the Frequency and Contribution of Foods Eaten Away From Home in the Diets of 18- to 30-Year-Old Australians Using Smartphone Dietary Assessment (MYMeals): Protocol for a Cross-Sectional Study. JMIR Res. Protoc. 2018, 7, e24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Subar, A.F.; Kirkpatrick, S.I.; Mittl, B.; Zimmerman, T.P.; Thompson, F.E.; Bingley, C.; Willis, G.; Islam, N.G.; Baranowski, T.; McNutt, S.; et al. The Automated Self-Administered 24-hour dietary recall (ASA24): A resource for researchers, clinicians, and educators from the National Cancer Institute. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2012, 112, 1134–1137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Census of Population and Housing: Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas (SEIFA). 2018. Available online: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/2033.0.55.001 (accessed on 15 January 2020).
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS): Volume 5—Remoteness Structure, July 2011. 2013. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Latestproducts/2C28C8B6013FB2D0CA257B03000D6DA8?opendocument (accessed on 15 January 2020).
- Davies, A.; Wellard-Cole, L.; Rangan, A.; Allman-Farinelli, M. Validity of self-reported weight and height for BMI classification: A cross-sectional study among young adults. Nutrition 2020, 71, 110622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Healthy Survey: Users’ Guide, 2011–2013. 2018. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/DetailsPage/4363.0.55.0012011-13?OpenDocument (accessed on 24 April 2020).
- Black, A.E. Critical evaluation of energy intake using the Goldberg cut-off for energy intake:basal metabolic rate. A practical guide to its calculation, use and limitations. Int. J. Obes. 2000, 24, 1119–1130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. The health of Australia’s males. 2019. Available online: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/men-women/male-health/contents/who-are (accessed on 28 April 2020).
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Rural & Remote Health. 2019. Available online: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/rural-remote-australians/rural-remote-health/contents/profile-of-rural-and-remote-australians (accessed on 28 April 2020).
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australians Pursuing Higher Education in Record Numbers. 2017. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/1533FE5A8541D66CCA2581BF00362D1D (accessed on 28 April 2020).
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Health Survey: First Results 2017–2018. 2019. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/DetailsPage/4364.0.55.0012017-18?OpenDocument (accessed on 30 January 2020).
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Health Survey: Usual Nutrient Intakes 2011–2012. 2015. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.008~2011-12~Main%20Features~Calcium~401 (accessed on 24 April 2020).
- Nour, M.; Sui, Z.; Grech, A.; Rangan, A.; McGeechan, K.; Allman-Farinelli, M. The fruit and vegetable intake of young Australian adults: A population perspective. Public Health Nutr. 2017, 20, 2499–2512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yantcheva, B.; Golley, S.; Topping, D.; Mohr, P. Food avoidance in an Australian adult population sample: The case of dairy products. Public Health Nutr. 2016, 19, 1616–1623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cohen, D.A.; Bhatia, R. Nutrition standards for away-from-home foods in the USA. Obes Rev. 2012, 13, 618–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Larson, N.; Neumark-Sztainer, D.; Laska, M.N.; Story, M. Young adults and eating away from home: Associations with dietary intake patterns and weight status differ by choice of restaurant. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2011, 111, 1696–1703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- LaBrie, J.W.B.S.; Earle, A.; Almstedt, H.C. Heavy Episodic Drinking Is Associated With Poorer Bone Health in Adolescent andYoung Adult Women. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 2018, 79, 391–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Grech, A.; Rangan, A.; Allman-Farinelli, M. Macronutrient Composition of the Australian Population’s Diet; Trends from Three National Nutrition Surveys 1983, 1995 and 2012. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Alcohol, Tobacco & other Drugs in Australia. 2019. Available online: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/alcohol/alcohol-tobacco-other-drugs-australia/contents/priority-populations/young-people (accessed on 23 August 2019).
