High Choline Intake during Pregnancy Reduces Characteristics of the Metabolic Syndrome in Male Wistar Rat Offspring Fed a High Fat But Not a Normal Fat Post-Weaning Diet
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Animals and Diets
2.2. Plasma Glucoregulatory Hormones, Total Free Fatty Acids, and Triglycerides
2.3. Energy Expenditure and Activity
2.4. Liver Lipid Extraction and Fatty Acid Quantification
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Litter Size, Body Weight, and Plasma Leptin and Insulin Concentrations of Pups at Birth
3.2. Cumulative Food Intake and Final Body Weight of Adult Male Offspring at 17 Weeks Post-Weaning
3.3. Energy Expenditure and Activity of Adult Male Offspring at 15 Weeks Post-Weaning
3.4. Liver Weight, Visceral Adiposity, and Fasting Plasma Metabolic Measures of Adult Male Offspring at 17 Weeks Post-Weaning
3.5. Hepatic Fatty Acid Composition of Adult Male Offspring at 17 Weeks Post-Weaning
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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RC-NF | HC-NF | RC-HF | HC-HF | P GD | P PWD | P GD*PWD | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liver weight (% fbw) | 2.6 ± 0.1 | 2.6 ± 0.1 | 2.5 ± 0.1 | 2.5 ±0.1 | 0.96 | 0.18 | 0.93 |
Visceral adiposity (% fbw) | 6.5 ± 0.6 | 7.4 ± 0.5 | 11 ± 0.4 | 9.4 ± 0.5 * | 0.6 | <0.001 | 0.03 |
Leptin (ng/mL) | 12.1 ± 1.21 | 16.5 ± 1.35 * | 23.3 ± 1.69 | 21.6 ± 1.27 | 0.33 | <0.001 | 0.03 |
Leptin/visceral adipose mass | 0.25 ± 0.02 | 0.32 ± 0.02 * | 0.3 ± 0.01 | 0.3 ± 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.4 | 0.04 |
Insulin (ng/mL) | 2.08 ± 0.25 | 2.48 ± 0.12 | 2.97 ± 0.11 | 2.45 ± 0.14 * | 0.7 | 0.009 | 0.006 |
Glucose (mg/dL) | 128.7 ± 7.7 | 141.2 ± 11.3 | 139.7 ± 3.4 | 128.4 ± 8.4 | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.15 |
HOMA-IR | 3.1 ± 0.5 | 3.7 ± 0.4 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 3.2 ± 0.2 ** | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.04 |
FFA (mg/dL) | 254 ± 16.1 | 252 ± 13.1 | 240 ± 8.43 | 228 ± 15.4 | 0.64 | 0.17 | 0.69 |
Triglycerides (nmol/dL) | 90.8 ± 6.07 | 95.3 ± 6.51 | 89.6 ± 7.61 | 61.9 ± 8.59 * | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.04 |
Fatty Acids (µg/g) | RC-NF | HC-NF | RC-HF | HC-HF | P GD | P PWD | P GD*PWD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ʃ SFAs | 3.17 ± 0.26 | 3.53 ± 0.39 | 4.13 ± 0.45 | 4.99 ± 0.51 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.37 |
Ʃ MUFAs | 1.51 ± 0.14 | 1.97 ± 0.22 | 3.42 ± 0.57 | 2.96 ± 0.40 | 0.78 | 0.001 | 0.40 |
Ʃ n-6 PUFA | 4.78 ± 0.32 | 4.74 ± 0.58 | 6.57 ± 0.85 | 7.66 ± 0.54 | 0.26 | 0.001 | 0.24 |
Ʃ n-3 PUFA | 1.13 ± 0.09 | 1.14 ± 0.16 | 1.19 ± 0.12 | 1.69 ± 0.06 * | 0.04 | 0.013 | 0.04 |
Ʃ PUFAs | 5.91 ± 0.41 | 5.88 ± 0.74 | 7.76 ± 0.97 | 9.35 ± 0.59 | 0.29 | 0.001 | 0.28 |
Total fatty acids | 10.59 ± 0.76 | 11.37 ± 1.29 | 15.30 ± 1.93 | 17.31± 1.42 | 0.35 | 0.001 | 0.68 |
Fatty Acids (µg/g) | RC-NF | HC-NF | RC-HF | HC-HF | P GD | P PWD | PGD*PWD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Myristic Acid (C14:0) | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.99 | 0.31 | 0.33 |
Palmitic Acid (C16:0) | 1.71 ± 0.13 | 1.93 ± 0.19 | 2.59 ± 0.38 | 2.59 ± 0.26 | 0.68 | 0.008 | 0.68 |
Stearic Acid (C18:0) | 1.39 ± 0.14 | 1.49 ± 0.19 | 1.64 ± 0.13 | 2.65 ± 0.08 * | 0.006 | 0.001 | 0.003 |
Arachidic Acid (C20:0) | 0.007 ± 0.001 | 0.009 ± 0.002 | 0.006 ± 0.001 | 0.006 ± 0.001 | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.37 |
Behenic Acid (C22:0) | 0.009 ± 0.001 | 0.012 ± 0.002 | 0.007 ± 0.001 | 0.008 ± 0.001 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.31 |
Tricosylic Acid (C23:0) | 0.011 ± 0.003 | 0.018 ± 0.004 | 0.009 ± 0.002 | 0.014 ± 0.002 | 0.04 | 0.31 | 0.81 |
Lignoceric Acid (C24:0) | 0.018 ± 0.002 | 0.023 ± 0.003 | 0.014 ± 0.002 | 0.018 ± 0.001 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.91 |
