Next Article in Journal
Collagen Extract Derived from Yeonsan Ogye Chicken Increases Bone Microarchitecture by Suppressing the RANKL/OPG Ratio via the JNK Signaling Pathway
Previous Article in Journal
The Development of a Psychometrically Valid and Reliable Questionnaire to Assess Nutrition Knowledge Related to Pre-Schoolers
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Nutrients
Volume 12
Issue 7
10.3390/nu12071966
nutrients-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Phytopharmacological Possibilities of Bird Cherry Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. Species and Their Bioactive Phytochemicals

by
Aleksandra Telichowska
1,2,*,
Joanna Kobus-Cisowska
1 and
Piotr Szulc
3
1
Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 28, 60-637 Poznan, Poland
2
Foundation for the Education of Innovation and Implementation of Modern Technologies, Widok 11, 62-069 Dabrowka, Poland
3
Department of Agronomy, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 28, 60-637 Poznan, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nutrients 2020, 12(7), 1966; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071966
Submission received: 5 June 2020 / Revised: 23 June 2020 / Accepted: 30 June 2020 / Published: 2 July 2020
(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemicals and Human Health)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Wild cherry is a plant observed in the form of trees or shrubs. This species comprises about twenty kinds of plants and the most popular are two, Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L., whose properties and content of phytochemical compounds are subject to studies. Wild cherry contains many active compounds, including tocopherols, vitamins, polyphenols and terpenes, which can have beneficial effects on health. On the other hand, wild cherry contains cyanogenic glycosides. Nevertheless, current research results indicate pro-health properties associated with both P. serotina and P. padus. The aim of this study was to collect and present the current state of knowledge about wild cherry and to review available in vitro and in vivo studies concerning its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antidiabetic activity. Moreover, the current work presents and characterizes phytochemical content in the leaves, bark and fruits of P. padus and P. serotina and compiles data that indicate their health-promoting and functional properties and possibilities of using them to improve health. We find that the anatomical parts of P. padus and P. serotina can be a valuable raw material used in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries as a source of bioactive compounds with multi-directional action.

1. Introduction

Currently, there is a growing interest in the possibilities of an application of plant raw materials in medicine as well as in functional food designing. The biological activity of raw materials depends on the content of individual phytochemicals, which are found in different anatomical parts of plants: fruits, shoots, buds, leaves, roots and bark [1,2].
One of these plants is wild cherry. The species comprises about twenty kinds of plants, however, two of them are the most popular: European bird cherry (P. padus L. syn. Prunus avium L.) and American black cherry (P. serotina L.) [3] The ecological expansion of the wild cherry tree results from its high efficiency of vegetative multiplication and generative propagation due to features such as its high capacity and speed of seed germination, high seed production, long dispersion, rapid growth and development, low requirements in relation to habitat conditions and high tolerance to climatic conditions [4].
The wild cherry is mistakenly considered inedible. The fruit seeds contain cyanogenic glycosides, the excessive consumption of which, without thermal treatment, may have adverse health effects [5]. The consumption of wild cherry already took place in prehistoric times. This is evidenced by the remains of Neolithic and bronze vessels, the decorations of which depict the wild cherry, which were discovered in palafittes (houses erected on stilts) in South-East Asia. The Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus also informs about its use. At that time, the fruit was consumed with the addition of salt, and regardless of this, alcohol was also produced from it [6].
Currently, the European bird cherry (P. padus) and the American black cherry (P. serotina) are not widely used in pharmaceutical or food industries. The aim of this study is to characterize the phytochemical compounds present in wild cherries, their biological properties and the possibility of their use in the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries on the basis of available literature data. This review encompassed research conducted at the in vitro (outside of the normal biological context, commonly called test-tube experiments) and in vivo (experiments developed using the whole organism) levels. Additionally, the authors present the data from all available papers, in a comprehensive way, providing complete information about the main analytical parameters. Although many researchers have reported the effectiveness of wild cherry in in vitro and in vivo studies, more work needs to be done to clinically prove their effectiveness.

2. Data Collections

All data presented in this review were summarized from the references, including scientific journals, book chapters or dissertations. These references were systematically searched against electronic databases: PubMed, CNKI (http://new.oversea.cnki.net/index/), Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar and SciELO with a keyword “Prunus padus” and “Prunus serotina”. To search for maximum relative references, the keyword was set as “bird cherry” without any other restrictions. Subsequently, references closely related to chemical compositions, traditional uses and pharmacological properties, including in vitro and in vivo investigations, were screened for further data extraction. In addition, to survey the taxon, phenotypes and geographical distributions of Prunus species, several online taxonomic databases, including http://theplantlist.org/, http://www.worldfloraonline.org/, https://www.gbif.org/ and http://www.iplant.cn/foc/, were also explored.

3. Habitats and Classification

Wild cherry (Prunus L.) is a type of tree or large shrub belonging to the subfamily Amygdaloideae (Prunoideae) within the Rosaceae family (Table 1). This subfamily also includes three other genera which are distinguished by their drupe-shaped fruit [7,8].
The classification of the species Prunus L. has always been controversial and has been presented differently by many authors. In 1700, the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort was the first to classify the distinguished species into six genera, distinguishing them on the basis of differences in fruit structure: Amygdalus, Armeniaca, Cerasus, Laurocerasus, Persica and Prunus. This classification was adopted in 1754 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, who distinguished four genera: Amygdalus, Cerasus, Prunus and Padus.
The idea of merging all the species was first published by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1865 [7,9]. Rehder’s classification from 1940 of five subgenres within Prunus gained the widest acceptance: Amygdalus, Cerasus, Laurocerasus, Padus and Prunus [7,10].
Recent DNA tests have shown that Prunus is monophilic and derived from some Eurasian ancestors [8]. Plants of the Prunus species mainly occur in the northern hemisphere and the temperate zone, most often in Europe, Asia Minor and Western Siberia [11]. Wild cherry grows well in partially darkened sites and mineral-rich soils, and its location does not affect the characteristics of trees such as leaves, fruits or bark [6].

4. Botanical Characteristics of P. padus and P. serotina

The height of trees of the bird cherry tree (P. padus) can reach up to 15 m [12], while shrubs range from 0.5 to 4 m (Table 2). American black cherry trees (P. serotina) can reach a height of up to 25 m [13]. Its structure consists of a round or egg-shaped crown with falling branches and dark brown shoots, which form a shrubby form [14,15]. The trees reach their target dimensions at the age of 100 years [16].
The distinction between the bird cherry P. padus and the American black cherry P. serotina is possible due to the shape of the leaves and flowers. The American black cherry is characterized by elongated, lancet, pointed leaves, which are sharply serrated at the edges and are shiny and dark green on the surface. They are light green on the underside [17,18]. They are characterized by a poorly visible vein network. The leaves of the bird cherry are smaller and its edges are finely serrated. The petiole is usually red and the leaves themselves are more matt and leathery. The vein network is dense, connected at the edge of the leaf [15].
The bird cherry begins to flower at the end of April and the beginning of May, while the American black cherry only flowers around May and June. The flowers are creamy white and form cylindrical clusters [19,20]. The flowers of American black cherry do not have an aroma and are smaller than those of the bird cherry [21]. Small, spherical black drupes are fruits that appear around August and September [22,23].

5. Nutrition Value and Mineral Content of P. padus and P. serotina

Natural products, mainly of plant origin, are gaining interest all over the world. Some of them are already used as a substitute or complementary to unconventional forms of drugs due to the toxicity and side effects of synthetic drugs [24,25,26,27,28,29].
The analysis of the chemical composition of leaves, bark, flowers and fruits of wild cherry trees has been the subject of many studies concerning selected traits or species of wild cherry (Table 3).
Table 3 shows the nutritional value of the fruits of the P. padus and P. serotina cherries. Fruits of P. serotina contain a relatively high content of protein and a high content of carbohydrates [31]. The protein content in fruits of P. serotina is higher than reported in the literature concerning plums (0.9% ± 0.03%), apricots (Prunus armeniaca L.) (1.4% ± 0.33%), peaches (Prunus persica L. Batsch) (0.9% ± 0.01%) or grapes (0.72% ± 0.03%) [33].
A higher carbohydrate content was noted in the fruit of P. padus [30,32]. It was also found to contain reducing sugars such as glucose, fructose and sorbitol [30]. Sorbitol is also found in other fruits besides wild cherries and is present in relatively high amounts in apples, peaches, apricots and in small amounts in gooseberries, currants, bananas, pineapples, but also in rowanberries [34,35,36,37]. The mineral components found in the seeds of P. serotina are mainly: iron, magnesium, potassium, zinc, phosphorus and sodium. The content of magnesium in raw and roasted seeds of P. serotina was not affected by heat treatment, but the content of Ca, Fe, P, K, Zn and Na decreased after the seeds were roasted. Raw wild cherry seeds also contain a relatively high protein content (37% ± 0.16%). It was shown that the content of amino acids in roasted seeds increased [32]. The content of fiber in the seeds depended on the heat treatment and its highest content was found in the roasted seeds of P. serotina [32].

6. Phytocompounds Content in P. padus and P. serotina

6.1. Chlorophyll and Anthocyanins

Chlorophyll absorbs energy from light, which is used to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates [38]. Chlorophyll occurs in several different forms [39,40]. The main types are chlorophylls A and B. In the fruit of P. padus there is both chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B, but there are twice as many chlorophyll A (Table 4).
Wild cherries also contain carotenoids—most of them are beta-carotene [30]. Recently, there has also been a significant increase in interest in possible pro-health effects associated with the consumption of anthocyanins. It is suggested that fruits rich in anthocyanins or their extracts show a wide range of protective effects [43,44]. The consumption of anthocyanins prevents the risk of cardiovascular diseases, oxidative stress and diabetes [43,44,45,46]. The antioxidant activity of cyanidin is 4.4 times higher than that of ascorbic acid. Among edible plants, berries of red, blue or purple color, such as wild cherries, are one of the most important sources of anthocyanins in the diet [5,47,48,49,50]. Anthocyanins are mainly present in the outer layers of subcutaneous tissue.
In P. padus fruits, the total content of anthocyanins was 2071.16 ± 91.02 mg/kg FW [30]. The main compounds in this group were mainly: cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-rutinoside as well as cyanidin-3-galactoside and cyanidin rhamnosyl hexoside [30].