- Temple, J.L.; Bernard, C.; Lipshultz, S.E.; Czachor, J.D.; Westphal, J.A.; Mestre, M.A. The Safety of Ingested Caffeine: A Comprehensive Review. Front. Psychiatry 2017, 8, 80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Heaney, R.P. Effects of caffeine on bone and the calcium economy. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2002, 40, 1263–1270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marcinow, M.L.; Simpson, J.A.R.; Whiting, S.J.; Jung, M.E.; Buchholz, A.C. Young Adults’ Perceptions of Calcium Intake and Health: A Qualitative Study. Health Educ. Behav. 2017, 44, 898–906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nowson, C.; Margerison, C. Vitamin D intake and vitamin D status of Australians. Med J. Aust. 2002, 177, 149–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Health Survey: Biomedical Results for Nutrients 2011–2012. 2014. Available online: https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/4364.0.55.006Chapter2002011-12 (accessed on 24 April 2020).
Participant Characteristics | n (%) | |
---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 87 (46) |
Female | 102 (54) | |
Age (years) | 18–24 | 105 (56) |
25–30 | 84 (44) | |
Socio-economic Status 1 | High (>50th percentile) | 121 (65) |
Low (≤50th percentile) | 64 (35) | |
Highest Education Attained | Secondary school or less 2 | 66 (35) |
University degree, trade or diploma qualification | 123 (65) | |
Country Born | Australia | 127 (67) |
Other/prefer not to say | 62 (33) | |
Geographic Location 3 | Sydney | 125 (66) |
Outer Sydney | 48 (26) | |
Regional | 15 (8) | |
BMI (kg/m2) | Under and normal weight (≤24.99) | 120 (63) |
Overweight (25–29.99) | 47 (25) | |
Obese (≥30) | 22 (12) | |
Misreporting 4 | Low energy reporters | 28 (15) |
Plausible reporters | 155 (82) | |
Over-reporters | 6 (3) |
Energy and Nutrient Densities | Females (n = 102) Mean (SD) | Males (n = 87) Mean (SD) | p1 |
---|---|---|---|
Total Energy with Dietary Fibre, kJ | 9298 (2467) | 10712 (3217) | <0.001 |
Protein (g) | 97 (31) | 119 (43) | <0.001 |
Protein, % Energy | 18 (4) | 19 (5) | 0.04 |
Total Fat (g) | 93 (30) | 104 (37) | 0.03 |
Total fat, % Energy | 37 (7) | 36 (6) | 0.28 |
Total Saturated Fat (g) | 34 (14) | 37 (16) | 0.12 |
Total Saturated Fat, % Energy | 13 (4) | 13 (3) | 0.20 |
Carbohydrate (g), | 223 (74) | 253 (88) | 0.01 |
Carbohydrate, % Energy | 41 (9) | 40 (6) | 0.28 |
Alcohol (g) 2, | 19 (28) | 27 (26) | 0.15 |
Alcohol, % Energy | 5 (6) | 7 (7) | 0.12 |
Dietary Fibre (g) | 24 (10) | 24 (9) | 0.54 |
Food Group | Females (n = 102) Median (IQR 1) | Males (n = 87) Median (IQR 1) | p2 |
---|---|---|---|
Recommended Number of Serves for Fruit 3 | 2 | 2 | |
Fruit, dried fruit and all fruit juice | 0.9 (0.4–2.0) | 0.7 (0.2–1.4) | 0.07 |
Fruit, dried fruit excluding fruit juice > 125 mL | 0.6 (0.2–1.1) | 0.4 (0.1–0.9) | 0.05 |
Recommended Number of Serves for Vegetables 3 | 5 | 6 | |
Vegetables including Fried Potatoes and Vegetable Juice | 3.8 (1.9–5.6) | 3.4 (2.2–5.0) | 0.78 |
Vegetables including Juice < 125 mL, excluding Fried Potatoes | 3.4 (1.7–5.3) | 2.8 (1.8–4.2) | 0.31 |
Vegetables including Juice < 125 mL, excluding all Potatoes | 3.0 (1.3–4.7) | 2.6 (1.4–4.1) | 0.46 |