Palmitoleic Acid (C16:1 n-7) | 0.15 ± 0.02 | 0.26 ± 0.04* | 0.14 ± 0.03 | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 0.31 | 0.004 | 0.02 |
Vaccenic Acid (C18:1 n-7) | 0.39 ± 0.04 | 0.51 ± 0.06 | 0.33 ± 0.05 | 0.35 ± 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.018 | 0.25 |
Oleic Acid (C18:1 n-9) | 0.97 ± 0.09 | 1.19 ± 0.13 | 2.91 ± 0.49 | 2.48 ± 0.37 | 0.75 | 0.000 | 0.35 |
Eicosenoic Acid (C20:1 n-9) | 0.01 ± 0.001 | 0.02 ± 0.002 | 0.04 ± 0.006 | 0.04 ± 0.004 | 0.46 | 0.000 | 0.81 |
Linoleic Acid (C18:2 n-6) | 2.13 ± 0.16 | 1.96 ± 0.22 | 3.63 ± 0.64 | 3.48 ± 0.48 | 0.73 | 0.003 | 0.97 |
Gamma Linolenic Acid (C18:3 n-6) | 0.03± 0.001 | 0.02 ± 0.001 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.91 | 0.000 | 0.62 |
Eicosadienoic Acid (C20:2 n-6) | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.55 | 0.017 | 0.58 |
Arachidonic Acid (ARA, C20:4 n-6) | 2.37 ± 0.21 | 2.51 ± 0.35 | 2.49 ± 0.24 | 3.63 ± 0.13 * | 0.013 | 0.014 | 0.05 |
Docosadienoic Acid (C22:2 n-6) | 0.08 ± 0.02 | 0.08 ± 0.02 | 0.09 ± 0.02 | 0.16 ± 0.03 | 0.15 | 0.050 | 0.13 |
Adrenic Acid (C22:4 n-6) | 0.05 ± 0.003 | 0.05 ± 0.007 | 0.12 ± 0.02 | 0.13 ± 0.02 | 0.91 | 0.000 | 0.55 |
Docosapentaenoic Acid (C22:5 n-6) | 0.02 ± 0.002 | 0.02 ± 0.005 | 0.04 ± 0.006 | 0.05 ± 0.004 | 0.65 | 0.000 | 0.26 |
Alpha-linolenic Acid (ALA, C18:3 n-3) | 0.095 ± 0.013 | 0.077 ± 0.010 | 0.170 ± 0.038 | 0.146 ± 0.028 | 0.43 | 0.012 | 0.92 |
Eicosatrienoic Acid (ETE, C20:3 n-3) | 0.017 ± 0.009 | 0.004 ± 0.001 | 0.006 ± 0.001 | 0.006 ± 0.001 | 0.15 | 0.28 | 0.13 |
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA, C20:5 n-3) | 0.042 ± 0.005 | 0.042 ± 0.007 | 0.050 ± 0.011 | 0.050 ± 0.009 | 0.96 | 0.36 | 0.96 |
Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA, C22:5 n-3) | 0.11 ± 0.009 | 0.12 ± 0.03 | 0.13 ± 0.02 | 0.17 ± 0.02 | 0.19 | 0.11 | 0.61 |
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA, C22:6 n-3) | 0.87 ± 0.09 | 0.89 ± 0.13 | 0.83 ± 0.08 | 1.32 ± 0.06 * | 0.008 | 0.04 | 0.02 |
RC-NF | HC-NF | RC-HF | HC-HF | P GD | P PWD | P GD*PWD | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C 16:1 n-7/C16:0 | 0.08 ± 0.008 | 0.13 ± 0.013* | 0.049 ± 0.006 | 0.037 ± 0.003 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
C18:1 n-9/C18:0 | 0.73 ± 0.07 | 0.84 ± 0.09 | 1.63 ± 0.24 | 0.98 ± 0.15 * | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
DHA/ARA | 0.36 ± 0.02 | 0.36 ± 0.02 | 1.19 ± 0.12 | 1.69 ± 0.06 * | 0.36 | 0.33 | 0.21 |
DHA/EPA | 22.5 ± 3.5 | 21.9 ± 1.8 | 20.4 ± 2.5 | 33.7 ± 6.55 | 0.12 | 0.24 | 0.11 |
n-6/n-3 | 4.28 ± 0.21 | 4.23 ± 0.22 | 5.43 ± 0.21 | 4.52 ± 0.23 ** | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.05 |
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Hammoud, R.; Pannia, E.; Kubant, R.; Metherel, A.; Simonian, R.; Pausova, Z.; Anderson, G.H. High Choline Intake during Pregnancy Reduces Characteristics of the Metabolic Syndrome in Male Wistar Rat Offspring Fed a High Fat But Not a Normal Fat Post-Weaning Diet. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1438. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13051438
Hammoud R, Pannia E, Kubant R, Metherel A, Simonian R, Pausova Z, Anderson GH. High Choline Intake during Pregnancy Reduces Characteristics of the Metabolic Syndrome in Male Wistar Rat Offspring Fed a High Fat But Not a Normal Fat Post-Weaning Diet. Nutrients. 2021; 13(5):1438. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13051438
Chicago/Turabian StyleHammoud, Rola, Emanuela Pannia, Ruslan Kubant, Adam Metherel, Rebecca Simonian, Zdenka Pausova, and G. Harvey Anderson. 2021. "High Choline Intake during Pregnancy Reduces Characteristics of the Metabolic Syndrome in Male Wistar Rat Offspring Fed a High Fat But Not a Normal Fat Post-Weaning Diet" Nutrients 13, no. 5: 1438. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13051438