6.2. Vitamin: Tocopherols and Vitamin C

Tocopherols are commonly found in cereals, vegetable oils and eggs [51,52]. These include alpha-tocopherol, beta-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol and delta-tocopherol. However, alpha-tocopherol with antioxidant properties has the greatest nutritional importance [53]. Alpha, beta and gamma-tocopherol have been found in P. padus fruits, where alpha-tocopherol is dominant and constitutes as much as 63% of all tocopherols (Table 4) [30]. In raw seeds, alpha-tocopherol is present at a level of 3.916 mg / 100 g, while it is absent in roasted seeds [32,54].
The fruits of P. padus also contain vitamin C, in the form of ascorbic acid at a level of 25.20 ± 3.48 mg/100 FW and in the form of dehydroascorbic acid at a level of 50.87 ± 16.23 mg/100 FW [55,56]. Ascorbic acid is a saccharide derivative. It is produced from D-glucose in organisms of animals capable of synthesizing it [57]. In plants it is produced from D-glucose or D-galactose. Vitamin C is biologically active [58]. It takes part in many reactions and transformations, stimulating various biochemical processes in the body. Because of good solubility of vitamin C and active transport, about 80% is is absorbed by the organism [59,60]. The structure of ascorbic acid, which contains two adjacent groups, hydroxyl and carbonyl, makes this molecule an excellent hydrogen or electron donor, which determines the antioxidant activity. Ascorbic acid can be a donor of two electrons and therefore takes part as a cofactor in many enzymatic reactions taking place in the body.

6.3. Terpens

Non-glycosylated pentacyclic triterpenoids such as ursolic acid (3b-hydroxyurs-12-en-28-ic acid), corosolic acid (2a, 3b-dihydroxyurs-12-en-28-ic acid) and oleanolic acid (3b-hydroxyolean-12-en-28-ic acid) are lipophilic constituents, which have recently aroused great interest in the context of phytotherapy because of their comprehensive biological properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antiatherosclerotic and antidiabetic ones [61,62,63,64,65,66].
These acids are widely distributed in various medicinal plants and plants of the Prunus species (Rosaceae). It was found that leaves and whole inflorescences of P. padus were the richest source of triterpenic acids (Table 4). It was shown that during the entire vegetation season, the highest levels of triterpenes were accumulated in the leaves between September and October, which are therefore recommended as the optimal time to harvest high quality plant material [67]. Terpenes such as limonene, phellandrene, sabinene, γ-terpinene, ursolic acid, uvaol, cis-linalool oxide, trans s-linalool oxide, (Z)-8-hydroxylinalool, E)-β-Farnesene or (E,E)-α-Farnesene were also found in wild cherry fruits [42].

6.4. Organic Acids

The plant raw materials also contain malic acid, citric acid and tartaric acid [68,69,70]. In the fruits they are mostly observed in free form, unlike in case of vegetables, where organic acids are bound. Malic and citric acid were found to be the main organic acids in wild cherry fruits (P. padus) (Table 5). In the fruit of P. padus, the highest content among the determined organic acids is noted for quinic acid and citric acid [55] and the lowest for shikimic acid [30]. There are also such organic acids as oxalic acid, malic acid or fumaric acid [30].

6.5. Polyphenolic Compounds in Wild Cherries (P. padus and P. serotina)

Phytochemical analysis showed that the main components of fruits (P. padus) are organic acids (48.62 ± 2.31%), polyphenols (35.34 ± 1.80%), monoterpenes (9.36 ± 0.64%) and vitamin C (6.68 ± 0.22%) (Table 5). Polyphenols present in Prunus are mainly: cinnamic acid, flavonols, benzoic acids, catechins and tannins [55]. The most important flavonols determined in the fruit were quercitrin (16.37 ± 3.51 mg/100 g FW) and quercetin (11.86 ± 2.36 mg/100 g FW).
Research on the influence of dietary polyphenols on human health has developed significantly in the last 10 years. They have been shown to be effective in the prevention of degenerative diseases, especially cardiovascular diseases and cancer [72,73]. The antioxidant properties of polyphenols have been extensively studied, but the health effects of polyphenols depend on the amount consumed and their bioavailability [74].
In fruits of P. padus, the presence of mainly caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, coumaric acid and ferulic acid was found, of which coumaric acid was dominant [55,75] as well as 5-caffeolquinic acid 2 [30]. The content of ellagic acid, gallic acid and vanillic acid was also determined [55].
Flavonols, in turn, are among the most numerous plant polyphenols [76]. Their group is extremely diverse. The main share among flavonols in berries constitute quercetin derivatives [30]. It was demonstrated that epicatechin and catechin dominate among flavonols in P. padus. The content of flavanols in the fruits of P. padus also consist of quercetin and its derivatives, hyperoside, kaempferol and isorhamnetin. Kaempferol glycosides accounted for only 2%, and isorhamnetin glycosides were detected in amounts below 1 mg/kg FW [55].
According to Hertog et al., 1992 [77], a proper diet should provide plant polyphenols. The fruits of P. padus were shown to have a high flavonol content of 382 mg/kg FW compared to other vegetables and fruits [77]. P. padus can therefore be considered as a source of flavonols and used as a food ingredient or raw material for the production of supplements. Other studies demonstrated that flavones, like flavonols, are of significant biological importance [78]. Among flavones, apigenin rhamnoside in amounts of 24.99 ± 1.61 mg/kg FW was identified in the fruits of P. padus [30].
Another ingredient found in wild cherry are tannins. The content of condensed tannins in the fruit is mainly influenced by the environmental conditions of plant growth and the degree of fruit ripeness. Fruits of P. padus are characterized by a high tannin content of 5356 mg/kg FW [30]. It was demonstrated that tannins in the diet support the treatment of diabetes and have an anti-inflammatory effect [79].

7. Cyanogenic Glycosides: Amygdalin and Prunazine

The P. serotina plant is considered an invasive species. It contains cyanogenic glycosides such as prunazine and amygdalin. Their presence in the plant is considered to protect it from herbivores and pathogens [80]. Cyanogenic glycosides are produced by plants and are potentially toxic to herbivores due to the hydrolytic release of hydrocyanic acid [81].
The content of prunazine and amygdalin was determined in the fruits of wild cherry and its amount was compared to other raw materials (Table 6). It was shown that the leaves of the American black cherry (P. serotina) contain both these glycosides in amounts of 59.49 ± 1.31 mg/g ± SD prunazine and 20.95 ± 0.25 mg/g ± SD amygdalin [82]. These concentrations are high in comparison with other raw materials where the amygdalin content is lower, e.g., in P. amygdalus Batsch fruit oil, was 6.37 mg/g [83], in Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. flowers it was 50.76 ± 0.92 µg/mL [84]. In other fruits and vegetables the amygdalin content is as follows: green plum 17.49 ± 0.26 mg/g, apricot 14.37 ± 0.28 mg/g, black plum 10.00 ± 0.14 mg/g, peach 6.81 ± 0.02 mg/g, red cherry 3.89 ± 0.31 mg/g, black cherry 2.68 ± 0.02 mg/g, nectarine 0.12 ± 0.01 mg/g, courgette 0.21 ± 0.13 mg/g, cucumber 0.07 ± 0.02 mg/g and marrow 0.06 ± 0.01 mg/g [85].

8. Pharmacological Activity, Health-Promoting Properties

8.1. Antioxidant Activity

There are many studies available in the literature that indicate the high antioxidant potential of P. padus and P. serotina plants (Table 7). This concerns fruit as well as leaves, bark and flowers [31,55,87,88]. The studies were carried out in this range, where methanol extracts from the bark and leaves of P. padus were made and significant concentration-dependent antioxidant activity was demonstrated [88].
This activity was confirmed by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazine (DPPH) radical scavenging methods as well as by a reducing force. A positive correlation between antioxidant activity and flavonoid content was shown. Higher levels of flavonoid content were found in P. padus leaves (210.8 ± 2.6 μg QUE/g) compared to bark extract [88]. High antioxidant activity of aqueous extracts from fruits, flesh and peel of P. serotina was also shown by other authors. Higher activity of extracts prepared from the peel was also positively correlated with the presence of polyphenols [31]. These results are consistent with previous reports, where it was shown that Prunus fruit peels have at least a 20% higher polyphenol content than flesh [92,93]. This relationship also applies to other fruits such as apples and grapes [94,95]. Analyzing the data presented, it can be concluded that the antioxidant activity measured by DPPH and FRAP tests for whole fruits of P. serotina was higher than that obtained for plums or grapes by at least 15% [96,97].
These results indicate that wild cherry fruits can be a raw material with similar antioxidant activity as those considered as good sources of antioxidants. The content of polyphenols in the fruit peel of P. serotina correlated with the antioxidant activity of the fruits (r = 0.875 for DPPH and r = 0.959 for FRAP) [31]. However, such dependencies are not unequivocal. The content of polyphenols and their distribution in fruit depends largely on the ripening process and the genetic and environmental conditions [98].
Twelve phenolic compounds were found in the fruit peel of P. serotina which contribute to their strong antioxidant properties. The HPLC-MS analysis showed that cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, chlorogenic acid, hyperoside and quercetin pentoside are present in the greatest amount in the P. serotina peel. However, the main phenolic compounds in the fruit flesh are cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, chlorogenic acid, procyanidin B, hyperoside and quercetin malonilglucoside [31].
In another study, the antioxidant activity and polyphenol content in acetone and aqueous extracts from fruits of Prunes padus L was examined. The total polyphenol content was 11053.3 ± 491.28 mg GAE/kg FW fruit weight and the antioxidant activity (FRAP) 31.54 ± 0.26 mM trolox/kg [30]. Another study on fresh fruits of P. padus confirmed antioxidant properties and high content of polyphenols [55]. Extracts from fresh fruit were characterized by their ability to chelate metals at the level of 17.78 ± 0.84 mmol Fe2+ / kg FW. In another study, methanol extracts of flowers and leaves of P. padus were compared for antioxidant activity using DPPH radical. The aim of the comparison was to assess the activity of leaves collected at the turn of May and June and autumn leaves collected at the turn of July and August. It was shown that the highest antioxidant activity was observed in flowers, whose antioxidant activity was 1.43–1.49 g g−1 DPPH, as well as in leaves harvested in autumn, giving a value of 1.68 g−1 DPPH [71].