Recommended Number of Serves for Dairy and/or Alternatives 3 | 2.5 | 2.5 | |
Dairy and/or Alternatives | 1.1 (0.7–1.8) | 1.3 (0.8–2.0) | 0.11 |
Food Groups 1 | Calcium (mg), Mean (SD) | Females | Males | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Selected Major Selected Sub-Major Selected Minor | Mean Portion Size (g) 2 | Per Portion | Per 100g | n3 | Proportion 4 % | n3 | Proportion 4 % |
Milk products and dishes | 127 | 204 (212) | 324 (300) | 447 | 30 | 376 | 35 |
Dairy milk (cow, sheep and goat) | 202 | 222 (234) | 117 (36) | 117 | 7 | 134 | 15 |
Yoghurt | 137 | 236 (143) | 171 (26) | 48 | 4 | 37 | 3 |
Cheese | 32 | 211 (230) | 672 (202) | 164 | 12 | 146 | 14 |
Frozen milk products 5 | 95 | 88 (54) | 93 (14) | 52 | 2 | 26 | 1 |
Flavoured milks and milkshakes | 418 | 336 (178) | 79 (21) | 33 | 5 | 18 | 2 |
Cereal-based products and dishes 6 | 162 | 114 (209) | 65 (56) | 436 | 16 | 365 | 19 |
Cereal-based mixed dishes | 264 | 211 (281) | 84 (70) | 168 | 13 | 186 | 17 |
Pizza | 255 | 460 (453) | 175 (60) | 44 | 7 | 40 | 8 |
Burgers | 185 | 158 (80) | 90 (36) | 16 | 1 | 31 | 2 |
Savoury pasta/noodle dishes 7 | 402 | 168 (142) | 45 (31) | 47 | 3 | 45 | 3 |
Non-alcoholic beverages | 314 | 77 (105) | 24 (56) | 566 | 13 | 397 | 10 |
Tea8 | 327 | 41 (93) | 10 (22) | 176 | 2 | 78 | 2 |
Coffee and coffee substitutes 8,9 | 278 | 100 (110) | 34 (37) | 195 | 7 | 131 | 6 |
Other beverage flavourings/prepared beverages 8,10 | 188 | 225 (200) | 153 (175) | 31 | 2 | 17 | 8 |
Cereals and cereal products | 108 | 53 (70) | 70 (91) | 463 | 9 | 410 | 10 |
Regular breads, and bread rolls | 70 | 58 (38) | 82 (28) | 201 | 4 | 173 | 5 |
Breakfast cereals, ready to eat | 62 | 83 (120) | 162 (201) | 53 | 2 | 60 | 2 |
Vegetable products and dishes | 82 | 23 (55) | 34 (122) | 875 | 9 | 650 | 5 |
Dairy and meat substitutes | 144 | 183 (183) | 1712 (158) | 79 | 5 | 24 | 2 |
Dairy milk substitutes, unflavoured 11 | 157 | 104 (114) | 77 (36) | 48 | 2 | 14 | 1 |
Meat substitutes 12 | 70 | 262 (173) | 368 (149) | 23 | 2 | 8 | 1 |
Meat, poultry and game products and dishes | 158 | 25 (32) | 15 (11) | 362 | 3 | 294 | 4 |
Chocolate and chocolate-based confectionery | 35 | 57 (84) | 164 (75) | 91 | 2 | 44 | 1 |
Fruit products and dishes | 111 | 15 (20) | 15 (16) | 312 | 2 | 180 | 1 |
Fish and seafood products and dishes | 122 | 63 (123) | 50 (78) | 74 | 1 | 63 | 2 |
Egg products and dishes | 87 | 49 (42) | 53 (19) | 83 | 1 | 66 | 2 |
Special dietary foods 8,13 | 20 | 100 (67) | 505 (78) | 27 | 1 | 37 | 2 |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Davies, A.; Rangan, A.; Allman-Farinelli, M. Dietary Behaviors That Place Young Adults at Risk for Future Osteoporosis. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1800. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061800
Davies A, Rangan A, Allman-Farinelli M. Dietary Behaviors That Place Young Adults at Risk for Future Osteoporosis. Nutrients. 2020; 12(6):1800. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061800
Chicago/Turabian StyleDavies, Alyse, Anna Rangan, and Margaret Allman-Farinelli. 2020. "Dietary Behaviors That Place Young Adults at Risk for Future Osteoporosis" Nutrients 12, no. 6: 1800. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061800