8.2. Antimicrobial Activity

The abuse of antibiotic therapy can have adverse effects [99,100,101,102]. Side effects of antibiotics such as immunosuppression, allergic reactions and hypersensitivity are known. Therefore, natural sources of bactericidal and bacteriostatic compounds in plants are sought [103]. Many substances contained in rhizomes, fruits, leaves or bark have been shown to have bactericidal effects [104,105,106,107,108].
The literature contains reports on the antibacterial effect of wild cherry components (Table 7). The beneficial effect of methanol extracts from seeds of P. padus on seventeen strains of pathogenic bacteria was demonstrated [89]. Earlier studies by the same authors confirmed the bactericidal effect of other methanol extracts obtained from the seeds of plants harvested in Scotland [109]. Methanol extracts obtained from seeds of P. padus were active against Staphylococcus aureus. In addition, the extracts also showed action against methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus hominis and Proteus mirabilis. Dichloromethane extracts, on the other hand, showed weak growth inhibition of Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus hominis strains. The highest antibacterial activity was found for methanol extract from seeds of P. padus against Staphylococcus aureus (1.0 × 10−4 mg/mL) [89].
In another study, antimicrobial activity was assessed using methanol extracts from the leaves and branches of P. padus. Both leaf and branch extracts showed antimicrobial activity against most of the gram-positive bacteria tested, but only branch extract showed any activity against Gram-negative bacteria. P. padus branch extract was most active against Kocuria rhizophila (MIC = 125 μg/mL) [88].

8.3. Antidiabetic Effect

Many herbal preparations are used in the prevention and support of diabetes treatment [110]. It has been shown that alpha-glucosidase inhibitors of natural origin such as aqarbose,1-deoxynojirimycin and genistein, are beneficial in type 2 diabetes delaying the increase of blood glucose levels [111]. The literature points to such raw materials as: mulberry leaves [112,113], gurmar [114,115], Ceylon cinnamon [116,117], galega [118], common beans [119].
The beneficial antidiabetic effect was also confirmed for methanol extracts from the leaves and branches of P. padus, which were tested for their alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity (Table 7). It was found that the extract from the branches showed higher activity, which was indicated by a higher content of polyphenols compared to the extract from leaves [88].

8.4. Cardiovascular Activity

One of the cardiovascular diseases is hypertension [120,121,122]. Currently, there is a search for plant preparations which action that will activate the main signaling pathways vasodilating endothelium [90]. In this respect, there are reports of beneficial effects of plant polyphenols in the literature. Positive effects in the prevention and treatment of hypertension have been found in the case of such plants as: Nauclea latifolia L. [123], green tea [124], grapefruit seeds [125], garlic [126] and globe amaranth (Gomphrena globosa L.) [127].
Studies on the influence of wild cherry on hypertension have confirmed that their efficacy is due to the presence of hyperoside and chlorogenic acid as smooth muscle relaxants in blood vessels (Table 7) [90]. Preparations made from the leaves and fruits of P. serotina may be a part of the diet supporting the treatment.
Other studies demonstrate that water and dichloromethane extracts from the fruit of P. serotina contain polar and non-polar vasodilating metabolites [31]. It was also noted that P. serotina fruits have a high content of phenolic compounds such as chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, coffee acid, catechin, epicatechin and quercetin and kaempferol glycosides, which are directly related to the high antioxidant activity and the resulting vasodilating effect [31]. These results were confirmed in another experiment where the effectiveness of wild cherry compounds in the H2S hydrogen sulfide pathway, which is responsible for vasodilation, was confirmed [31]. Available data indicate that H2S dilates vessels mainly by increasing the activity of ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP) in muscle cells. Triterpenes present in wild cherry fruits increased this activity. The study also confirmed the participation of wild cherry triterpenes in the NO/cGMP pathway. Moreover, it was shown that ursolic acid is able to activate both pathways simultaneously, which causes a synergic vasodilatatory effect. Studies in silico confirmed the beneficial effects of these compounds [90].

8.5. Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Nociceptive Properties

Inflammatory process is an important defense mechanism in the human body. It may be characterized by redness, swelling, pain, feeling of warmth and dysfunction of tissue and organs [128,129,130,131]. In response to inflammation, the body activates cells in the immune response, which increase the production of pro-inflammatory mediators including nitrogen and prostaglandin. Earlier studies demonstrated that excessive production of nitrogen and prostaglandin takes part in inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, asthma and cancer [132,133]. Their high levels are produced by inductive enzymes such as inductive nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 [134]. Thus, methods are being sought to inhibit the expression of these enzymes, which may prove to be an attractive therapeutic agent in the treatment of inflammatory diseases [135]. Studies demonstrated that P. padus contains anthocyanins, cyanogenic glycosides, flavonoids and chlorogenic acid, which are important in the treatment of inflammation (Table 7) [71]. It also has antioxidant and antibacterial properties [89]. Methanol extracts from the stem of P. padus were analyzed, determining the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. In this study, a strong influence of the inhibitor on nitric oxide production induced by IFN-gamma/LPS was demonstrated. The extract suppressed not only the enzyme activity but also the expression of nitric oxide synthase. It also inhibited cyclooxygenase-2 expression depending on the dose. IFN-gamma/LPS stimulation induced NF-kB translocation to the nucleus, but was weakened by the presence of stem extract from P. padus [91]. The same study in vivo showed that the stem extract from P. padus may reduce paw swelling in six-week-old mice. It also shows a strong analgesic effect compared to tramadol and indomethacin. The study confirmed the strong anti-inflammatory properties of the extract not only by suppressing inflammatory mediators in vitro, but also by reducing inflammatory swelling in vivo. A strong anti-nociceptive effect through the central and peripheral mechanism acting as a partial opioid agonist was also proven. Based on these results, it can be suggested that P. padus has a strong anti-inflammatory and analgesic potential.

9. Cosmetic Properties of P. padus and P. serotina

Recently, the search for natural sources of active compounds, mainly of plant origin, and their beneficial properties has become a very clear trend in the cosmetics industry. Cosmetic companies are still looking for new natural ingredients that could enrich existing cosmetic compositions. Bark, leaves and fruits of P. padus are known for their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties [91]. They contain polyphenols that indicate the potential of Prunus as a cosmetic ingredient. It is known that polyphenols have a strong antioxidant effect. Antioxidants delay the aging process of cosmetic products both during their use and storage. In practice, small amounts of antioxidants (0.001–0.01% by weight) can already deactivate free radicals and thus stop the chain oxidation of hydrocarbon lipid chains [136]. Phenolic contents in P. padus and P. serotina were very high compared to some known antioxidant plants such as thistle, mate, slippery elm bark or pine needles [137]. Polyphenols can also complement sun protection products and can be applied to treat inflammation caused by UV radiation, as well as to protect and prevent skin damage caused by oxidative stress or DNA damage.
P. padus fruits also contain a relatively high content of vitamin C, but it cannot be directly utilized to stabilize the oil phase of cosmetic products, as it is not soluble in fats. However, it is possible to conduct esterification with palmitic acid, and the obtained ascorbyl palmitate (ACP) is perfectly suited for use as an antioxidant both in cosmetic products and in the food industry.
Both P. serotina and P. padus fruits contained gallic acid. Antioxidants based on gallic acid are allowed in cosmetic products in weight concentrations from 0.005 to 0.01% [138]. Gallic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid) esters are commonly used oil phase antioxidants for cosmetic preparations. Esters with low molecular weight alcohols and fatty acid esters are used to stabilize lipids, oils and cosmetic emulsions. It is also worth mentioning that in addition to antioxidant activity, gallic acid esters with long-chain alcohols also exhibit significant antifungal activity. A disadvantage of this group of antioxidants is that they cause unaesthetic yellow coloration of cosmetic preparations, especially in the presence of heavy metal cations [138].
Citric acid, present in P. padus fruits, also shows antioxidant activity; it binds heavy metal cations to non-dissociating complexes, thereby reducing the catalytic activity of metals in lipid auto-oxidation. Chlorogenic acid, which was also found in P. padus fruits, is listed among effective antioxidants as well. This compound binds iron ions, causing a loss of their ability to generate hydroxyl radicals, leading in turn to reduced lipid and protein peroxidation. It also prevents DNA damage induced by sunlight [139].
Essential oils from fruits, stems, leaves and bark of P. padus contain large amounts of benzoic acid and benzaldehyde. Benzoic acid has not only anti-bacterial, but also anti-fungal properties. This compound, already at a weight concentration of 0.1%, is an effective antimicrobial agent in an acidic environment, while at a weight concentration of about 1%, it can be added as a mild disinfectant, e.g., in ointments or mouth waters. The use of plant materials such as essential oils in cosmetic preparations at relatively high concentrations provide many benefits for the skin. They exhibit antimicrobial effects [140] and can serve as effective cosmetic preservatives. At present, synthetic preservatives are applied to extend product shelf life. However, while common synthetic preservatives extend the life of products and help keep them free from microorganisms, many of them hold a negative opinion in the minds of consumers, and their use has become increasingly controversial in recent years. Some of them can even cause serious health issues, e.g., 4-hydroxybenzoic acid esters, better known as parabens, were the most widely used preservatives (included in approximately 80% of global cosmetics [141]), but have recently been reported to mimic estrogen, increase female breast cancer incidence and influence the development of malignant melanoma. Essential oils can also be used as scents to enrich cosmetic fragrance.
The bark contains tannins, cerebrosides and polyphenols [71]. Due to the content of the above-mentioned bioactive substances, it seems appropriate to state that P. padus may be a good candidate for the production of natural cosmetics with strong effects.
The bark extract of P. padus was evaluated in terms of the use as a natural ingredient in cosmetics manufacturing. Extract from the bark of P. padus was obtained by extraction with hot water. The use of such an extract was evaluated for safety (cell toxicity test) and an effectiveness test (antioxidants, anti-wrinkle and whitening effect). The total concentration of polyphenols was 714.7 ± 0.5 mg/g and flavonoids 72.1 ± 2.2 mg/g. In comparison with other natural antioxidants, the concentration of polyphenols in the P. padus bark extract was very high. The extract showed 71% free radical scavenging activity of DPPH (antioxidant), 36% elastase inhibition (anti-wrinkle action) and 38% tyrosinase inhibition (whitening action) at 350 μg/mL. The preparation in the form of lotion, containing 1% of P. padus bark extract, showed that the viscosity, pH, particle size and appearance of the lotion remained stable for 28 days [142]. The lotion particle size was stable (362–426 nm) during stability tests. This study showed that the P. padus bark extract has promising potential as a natural antioxidant cosmetic agent.

10. Summary

In recent years there has been a great interest in products of plant origin and their health-promoting properties. Plants of P. padus and P. serotina are common in many parts of the world and do not require special cultivation conditions. The fruit, bark, leaves and flowers of the wild cherry are a good source of minerals, vitamins and compounds with high antioxidant activity, especially polyphenols.
Current scientific results confirm the beneficial properties of both P. serotina and P. padus extracts. They are attributed with a beneficial effect in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases and hypertension. Their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive, antidiabetic and antimicrobial effects were also confirmed in the studies. Due to their content of anthocyanins, which show strong antioxidant properties, they can also be used in the pharmaceutical industry as a component of creams, gels and other care and disinfection preparations.
In summary, preparations from P. padus and P. serotina can be a valuable raw material used in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries as a source of bioactive compounds with multi-directional action.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft preparation, A.T., writing—review and editing, A.T. and J.K.-C.; visualization, A.T.; supervision, P.S.; project administration, J.K.-C. and P.S.; funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The publication was co-financed within the framework of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education program as “Regional Initiative Excellence in years 2019–2020, project number 005/RID/2018/19.

Acknowledgments

The authors also thank Translmed (Bedford, NH, USA), a proofreading and copyediting company, for helping in copyediting this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Pasko, P. South Siberian fruits: Their selected chemical constituents, biological activity, and traditional use in folk medicine and daily nutrition. J. Med. Plants Res. 2012, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Kris-Etherton, P.M.; Hecker, K.D.; Bonanome, A.; Coval, S.M.; Binkoski, A.E.; Hilpert, K.F.; Griel, A.E.; Etherton, T.D. Bioactive compounds in foods: Their role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Proc. Am. J. Med. 2002, 113, 71–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. McVaugh, R. A revision of the North American black cherries (prunus serotina ehrh., and relatives). Brittonia 1951, 7, 279–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Starfinger, U.; Kowarik, I.; Rode, M.; Schepker, H. From desirable ornamental plant to pest to accepted addition to the flora?—The perception of an alien tree species through the centuries. Proc. Biol. Invasions 2003, 5, 323–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Veberic, R.; Slatnar, A.; Bizjak, J.; Stampar, F.; Mikulic-Petkovsek, M. Anthocyanin composition of different wild and cultivated berry species. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 60, 509–517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Karczmarczuk, R. Na tropach czeremchy. Wszechświat 2012, 113, 124–127. [Google Scholar]
  7. Lee, S.; Wen, J. A phylogenetic analysis of Prunus and the Amygdaloideae (Rosaceae) using ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Am. J. Bot. 2001, 88, 150–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. GOWER, J.C. Some distance properties of latent root and vector methods used in multivariate analysis. Biometrika 1966, 53, 325–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bentham, G.; Hooker, J.D. Genera Plantarum, 3-Vols; Reeve & Co.: London, UK, 1862. [Google Scholar]
  10. Rehder, A. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America: Exclusive of the Subtropical and Warmer Temperate Regions; Blackburn Press: Hubei, China, 2001; ISBN 1930665326. [Google Scholar]
  11. Shaw, J.; Small, R.L. Chloroplast DNA phylogeny and phylogeography of the North American plums (Prunus subgenus Prunus section Prunocerasus, Rosaceae). Am. J. Bot. 2005, 92, 2011–2030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Mauri, A.; Caudullo, G. European bird cherry Prunus padus L. In European Atlas of Forest Tree Species; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  13. Szweykowski, J.; Szweykowska, A. Słownik botaniczny; Wiedza Powszechna: Warszawa, Poland, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  14. Rumińska, A.; Ożarowski, A. Leksykon roślin leczniczych; PWRiL: Warszawa, Poland, 1990. [Google Scholar]
  15. Leather, S.R. Prunus Padus L. J. Ecol. 1996, 84, 125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Tutin, T.G.; Heywood, V.H.; Burges, N.A.; Moore, D.M.; Valentine, D.H.; Walters, S.M.; Webb, D.A. Flora Europaea. Volume 2: Rosaceae to Umbelliferae; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 1969; Volume 44. [Google Scholar]
  17. Marquis, D.A. Prunus serotina Ehrh. Black Cherry Rosaceae Rose family. Redalyc 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Auclair, A.N.; Cottam, G. Dynamics of Black Cherry (Prunus serotina Erhr.) in Southern Wisconsin Oak Forests. Ecol. Monogr. 1971, 41, 153–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Kulesza Witold–Klucz do oznaczania drzew i krzewów dzikich i hodowlanych.–Botanika–Przyroda. Available online: https://sklep.raraavis.krakow.pl/p/112/21411/kulesza-witold-klucz-do-oznaczania-drzew-i-krzewow-dzikich-i-hodowlanych--botanika-przyroda.html (accessed on 26 November 2019).
  20. Åström, H.; Hæggström, C.A. What happens with the tree rings when the bird-cherry (Prunus padus L.) is defoliated by the moth bird-cherry ermine (Yponomeuta evonymellus Linnæus, 1758)? Memo. Soc. pro Fauna Flora Fenn. 2018, 94, 78–83. [Google Scholar]
  21. Podbielkowski, Z. Słownik roślin użytkowych; PWRiL: Warszawa, Poland, 1980. [Google Scholar]
  22. Uusitalo, M. European bird cherry (Prunus padus L.)—A biodiverse wild plant for horticulture; MTT Agrifood Research Finland: Jokioinen, Finland, 2004; Volume 61, ISBN 9517299192. [Google Scholar]
  23. Halarewicz, A. Właściwości ekologiczne i skutki rozprzestrzeniania się czeremchy amerykańskiej Padus serotina (Ehrh.) Borkh. w wybranych fitocenozach leśnych; Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego we Wrocławiu: Wrocław, Poland, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  24. Amini, L.; Mojab, F.; Jahanfar, S.; Sepidarkish, M.; Raoofi, Z.; Maleki-Hajiagha, A. Efficacy of Salvia officinalis extract on the prevention of insulin resistance in euglycemic patients with polycystic ovary syndrome: A double-blinded placebo-controlled clinical trial. Complement. Ther. Med. 2020, 48, 102245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Ye, Z.; Huang, J.; Zhou, L.; Chen, S.; Wang, Z.; Ma, L.; Wang, D.; Wang, G.; Wang, S.; Liang, C.; et al. Efficacy and Safety of Serenoa repens Extract Among Patients with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in China: A Multicenter, Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Trial. Urology 2019, 129, 172–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Abdollahi, F.; Mobadery, T. The effect of aromatherapy with bitter orange (Citrus aurantium) extract on anxiety and fatigue in type 2 diabetic patients. Adv. Integr. Med. 2020, 7, 3–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Widjajakusuma, E.C.; Jonosewojo, A.; Hendriati, L.; Wijaya, S.; Ferawati; Surjadhana, A.; Sastrowardoyo, W.; Monita, N.; Muna, N.M.; Fajarwati, R.P.; et al. Phytochemical screening and preliminary clinical trials of the aqueous extract mixture of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees and Syzygium polyanthum (Wight.) Walp leaves in metformin treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Phytomedicine 2019, 55, 137–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Shakouri, A.; Adljouy, N.; Balkani, S.; Mohamadi, M.; Hamishehkar, H.; Abdolalizadeh, J.; Kazem Shakouri, S. Effectiveness of topical gel of medical leech (Hirudo medicinalis) saliva extract on patients with knee osteoarthritis: A randomized clinical trial. Complement. Ther. Clin. Pract. 2018, 31, 352–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Chae, J.; Lee, S.; Lee, S. Potential Efficacy of Allergen Removed Rhus Verniciflua Stokes Extract to Maintain Progression-Free Survival of Patients With Advanced Hepatobiliary Cancer. Explore 2018, 14, 300–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Mikulic-Petkovsek, M.; Stampar, F.; Veberic, R.; Sircelj, H. Wild Prunus Fruit Species as a Rich Source of Bioactive Compounds. J. Food Sci. 2016, 81, C1928–C1937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Luna-Vázquez, F.J.; Ibarra-Alvarado, C.; Rojas-Molina, A.; Rojas-Molina, J.I.; Yahia, E.M.; Rivera-Pastrana, D.M.; Rojas-Molina, A.; Zavala-Sánchez, M.Á. Nutraceutical value of black cherry prunus serotina ehrh. Fruits: Antioxidant and antihypertensive properties. Molecules 2013, 18, 14597–14612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. García-Aguilar, L.; Rojas-Molina, A.; Ibarra-Alvarado, C.; Rojas-Molina, J.I.; Vázquez-Landaverde, P.A.; Luna-Vázquez, F.J.; Zavala-Sánchez, M.A. Nutritional value and volatile compounds of black cherry (prunus serotina) seeds. Molecules 2015, 20, 3479–3495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  33. Morton, J.F. Fruits of warm climates, Pomegranate; J.F. Morton: Miami, FL, USA, 1987; ISBN 0961018410. [Google Scholar]
  34. Shang, X.; Zhang, J.; Ma, Y.; Wang, L. Preliminary identification of candidate genes associated with the peach fruit sorbitol content based on comparative transcriptome analysis. Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 2020, 263, 109151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Yu, C.Y.; Cheng, H.Y.; Cheng, R.; Qi, K.J.; Gu, C.; Zhang, S.L. Expression analysis of sorbitol transporters in pear tissues reveals that PbSOT6/20 is associated with sorbitol accumulation in pear fruits. Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam) 2019, 243, 595–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Ma, C.; Sun, Z.; Chen, C.; Zhang, L.; Zhu, S. Simultaneous separation and determination of fructose, sorbitol, glucose and sucrose in fruits by HPLC-ELSD. Food Chem. 2014, 145, 784–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Bae, H.; Yun, S.K.; Jun, J.H.; Yoon, I.K.; Nam, E.Y.; Kwon, J.H. Assessment of organic acid and sugar composition in apricot, plumcot, plum, and peach during fruit development. J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual. 2014, 87, 24–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Song, H.; Li, Y.; Xu, X.; Zhang, J.; Zheng, S.; Hou, L.; Xing, G.; Li, M. Analysis of genes related to chlorophyll metabolism under elevated CO2 in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 2020, 261, 108988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Daka, J.J.; Munyati, O.M.; Nyirenda, J. Iron chlorophyll-a as biomimic catalyst for the green synthesis of polyaniline nanostructures: Evaluation, characterization and optimization. Sustain. Chem. Pharm. 2020, 15, 100194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Maxwell, K.; Johnson, G.N. Chlorophyll fluorescence—A practical guide. J. Exp. Bot. 2000, 51, 659–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Ordaz-Galindo, A.; Wesche-Ebeling, P.; Wrolstad, R.E.; Rodriguez-Saona, L.; Argaiz-Jamet, A. Purification and identification of Capulin (Prunus serotina Ehrh) anthocyanins. Food Chem. 1999, 65, 201–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Radulović, N.S.; Crossed D Signorcrossed D Signević, A.S.; Zlatković, B.K.; Palić, R.M. GC-MS analyses of flower ether extracts of Prunus domestica L. and Prunus padus L. (Rosaceae). Chem. Pap. 2009, 63, 377–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Konić-Ristić, A.; Šavikin, K.; Zdunić, G.; Janković, T.; Juranic, Z.; Menković, N.; Stanković, I. Biological activity and chemical composition of different berry juices. Food Chem. 2011, 125, 1412–1417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Zuo, A.; Wang, S.; Liu, L.; Yao, Y.; Guo, J. Understanding the effect of anthocyanin extracted from Lonicera caerulea L. on alcoholic hepatosteatosis. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2019, 117, 109087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Chen, Y.F.; Shibu, M.A.; Fan, M.J.; Chen, M.C.; Viswanadha, V.P.; Lin, Y.L.; Lai, C.H.; Lin, K.H.; Ho, T.J.; Kuo, W.W.; et al. Purple rice anthocyanin extract protects cardiac function in STZ-induced diabetes rat hearts by inhibiting cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2016, 31, 98–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Aboonabi, A.; Singh, I.; Rose’ Meyer, R. Cytoprotective effects of berry anthocyanins against induced oxidative stress and inflammation in primary human diabetic aortic endothelial cells. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2020, 317, 108940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Satué-Gracia, M.T.; Heinonen, M.; Frankel, E.N. Anthocyanins as Antioxidants on Human Low-Density Lipoprotein and Lecithin-Liposome Systems. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997, 45, 3362–3367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Palonen, P.; Weber, C. Fruit color stability, anthocyanin content, and shelf life were not correlated with ethylene production rate in five primocane raspberry genotypes. Sci. Hortic. (Amsterdam). 2019, 247, 9–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Barik, S.K.; Russell, W.R.; Moar, K.M.; Cruickshank, M.; Scobbie, L.; Duncan, G.; Hoggard, N. The anthocyanins in black currants regulate postprandial hyperglycaemia primarily by inhibiting α-glucosidase while other phenolics modulate salivary α-amylase, glucose uptake and sugar transporters. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2020, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Zou, L.; Zhong, G.Y.; Wu, B.; Yang, Y.; Li, S.; Liang, Z. Effects of sunlight on anthocyanin accumulation and associated co-expression gene networks in developing grape berries. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2019, 166, 103811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Tokarz, A. Zywnosc naturalnym zrodlem zwiazkow przeciwnowotworowych - Wiadomości Zielarskie. Bibl. Nauk. Yadda 1997, 39, 8–10. [Google Scholar]
  52. Lauridsen, C.; Theil, P.K.; Jensen, S.K. Composition of α-tocopherol and fatty acids in porcine tissues after dietary supplementation with vitamin E and different fat sources. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2013, 179, 93–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Fairus, S.; Cheng, H.M.; Sundram, K. Antioxidant status following postprandial challenge of two different doses of tocopherols and tocotrienols. J. Integr. Med. 2020, 18, 68–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Gamel, T.H.; Linssen, J.P.; Mesallam, A.S.; Damir, A.A.; Shekib, L.A. Effect of seed treatments on the chemical composition of two amaranth species: Oil, sugars, fibres, minerals and vitamins. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2006, 86, 82–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Donno, D.; Mellano, M.G.; De Biaggi, M.; Riondato, I.; Rakotoniaina, E.N.; Beccaro, G.L. New findings in prunus padus l. Fruits as a source of natural compounds: Characterization of metabolite profiles and preliminary evaluation of antioxidant activity. Molecules 2018, 23, 725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  56. Linster, C.L.; Van Schaftingen, E. Vitamin C: Biosynthesis, recycling and degradation in mammals. FEBS J. 2007, 274, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Einbond, L.S.; Reynertson, K.A.; Luo, X.D.; Basile, M.J.; Kennelly, E.J. Anthocyanin antioxidants from edible fruits. Food Chem. 2004, 84, 23–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Cilla, A.; Bosch, L.; Barberá, R.; Alegría, A. Effect of processing on the bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds—A review focusing on carotenoids, minerals, ascorbic acid, tocopherols and polyphenols. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2018, 68, 3–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Nakamura, S.; Oku, T. Bioavailability of 2-O-α-d-glucopyranosyl-l-ascorbic acid as ascorbic acid in healthy humans. Nutrition 2009, 25, 686–691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Singh, R.; Mahdi, A.A.; Singh, R.K.; Lee Gierke, C.; Cornelissen, G. Effect of gender, age, diet and smoking status on the circadian rhythm of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) of healthy Indians. J. Appl. Biomed. 2018, 16, 180–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Dzubak, P.; Hajduch, M.; Vydra, D.; Hustova, A.; Kvasnica, M.; Biedermann, D.; Markova, L.; Urban, M.; Sarek, J. Pharmacological activities of natural triterpenoids and their therapeutic implications. Nat. Prod. Rep. 2006, 23, 394–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Tholl, D. Biosynthesis and biological functions of terpenoids in plants. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 2015, 148, 63–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Cör, D.; Knez, Ž.; Hrnčič, M.K. Antitumour, antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiacetylcholinesterase effect of Ganoderma Lucidum terpenoids and polysaccharides: A review. Molecules 2018, 23, 649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  64. Zacchino, S.A.; Butassi, E.; Di Liberto, M.; Raimondi, M.; Postigo, A.; Sortino, M. Plant phenolics and terpenoids as adjuvants of antibacterial and antifungal drugs. Phytomedicine 2017, 37, 27–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Ying, Y.M.; Zhang, L.Y.; Zhang, X.; Bai, H.B.; Liang, D.E.; Ma, L.F.; Shan, W.G.; Zhan, Z.J. Terpenoids with alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity from the submerged culture of Inonotus obliquus. Phytochemistry 2014, 108, 171–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Yazaki, K.; Arimura, G.I.; Ohnishi, T. “Hidden” terpenoids in plants: Their biosynthesis, localization and ecological roles. Plant Cell Physiol. 2017, 58, 1615–1621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  67. Magiera, A.; Marchelak, A.; Michel, P.; Owczarek, A.; Olszewska, M.A. Lipophilic extracts from leaves, inflorescences and fruits of Prunus padus L. as potential sources of corosolic, ursolic and oleanolic acids with anti-inflammatory activity. Nat. Prod. Res. 2019, 6419, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Wu, Z.; Tu, M.; Yang, X.; Xu, J.; Yu, Z. Effect of cutting and storage temperature on sucrose and organic acids metabolism in postharvest melon fruit. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2020, 161, 111081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Ghnimi, S.; Al-Shibli, M.; Al-Yammahi, H.R.; Al-Dhaheri, A.; Al-Jaberi, F.; Jobe, B.; Kamal-Eldin, A. Reducing sugars, organic acids, size, color, and texture of 21 Emirati date fruit varieties (Phoenix dactylifera, L.). NFS J. 2018, 12, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Wang, Y.; Johnson-Cicalese, J.; Singh, A.P.; Vorsa, N. Characterization and quantification of flavonoids and organic acids over fruit development in American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) cultivars using HPLC and APCI-MS/MS. Plant Sci. 2017, 262, 91–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  71. Olszewska, M.A.; Kwapisz, A. Metabolite profiling and antioxidant activity of Prunus padus L. flowers and leaves. Nat. Prod. Res. 2011, 25, 1115–1131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Khalifa, I.; Zhu, W.; Li, K.K.; Li, C.M. Polyphenols of mulberry fruits as multifaceted compounds: Compositions, metabolism, health benefits, and stability—A structural review. J. Funct. Foods 2018, 40, 28–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Stavrou, I.J.; Christou, A.; Kapnissi-Christodoulou, C.P. Polyphenols in carobs: A review on their composition, antioxidant capacity and cytotoxic effects, and health impact. Food Chem. 2018, 269, 355–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Manach, C.; Scalbert, A.; Morand, C.; Rémésy, C.; Jiménez, L. Polyphenols: Food sources and bioavailability. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 79, 727–747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  75. Kabara, J.J.; Swieczkowski, D.M.; Conley, A.J.; Truant, J.P. Fatty acids and derivatives as antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1972, 2, 23–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  76. Proestos, C.; Sereli, D.; Komaitis, M. Determination of phenolic compounds in aromatic plants by RP-HPLC and GC-MS. Food Chem. 2006, 95, 44–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Hertog, M.G.L.; Hollman, P.C.H.; Hertog, M.G.L.; Katan, M.B. Content of Potentially Anticarcinogenic Flavonoids of 28 Vegetables and 9 Fruits Commonly Consumed in the Netherlands. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1992, 40, 2379–2383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Waridel, P.; Wolfender, J.L.; Ndjoko, K.; Hobby, K.R.; Major, H.J.; Hostettmann, K. Evaluation of quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry and ion-trap multiple-stage mass spectrometry for the differentiation of C-glycosidic flavonoid isomers. Proc. J. Chromatogr. A 2001, 926, 29–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Koleckar, V.; Kubikova, K.; Rehakova, Z.; Kuca, K.; Jun, D.; Jahodar, L.; Opletal, L. Condensed and Hydrolysable Tannins as Antioxidants Influencing the Health. Mini-Reviews Med. Chem. 2008, 8, 436–447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Swain, E.; Li, C.P.; Poulton, J.E. Development of the potential for cyanogenesis in maturing black cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) fruits. Plant Physiol. 1992, 98, 1423–1428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  81. Drochioiu, G.; Arsene, C.; Murariu, M.; Oniscu, C. Analysis of cyanogens with resorcinol and picrate. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 3540–3545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Santos Pimenta, L.P.; Schilthuizen, M.; Verpoorte, R.; Choi, Y.H. Quantitative analysis of amygdalin and prunasin in Prunus serotina Ehrh. using 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Phytochem. Anal. 2014, 25, 122–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  83. Yildirim, A.N.; San, B.; Koyuncu, F.; Yildirim, F. Variability of phenolics, α-tocopherol and amygdalin contents of selected almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch.) genotypes. J. Food, Agric. Environ. 2010, 8, 76–79. [Google Scholar]
  84. Zhou, C.; Chen, K.; Sun, C.; Chen, Q.; Zhang, W.; Li, X. Determination of oleanolic acid, ursolic acid and amygdalin in the flower of Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. by HPLC. Biomed. Chromatogr. 2007, 21, 755–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Bolarinwa, I.F.; Orfila, C.; Morgan, M.R.A. Amygdalin content of seeds, kernels and food products commercially- available in the UK. Food Chem. 2014, 152, 133–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  86. Nout, M.J.R.; Tunçel, H.C.; Brimer, L. Microbial degradation of amygdalin of bitter apricot seeds (Prunus armeniaca). Int. J. Food Microbiol. 1995, 24, 407–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Petkovsek, M.M.; Slatnar, A.; Stampar, F.; Veberic, R. The influence of organic/integrated production on the content of phenolic compounds in apple leaves and fruits in four different varieties over a 2-year period. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2010, 90, 2366–2378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Hyun, T.K.; Kim, H.C.; Kim, J.S. In vitro screening for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic properties of some Korean native plants on Mt. Halla, Jeju Island. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 2015, 77, 668–674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Kumarasamy, Y.; Cox, P.J.; Jaspars, M.; Nahar, L.; Sarker, S.D. Comparative studies on biological activities of Prunus padus and P. spinosa. Fitoterapia 2004, 75, 77–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Luna-Vázquez, F.J.; Ibarra-Alvarado, C.; Rojas-Molina, A.; Romo-Mancillas, A.; López-Vallejo, F.H.; Solís-Gutiérrez, M.; Rojas-Molina, J.I.; Rivero-Cruz, F. Role of nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide in the vasodilator effect of ursolic acid and uvaol from black cherry prunus serotina fruits. Molecules 2016, 21, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  91. Choi, J.H.; Cha, D.S.; Jeon, H. Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive properties of Prunus padus. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2012, 144, 379–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Gil, M.I.; Tomás-Barberán, F.A.; Hess-Pierce, B.; Kader, A.A. Antioxidant capacities, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and vitamin C contents of nectarine, peach, and plum cultivars from California. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 4976–4982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. McCune, L.M.; Kubota, C.; Stendell-Hollis, N.R.; Thomson, C.A. Cherries and health: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2011, 51, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Karaman, Ş.; Tütem, E.; Başkan, K.S.; Apak, R. Comparison of antioxidant capacity and phenolic composition of peel and flesh of some apple varieties. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2013, 93, 867–875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  95. Lago-Vanzela, E.S.; Da-Silva, R.; Gomes, E.; García-Romero, E.; Hermosín-Gutiérrez, I. Phenolic composition of the edible parts (flesh and skin) of Bordô grape (Vitis labrusca) using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 13136–13146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Proteggente, A.R.; Pannala, A.S.; Paganga, G.; Van Buren, L.; Wagner, E.; Wiseman, S.; Van De Put, F.; Dacombe, C.; Rice-Evans, C.A. The antioxidant activity of regularly consumed fruit and vegetables reflects their phenolic and vitamin C composition. Free Radic. Res. 2002, 36, 217–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Sun, J.; Chu, Y.F.; Wu, X.; Liu, R.H. Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of common fruits. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 7449–7454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  98. Ferretti, G.; Bacchetti, T.; Belleggia, A.; Neri, D. Cherry antioxidants: From farm to table. Molecules 2010, 15, 6993–7005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  99. Chew, A.L.; Jessica, J.J.A.; Sasidharan, S. Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of different parts of Leucas aspera. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2012, 2, 176–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  100. Modi, S.R.; Collins, J.J.; Relman, D.A. Antibiotics and the gut microbiota. J. Clin. Invest. 2014, 124, 4212–4218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  101. Fair, R.J.; Tor, Y. Antibiotics and bacterial resistance in the 21st century. Perspect. Medicin. Chem. 2014, 6, 25–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  102. Vaseeharan, B.; Thaya, R. Medicinal plant derivatives as immunostimulants: An alternative to chemotherapeutics and antibiotics in aquaculture. Aquac. Int. 2014, 22, 1079–1091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Ahmad, I.; Mehmood, Z.; Mohammad, F. Screening of some Indian medicinal plants for their antimicrobial properties. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1998, 62, 183–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Kobus-Cisowska, J.; Szymanowska-Powałowska, D.; Szczepaniak, O.; Kmiecik, D.; Przeor, M.; Gramza-Michałowska, A.; Cielecka-Piontek, J.; Smuga-Kogut, M.; Szulc, P. Composition and in vitro effects of cultivars of humulus lupulus L. Hops on cholinesterase activity and microbial growth. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  105. Kobus-Cisowska, J.; Szymanowska, D.; Maciejewska, P.; Kmiecik, D.; Gramza-Michałowska, A.; Kulczyński, B.; Cielecka-Piontek, J. In vitro screening for acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibition and antimicrobial activity of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica). Electron. J. Biotechnol. 2019, 37, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Gupta, A.; Mahajan, S.; Sharma, R. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Curcuma longa rhizome extract against Staphylococcus aureus. Biotechnol. Reports 2015, 6, 51–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  107. Gupta, D.; Dubey, J.; Kumar, M. Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against selected common human pathogenic microorganisms. Asian Pacific J. Trop. Dis. 2016, 6, 15–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Mostafa, A.A.; Al-Askar, A.A.; Almaary, K.S.; Dawoud, T.M.; Sholkamy, E.N.; Bakri, M.M. Antimicrobial activity of some plant extracts against bacterial strains causing food poisoning diseases. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2018, 25, 361–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Kumarasamy, Y.; Cox, P.J.; Jaspars, M.; Nahar, L.; Sarker, S.D. Screening seeds of Scottish plants for antibacterial activity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2002, 83, 73–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Dahanukar, S.A.; Kulkarni, R.A.; Rege, N.N. Pharmacology of medicinal plants and natural products. Indian J. Pharmacol. 2000, 32. [Google Scholar]
  111. Ramdanis, R.; Soemiati, A.; Mun’im, A. Isolation and α-Glucosidase inhibitory activity of endophytic fungi from mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) seeds. Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants 2012, 2. [Google Scholar]
  112. Zhang, Y.; Ren, C.; Lu, G.; Cui, W.; Mu, Z.; Gao, H.; Wang, Y. Purification, characterization and anti-diabetic activity of a polysaccharide from mulberry leaf. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 70, 687–695. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Hunyadi, A.; Herke, I.; Veres, K.; Erdei, A.; Simon, A.; Tóth, G. Volatile glycosides from the leaves of Morus alba with a potential contribution to the complex anti-diabetic activity. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2014, 9, 145–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  114. Murakami, N.; Murakami, T.; Kadoya, M.; Matsuda, H.; Yamahara, J.; Yoshikawa, M. New hypoglycemic constituents in “gymnemic acid” from Gymnema sylvestre. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1996, 44, 469–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  115. Shanmugasundaram, K.R.; Panneerselvam, C.; Samudram, P.; Shanmugasundaram, E.R.B. Enzyme changes and glucose utilisation in diabetic rabbits: The effect of Gymnema sylvestre, R.Br. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1983, 7, 205–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Sahib, A.S. Anti-diabetic and antioxidant effect of cinnamon in poorly controlled type-2 diabetic Iraqi patients: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J. Intercult. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 5, 108–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Gaber, E. El-Desoky Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic effects of Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) in alloxan-diabetic rats. J. Med. Plants Res. 2012, 6, 1685–1691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Nagalievska, M.; Sabadashka, M.; Hachkova, H.; Sybirna, N. Galega officinalis extract regulate the diabetes mellitus related violations of proliferation, functions and apoptosis of leukocytes. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2018, 18, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  119. Venkateswaran, S.; Pari, L. Antioxidant effect of Phaseolus vulgaris in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 11, 206–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  120. Go, A.S.; Mozaffarian, D.; Roger, V.L.; Benjamin, E.J.; Berry, J.D.; Borden, W.B.; Bravata, D.M.; Dai, S.; Ford, E.S.; Fox, C.S.; et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2013 update: A Report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2013, 127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Bakris, G.; Sarafidis, P.; Agarwal, R.; Ruilope, L. Review of blood pressure control rates and outcomes. J. Am. Soc. Hypertens. 2014, 8, 127–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Kang, K.T. Endothelium-derived relaxing factors of small resistance arteries in hypertension. Toxicol. Res. 2014, 30, 141–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  123. Akpanabiatu, M.I.; Umoh, I.B.; Udosen, E.O.; Udoh, A.E.; Edet, E.E. Rat serum electrolytes, lipid profile and cardiovascular activity on Nauclea latifolia leaf extract administration. Indian J. Clin. Biochem. 2005, 20, 29–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  124. Patil, L.; Balaraman, R. Effect of green tea extract on doxorubicin induced cardiovascular abnormalities: Antioxidant action. Iran. J. Pharm. Res. 2011, 10, 89–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  125. Feringa, H.H.H.; Laskey, D.A.; Dickson, J.E.; Coleman, C.I. The Effect of Grape Seed Extract on Cardiovascular Risk Markers: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2011, 111, 1173–1181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  126. Pérez-Torres, I.; Torres-Narváez, J.C.; Pedraza-Chaverri, J.; Rubio-Ruiz, M.E.; Díaz-Díaz, E.; Del Valle-Mondragón, L.; Martínez-Memije, R.; Varela López, E.; Guarner-Lans, V. Effect of the aged garlic extract on cardiovascular function in metabolic syndrome rats. Molecules 2016, 21, 1425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  127. Arcanjo, D.D.R.; de Albuquerque, A.C.M.; Neto, B.M.; Santana, L.C.L.R.; Silva, N.C.B.; Moita, M.M.; das Graccedil, M.; dos Santos Soares, M.J. Phytochemical screening and evaluation of cytotoxic, antimicrobial and cardiovascular effects of Gomphrena globosa L. (Amaranthaceae). J. Med. Plants Res. 2011, 5, 2006–2010. [Google Scholar]
  128. Serafini, M.; Peluso, I.; Raguzzini, A. Flavonoids as anti-inflammatory agents. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2010, 69, 273–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  129. Gómez-Betancur, I.; Benjumea, D.; Gómez, J.E.; Mejía, N.; León, J.F. Antinociceptive activity of essential oils from wild growing and micropropagated plants of Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) maas. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2019, 13, 10–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  130. Kadi, I.; Ouinten, M.; Gourine, N.; Yousfi, M. Synergistic antinociceptive activity of combined aqueous extracts of Artemisia campestris and Artemisia herba-alba in several acute pain models. Nat. Prod. Res. 2019, 33, 875–878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Reis Simas, D.L.; Mérida-Reyes, M.S.; Muñoz-Wug, M.A.; Cordeiro, M.S.; Giorno, T.B.S.; Taracena, E.A.; Oliva-Hernández, B.E.; Martínez-Arévalo, J.V.; Fernandes, P.D.; Pérez-Sabino, J.F.; et al. Chemical composition and evaluation of antinociceptive activity of the essential oil of Stevia serrata Cav. from Guatemala. Nat. Prod. Res. 2019, 33, 577–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Rakel, D.P.; Rindfleisch, A. Inflammation: Nutritional, botanical, and mind-body influences. South. Med. J. 2005, 98, 303–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Tabas, I.; Glass, C.K. Anti-inflammatory therapy in chronic disease: Challenges and opportunities. Science (80-.). 2013, 339, 166–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  134. Jeong, J.B.; Jeong, H.J. Rheosmin, a naturally occurring phenolic compound inhibits LPS-induced iNOS and COX-2 expression in RAW264.7 cells by blocking NF-κB activation pathway. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2010, 48, 2148–2153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Dinarello, C.A. Anti-inflammatory Agents: Present and Future. Cell 2010, 140, 935–950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  136. Dylewska-Grzelakowska, J. Kosmetyka stosowana; WSiP: Warszawa, Poland, 2012; pp. 68–80, 187–199. [Google Scholar]
  137. Seo, E.J.; Hong, E.S.; Choi, M.H.; Kim, K.S.; Lee, S.J. The antioxidant and skin whitening effect of Artemisia iwayomogi extracts. Korean J. Food Sci. Technol. 2012, 44, 89–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  138. Malinka, W. Zarys chemii kosmetycznej; Volumed: Wrocław, Poland, 1999; pp. 231–233. [Google Scholar]
  139. Kaisangsr, N.; Selamassakul, O.; Sonklin, C.; Laohakunjit, N.; Kerdchoechuen, O.; Rungruang, R. Phenolic compounds and biological Activites of coffee extract for cosmetic product; Shibaura Institute of Technology: Tokyo, Japan, 2020; Volume 1. [Google Scholar]
  140. Muyima, N.Y.O.; Zulu, G.; Bhengu, T.; Popplewell, D. The potential application of some novel essential oils as natural cosmetic preservatives in an aqueous cream formulation. Flavour Fragr. J. 2002, 17, 258–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  141. Kerdudo, A.; Burger, P.; Merck, F.; Dingas, A.; Rolland, Y.; Michel, T.; Fernandez, X. Développement d’un ingrédient naturel: Étude de cas d’un conservateur naturel. Comptes Rendus Chim. 2016, 19, 1077–1089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  142. Hwang, D.; Kim, H.; Shin, H.; Jeong, H.; Kim, J.; Kim, D. Cosmetic effects of Prunus padus bark extract. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 2014, 31, 2280–2285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table
Table 1. Systematics of the species belonging to genus Prunus L.
Table 1. Systematics of the species belonging to genus Prunus L.
DomainEukaryota
KingdomPlantae
CladeVascular plants
CladeSeed plants
ClassAngiosperms
CladeRosids
OrderRosales
FamilyRosaceae
GenusPrunus
Table
Table 2. Comparison of botanical characteristics of P. padus and P. serotina [6].
Table 2. Comparison of botanical characteristics of P. padus and P. serotina [6].
P. padusP. serotina
Country of originEurope, Asia MinorNorth America
Height of treesup to 15 mup to 25 m
LeavesSmaller, finely serratedElongated, sharpened, more serrated
Veins network (leaves)DensePoorly visible
FruitsBitterSweeter
FloweringApril/MayMay/June
InflorescenceSuspended or rarely elevatedElevated or ascending
FruitsPetals broadly inversely egg-shaped, 10–15 mm long, almost twice as long as stamens. Hairy flower bottom.The serrated edges of the calyx are permanent and remain on the fruit. The fruit is unripe pink or reddish, then dark red to black. Smooth pip
Bark, aromaThe bark smells good. Torn buds smell like almonds.Torn bark with a characteristic, sharp, relatively pleasant smell, similar to that of blackcurrant.
Table
Table 3. Nutrition value and mineral content in P. padus i P. serotina.
Table 3. Nutrition value and mineral content in P. padus i P. serotina.
ClassComponent[30][31][32]
P. padusP. serotinaP. serotina
FruitsFruitsSeeds RawSeeds Toasted
Moisture 81.18 ± 0.0818.92 ± 0.4210.75 ± 0.35
Ash 0.86 ± 0.11%3.19 ± 0.182.72 ± 0.21
MineralCa 12.90 ± 1.90192.30 ± 0.58127.11 ± 17.51
Fe 9.49 ± 0.31.21 ± 0.003
Mg 21.20 ± 0.20249.15 ± 0.34216.68 ± 18.75
P 28.10 ± 0.40439.0 ± 0.16323.40 ± 0.14
K 184.30 ± 3.50873.22 ± 12.64454.82 ± 0.41
Zn 3.40 ± 0.102.96 ± 0.24
Na 22.40 ± 1.6082.98 ± 0.9023.59 ± 0.8
Protein 2.10 ± 0.0137 ± 0.1636.55 ± 0.22
AminoacidAsp 112.29 mg/g116.97 mg/g
Glu 256.84 mg/g27.73 mg/g
Ser 32.84 mg/g42.11 mg/g
His 21.60 mg/g21.29 mg/g
Gly 37.43 mg/g38.82 mg/g
Thr 52.85 mg/g59.16 mg/g
Arg 84.24 mg/g87.42 mg/g
Ala 41.47 mg/g44.06 mg/g
Tyr 48.75 mg/g60.99 mg/g
Met 8.93 mg/g9.83 mg/g
Val 45.48 mg/g45.62 mg/g
Phe 48.64 mg/g52.00 mg/g
Ile 39.17 mg/g40.33 mg/g
Leu 75.10 mg/g82.11 mg/g
Lys 8.85 mg/g11.17 mg/g
FatTotal 0.05 ± 0.0140.37 ± 0.7339.97 ± 0.20
Carbohydrates 129.28 ± 3.4712.23 ± 0.797.76 ± 2.248.65 ± 4.28
SugarsGlucose62.19 ± 1.92
Fructose33.34 ± 1.32
Sorbitol33.73 ± 1.51
Crude Fiber 3.58 ± 0.0310.73 ± 1.4912.12 ± 4.06
ND—not detected.
Table
Table 4. Phytocompounds content in P. padus and P. serotina.
Table 4. Phytocompounds content in P. padus and P. serotina.
ClassComponentResultSpeciesPlant PartReference
ChlorophyllChlorophyll A42.58 ± 1.92 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Chlorophyll B22.43 ± 1.30 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Alfa-Caroten0.05 ± 0.01 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Beta-Caroten3.06 ± 0.17 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
AnthocyaninsCyanidin-2-galactoside33.69 ± 2.52 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Cyanidin-3-glucoside1501.53 ± 61.32 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
272 mg/100 gP. serotinaFruits[41]
Cyanidin-3-rutinoside623.68 ± 46.97 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Cyanidin rhamnosyl hexoside13.09 ± 1.00 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
TocopherolsTocopherol alfa6.51 ± 0.50 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Tocopherol gama1.35 ± 0.12 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Tocopherol delta2.48 ± 0.22 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Vitamin CAscorbic acid25.20 ± 3.48 mg/100 FWP. padusFruits[30]
Dehydroascorbic acid50.87 ± 16.23 mg/100 FWP. padusFruits[30]
TerpenLimonene31.40 ± 5.65 mg/100 FWP. padusFruits[30]
Phellandrene8.51 ± 2.69 mg/100 FWP. padusFruits[30]
Sabinene1.21 ± 0.18 mg/100 FWP. padusFruits[30]
γ-terpinene65.52 ± 6.25 mg/100 FWP. padusFruits[30]
Ursolic acidXP. serotinaFruits[31]
UvaolXP. serotinaFruits[31]
Cis-Linalool oxide0.7%P. padusFlowers[42]
Trans s-Linalool oxide0.1%P. padusFlowers[42]
(Z)-8-Hydroxylinalool30.4%P. padusFlowers[42]
(E)-β-Farnesene0.2%P. padusFlowers[42]
(E, E)-α-Farnesene0.1%P. padusFlowers[42]
X—component is present in the sample.
Table
Table 5. Polyphenolic compounds in wild cherries (P. padus and P. serotina).
Table 5. Polyphenolic compounds in wild cherries (P. padus and P. serotina).
ClassComponentResultSpeciesPlant PartReference
Cinnamic acid derivativesCaffeic acid6.61 ± 1.35 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
Chlorogenic acid10.48 ± 0.28 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
1.39–1.94% DWP. padusFlowers[71]
Coumaric acid12.20 ± 3.07 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
Ferulic acid10.45 ± 3.65 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
5-p-Coumaroylquinic acid 116.14 ± 1.11 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
5-p-Coumaroylquinic acid 22.25 ± 0.05 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Caffeic acid hexoside111.71 ± 1.45 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
p-Coumaric acid hexoside 110.25 ± 1.00 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
5-Caffeoylquinic acid 1357.30 ± 14.08 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
5-Caffeolquinic acid 248.25 ± 1.70 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
XP. serotinaFruits[31]
Dicaffeoylquinic acid15.40 ± 1.08 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Hydroxy-benzoic Acid derivativesEllagic acid11.41 ± 1.25 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
Gallic acid3.54 ± 0.81 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
XP. serotinaFruits[31]
Vanillic acidXP. serotinaFruits[31]
FlavonesApigenin rhamnoside24.99 ± 1.61 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
FlavonolsHyperoside7.38 ± 0.41 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
0.15–0.23% DWP. padusFlowers[71]
Quercetin11.86 ± 2.36 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
1.37–1.56% DWP. padusFlowers[71]
Quercitrin16.37 ± 3.51 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
XP. serotinaFruits[31]
Rutin2.67 ± 1.02 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
XP. serotinaFruits[31]
Quercetin acetyl hexoside2.48 ± 0.09 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Quercetin dihexoside7.49 ± 0.54 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Quercetin hexosyl pentoside 3223.45 ± 10.20 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
XP. serotinaFruits[31]
Quercetin-3-galactoside52.80 ± 1.41 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Quercetin-3-glucoside21.40 ± 1.34 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Quercetin-3-rhamnoside1.98 ± 0.38 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Quercetin-3-rutinosie64.70 ± 21.18 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Quercetin 3-O-β-galactopyranosideXP. padusFlowers[71]
Quercetin diglycosides1.74–1.91% DWP. padusSpring leaves[71]
1.67–1.78% DWP. padusFlowers[71]
Isorhamnetin-3-rutinoside1.22 ± 0.03 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Isorhamnetin diglycoside0.36–0.59% DWP. padusFlowers[71]
Kaempferol hexoside pentoside0.72 ± 0.03 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
XP. serotinaFruits[31]
Kaempferol hexoside 11.06 ± 0.14 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
XP. serotinaFruits[31]
Kaempferol hexoside 2 (glu)1.43 ± 0.05 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
XP. serotinaFruits[31]
Kaempferl-3-rutinoside2.81 ± 0.29 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
CatechinsEpicatechin25.43 ± 3.16 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
95.22 ± 10.60 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Catechin56.66 ± 16.88 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
TanninsCastalagin53.95 ± 8.90 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
Vescalagin26.66 ± 5.97 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
Organic acidsCitric acid217.24 ± 14.95 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
24.76 ± 1.32 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Oxalic acid12.16 ± 2.19 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
Quinic acid324.48 ± 57.21 mg/100g FWP. padusFruits[55]
6.45 ± 0.25 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Malic acid18.71 ± 0.81 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Shikimic acid2.66 ± 0.16 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
Fumaric acid80.08 ± 3.19 mg/kg FWP. padusFruits[30]
X—component is present in the sample
Table
Table 6. Cyanogenic glycosides: amygdalin content in different species.
Table 6. Cyanogenic glycosides: amygdalin content in different species.
SpeciesValueReference
P. serotina (leaves)20.95 ± 0.25 mg/g[82]
Prunus amygdalus Batsch. (fruit)6.37 mg/g (oil)[83]
Prunus amygdalus L. (fruit)0.12 ± 0.06 mg/g[85]
Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. (flower)50.76 ± 0.92 µg/mL[84]
Prunus armeniaca L. (raw seeds)118 (29) µmol HCN equivalents/g DW[86]
Amygdalus communis L. (nectar)6.7 (ppm)[87]
Prunus mume L. (fruit)17.49 ± 0.26 mg/g[85]
Prunus domestica L. (fruit)10.00 ± 0.14 mg/g[85]
Prunus persica L. (peach, fruit)6.81 ± 0.02 mg/g[85]
Prunus avium L. (red, fruit)3.89 ± 0.31 mg/g[85]
Prunus avium L. (black, fruit)2.68 ± 0.02 mg/g[85]
Prunus persica L. (nectarine, fruit)0.12 ± 0.01 mg/g[85]
HCN—Hydrogen Cyanide, DW—dry weight.
Table
Table 7. In vitro and in vivo activity of P. padus and P. serotina.
Table 7. In vitro and in vivo activity of P. padus and P. serotina.
ActivityMethodExtractSpeciesPlant PartOrganismResult/Observed EffectReference
Antioxidant ActivityFRAPAcetoneP. padusFrozen Fruits 31.54 ± 0.26 mM trolox/kg[30]
FRAPMethanolP. padusFruits 17.78 ± 0.84 mmol Fe 2+x kg−1[55]
FRAPMethanolP. padusLeaves 100μg/mL (concentration) 0.34 ± 0.04 μg/mL[88]
FRAPMethanolP. padusLeaves 200 μg/mL (concentration) 0.62 ± 0.01 μg/mL[88]
FRAPMethanolP. padusLeaves 300 μg/mL (concentration) 0.88 ± 0.00 μg/mL[88]
FRAPMethanolP. padusBranch 100μg/mL (concentration) 0.51 ± 0.01[88]
MethanolP. padusBranch 200 μg/mL (concentration) 0.74 ± 0.01[88]
MethanolP. padusBranch 300 μg/mL (concentration) 0.99 ± 0.00[88]
FRAPWaterP. serotinaFresh Fruits 1455.2 ± 92.5 μmol TE/100 g of FW[31]
FRAPWaterP. serotinaFlesh Fruits 1100.7 ± 35.4 μmol TE/100 g of FW[31]
FRAPWaterP. serotinaPeel Fruits 1991.4 ± 40.1 μmol TE/100 g of FW[31]
DPPHMethanolP. padusFlowers 1.43–1.49 g g−1[71]
DPPHMethanolP. padusAutumn Leaves 1.68 g g−1[71]
DPPHMethanolP. padusSpring Leaves 2.10–2.29 g g−1 [71]
DPPHMethanolP. padusSummer Leaves 1.81–1.93 g g−1[71]
DPPHMethanolP. padusFlowers 1.78–1.84 g g−1 [71]
DPPHMethanolP. padusAutumn Leaves 2.49 g g−1 [71]
DPPHMethanolP. padusSpring Leaves 4.27–4.92 g g−1 [71]
DPPHMethanolP. padusSummer Leaves 3.12–3.95 g g−1 [71]
DPPHWaterP. serotinaFresh Fruits 2056.7 ± 108.0 μmol TE/100 g of FW[31]
DPPHWaterP. serotinaFlesh Fruits 1764.6 ± 170.4 μmol TE/100 g of FW[31]
DPPHWaterP. serotinaPeel Fruits 2681.6 ± 180.0 μmol TE/100 g of FW[31]
AntimicrobialMICMethanolP. padusBranchBacillus Atrophaeus250 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesBacillus Atrophaeus500 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusBranchKocuria rhizophila125 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesKocuria rhizophila>1000 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusBranchMicrococcus luteus>1000μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesMicrococcus luteus>1000 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusBranchStaphylococcus epidermidis250 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesStaphylococcus epidermidis>1000 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusBranchBacillus subtilis500 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesBacillus subtilis500 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusBranchKlebsiella pneumoniae1000 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesKlebsiella pneumoniae>1000 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusBranchEnterobacter cloacae500 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesEnterobacter cloacae>1000 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusBranchSalmonella enterica500 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesSalmonella enterica>1000 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusBranchPseudomonas aeruginosa1000 μg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusLeavesPseudomonas aeruginosa1000 μg/mL[89]
MICDichloromethaneP. padusSeedsEnterococcus faecalis1.0 mg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusSeedsL. plantarum1.0 × 10−2 mg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusSeedsP. mirabilis1.0 × 10−2 mg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusSeedsS. aureus1.0 × 10−4 mg/mL[89]
MICDichloromethaneP. padusSeedsS. hominis1.0 mg/mL[89]
MICMethanolP. padusSeedsS. hominis1.0 × 10−2 mg/mL[89]
AntidiabeticThe α-glucosidase inhibitory effectMethanolP. padusLeaves 1.0 ± 0.1 µg/mL[88]
The α-glucosidase inhibitory effectMethanolP. padusBranch 82.7 ± 4.2 µg/mL[88]
Cardiovascular activityNOS Enzymatic activity assayDichloromethaneP. serotinaFruitsWistar male rats 250–300 gUrsolic acid (EC50 = 21.5 ± 3.5 µg/mL; Emax = 97.7% ± 3.9%); Uvaol (EC50 = 19.3 ± 2.5 µg/mL; Emax = 93.4% ± 5.1%) caused a significant concentration-dependent relaxation of the aorta. ACh (EC50 = 8.7 ± 0.8 µg/mL; Emax = 69.5% ± 5.7%), used as positive control, was more potent than ursolic acid and uvaol, but showed lower efficacy than both triterpenes. The nitrite concentration increased, when aortic tissue was incubated with ursolic acid ((NO2′) = 7.95 ± 0.22µM) and uvaol ((NO2′) = 7.55 ± 0.17µM); both triterpenes induced a higher nitrite concentration than that of ACh ((NO2’) = 5.5 ± 0.47µM). Similarly, quantification of H2S showed that stimulation of aortic tissue with ursolic acid ((H2S) = 234 ± 12.7µM) and uvaol ((H2S) = 253 ± 6.8µM) increased four times the H2S concentration with respect to the control. In the presence of ACh, H2S levels were only three times higher than those of the control; the vasodilator effect produced by ursolic acid involves activation of the NO/cGMP and H2S/KATP channel pathways, possibly through direct activation of NOS and CSE.[90]
Anti-inflammatory-nociceptive propertiesMeasurement of iNOS enzyme activity Western blot analysis Trypsin-induced paw edema Acute toxicity test Tail immersion test Hot plate test Acetic acid-induced writhing test Formalin testMethanolP. padusDried stemICR mice (6 weeks old) weighing 20–25 g and C57BL/6 mice (5 weeks old) weighing 18–22 gTested material delayed reaction times to a nociceptive stimulus 60 min after oral administration (38.61% at 250 mg/kg and 68.51% at 500 mg/kg, po0.001).The anti-nociceptive effects of MPP (250, 500 mg/kg) occurred between 30 and 90 min and maximum analgesia was reached at 60 min (37.98%, after 0.01 and 62.18%, after 0.001 respectively).The treatment with MPP induced a significant decrease in the number of writhing motions dose dependently (52.5% at 250 mg/kg, po0.001 and 72.8% at 500 mg/kg, po0.001). P. padus shown anti-inflammatory properties not only by suppressing various inflammatory mediators in vitro but also by reducing inflammatory swelling in vivo. A strong anti-nociceptive effect through the central and peripheral mechanism acting as a partial opioid agonist was also demonstrated.[91]
DPPH—antioxidant activity with DPPH radicals (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), FRAP—ferric reducing antioxidant power, MIC—antimicrobial test (minimum inhibitory concentration assay). TE—Trolox equivalent, FW—fresh weight, NOS—inhibitor of NO synthase, CSE—inhibitor of cystathionine-γ-lyase, ICR—Institute of Cancer Research.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Telichowska, A.; Kobus-Cisowska, J.; Szulc, P. Phytopharmacological Possibilities of Bird Cherry Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. Species and Their Bioactive Phytochemicals. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1966. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071966

AMA Style

Telichowska A, Kobus-Cisowska J, Szulc P. Phytopharmacological Possibilities of Bird Cherry Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. Species and Their Bioactive Phytochemicals. Nutrients. 2020; 12(7):1966. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071966

Chicago/Turabian Style

Telichowska, Aleksandra, Joanna Kobus-Cisowska, and Piotr Szulc. 2020. "Phytopharmacological Possibilities of Bird Cherry Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. Species and Their Bioactive Phytochemicals" Nutrients 12, no. 7: 1966. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071966

APA Style

Telichowska, A., Kobus-Cisowska, J., & Szulc, P. (2020). Phytopharmacological Possibilities of Bird Cherry Prunus padus L. and Prunus serotina L. Species and Their Bioactive Phytochemicals. Nutrients, 12(7), 1966. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071966

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop