Different Associations of Coffee Consumption with the Risk of Incident Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease and Advanced Liver Fibrosis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Dietary Assessment
2.3. Definition of MASLD and ALF
2.4. Measurements
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Characteristics of the Study Population
3.2. Association of Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Incident MASLD among People without MASLD
3.3. Association of Coffee Consumption and the Risk of Incident ALF among Patients with MASLD
3.4. Longitudinal Changes in FIB-4 Scores by Coffee Consumption Groups in Patients with MASLD
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Individuals without MASLD | Individuals with MASLD and without ALF | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Without Coffee Consumption | >0 and <1 cups/day | ≥1 and <2 cups/day | ≥2 cups/day | p * | Without Coffee Consumption | >0 and <1 cups/day | ≥1 and <2 cups/day | ≥2 cups/day | p * |
(n = 1196) | (n = 1269) | (n = 1460) | (n = 1341) | (n = 330) | (n = 338) | (n = 351) | (n = 307) | |||
Male sex, n (%) | 384 (32.1%) | 527 (41.5%) | 565 (38.7%) | 710 (52.9%) | <0.001 | 95 (28.8%) | 134 (39.6%) | 158 (45.0%) | 185 (60.3%) | <0.001 |
Age, years | 54.7 ± 9.1 | 52.2 ± 8.8 | 50.7 ± 8.5 | 49.4 ± 8.0 | <0.001 | 56.1 ± 8.0 | 54.5 ± 8.3 | 52.8 ± 8.4 | 50.8 ± 7.9 | <0.001 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 23.5 ± 2.9 | 23.9 ± 2.8 | 24.1 ± 2.8 | 23.9 ± 2.9 | <0.001 | 26.6 ± 2.9 | 26.7 ± 3.1 | 26.7 ± 2.9 | 26.8 ± 2.8 | 0.718 |
Mean blood pressure, mmHg | 95.4 ± 12.9 | 94.7 ± 12.5 | 92.9 ± 12.5 | 92.8 ± 12.2 | <0.001 | 104.3 ± 12.3 | 103.2 ± 12.6 | 102.2 ± 12.8 | 101.7 ± 11.1 | 0.034 |
Smoking status, n (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||
Never | 918 (77.5%) | 889 (70.8%) | 976 (67.3%) | 694 (52.3%) | 258 (79.1%) | 235 (69.9%) | 222 (63.4%) | 130 (42.6%) | ||
Former | 138 (11.7%) | 155 (12.3%) | 185 (12.8%) | 197 (14.8%) | 37 (11.3%) | 49 (14.6%) | 56 (16.0%) | 64 (21.0%) | ||
Intermittent | 19 (1.6%) | 35 (2.8%) | 23 (1.6%) | 33 (2.5%) | 5 (1.5%) | 6 (1.8%) | 10 (2.9%) | 6 (2.0%) | ||
Every day | 109 (9.2%) | 177 (14.1%) | 266 (18.3%) | 404 (30.4%) | 26 (8.0%) | 46 (13.7%) | 62 (17.7%) | 105 (34.4%) | ||
Current drinker, n (%) | 343 (28.8%) | 579 (45.8%) | 686 (47.2%) | 649(48.6%) | <0.001 | 89 (27.3%) | 129 (38.3%) | 152 (43.4%) | 147 (47.9%) | <0.001 |
Physical activity, n (%) | <0.001 | 0.579 | ||||||||
Low | 93 (8.0%) | 103 (8.5%) | 83 (5.9%) | 100 (7.7%) | 27 (8.4%) | 27 (8.4%) | 26 (7.6%) | 29 (9.7%) | ||
Moderate | 636 (54.5%) | 705 (57.9%) | 958 (67.6%) | 817 (62.6%) | 180 (56.2%) | 183 (56.8%) | 214 (62.8%) | 177 (59.4%) | ||
High | 437 (37.5%) | 409 (33.6%) | 377 (26.6%) | 389 (29.8%) | 113 (35.3%) | 112 (34.8%) | 101 (29.6%) | 92 (30.9%) | ||
Education, n (%) | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||
Elementary/Middle school | 816 (68.8%) | 731 (58.0%) | 713 (49.0%) | 629 (47.2%) | 250 (76.7%) | 206(61.5%) | 211 (60.3%) | 151 (49.3%) | ||
High school | 277 (23.4%) | 361 (28.6%) | 532 (36.6%) | 494 (37.1%) | 49 (15.0%) | 92 (27.5%) | 92 (26.3%) | 102 (33.3%) | ||
College/University | 93 (7.8%) | 169 (13.4%) | 210 (14.4%) | 209 (15.7%) | 27 (8.3%) | 37 (11.0%) | 47 (13.4%) | 53 (17.3%) | ||
Monthly household income, KRW | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||||
<100 million | 550 (46.9%) | 459 (36.7%) | 369 (25.6%) | 365 (27.5%) | 160 (50.0%) | 150 (44.9%) | 125 (35.9%) | 92 (31.0%) | ||
100–200 million | 338 (28.8%) | 392 (31.4%) | 466 (32.3%) | 424 (31.9%) | 82 (25.6%) | 83 (24.9%) | 85 (24.4%) | 81 (27.3%) | ||
>200 million | 285 (24.3%) | 398 (31.9%) | 607 (42.1%) | 539 (40.6%) | 78 (24.4%) | 101 (30.2%) | 138 (39.7%) | 124 (41.8%) | ||
Platelet count, 109/L | 267.7 ± 63.6 | 263.2 ± 59.4 | 263.1 ± 59.5 | 268.4 ± 61.1 | 0.035 | 280.5 ± 60.4 | 270.5 ± 62.3 | 276.3 ± 63.5 | 280.5 ± 63.7 | 0.129 |
AST, U/L | 26.7 ± 7.1 | 26.8 ± 7.4 | 26.3 ± 6.8 | 25.9 ± 6.4 | 0.003 | 32.3 ± 13.3 | 31.2 ± 12.0 | 33.0 ± 17.6 | 33.0 ± 18.2 | 0.385 |
ALT, U/L | 21.5 ± 7.8 | 22.5 ± 8.7 | 22.1 ± 9.2 | 22.4 ± 9.5 | 0.013 | 36.2 ± 19.7 | 34.5 ± 19.2 | 38.9 ± 26.0 | 42.0 ± 38.1 | 0.002 |
r-GTP, U/L | 22.3 ± 61.2 | 22.4 ± 24.3 | 22.1 ± 21.2 | 23.7 ± 23.4 | 0.667 | 37.1 ± 44.3 | 39.6 ± 49.2 | 46.5 ± 89.7 | 47.9 ± 60.2 | 0.085 |
Total bilirubin, mg/dL | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.005 | 0.5 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.6 ± 0.3 | 0.085 |
Albumin, g/dL | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.3 ± 0.3 | 4.3 ± 0.3 | <0.001 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.3 ± 0.3 | 4.3 ± 0.3 | 0.032 |
hsCRP, mg/dL | 0.1 [0.0;0.2] | 0.1 [0.0;0.2] | 0.1 [0.1;0.2] | 0.1 [0.0;0.2] | 0.490 | 0.2 [0.1;0.3] | 0.2 [0.1;0.3] | 0.2 [0.1;0.3] | 0.2 [0.1;0.3] | 0.938 |
FPG, mg/dL | 82.1 ± 10.3 | 82.7 ± 10.7 | 83.0 ± 14.5 | 82.2 ± 10.3 | 0.160 | 93.3 ± 26.7 | 92.9 ± 24.1 | 96.5 ± 28.8 | 96.9 ± 35.6 | 0.172 |
LDL cholesterol, mg/dL | 113.2 ± 30.5 | 113.0 ± 29.0 | 117.7 ± 32.0 | 117.6 ± 30.4 | <0.001 | 116.6 ± 32.0 | 116.8 ± 31.3 | 120.5 ± 30.6 | 123.3 ± 32.1 | 0.025 |
Total energy intake, kcal/day | 2025.7 ± 807.2 | 2053.9 ± 783.2 | 2171.6 ± 703.4 | 2334.7 ± 921.4 | <0.001 | 2035.8 ± 797.4 | 2100.0 ± 780.8 | 2186.2 ± 729.2 | 2460.2 ± 773.8 | <0.001 |
CHO intake, % of total energy intake | 69.0 ± 8.0 | 68.4 ± 7.8 | 66.7 ± 6.9 | 67.1 ± 7.0 | <0.001 | 70.5 ± 7.3 | 69.7 ± 7.3 | 67.8 ± 7.4 | 67.3 ± 7.4 | <0.001 |
Protein intake, % of total energy intake | 13.6 ± 2.5 | 13.3 ± 2.3 | 13.5 ± 2.1 | 12.8 ± 2.2 | <0.001 | 13.4 ± 2.4 | 13.3 ± 2.3 | 13.3 ± 2.2 | 12.9 ± 2.4 | 0.014 |
Fat intake, % of total energy intake | 16.1 ± 6.4 | 17.0 ± 6.3 | 18.6 ± 5.6 | 18.9 ± 5.6 | <0.001 | 14.9 ± 5.8 | 15.8 ± 5.8 | 17.6 ± 5.9 | 18.6 ± 5.9 | <0.001 |
SFA intake, % of total energy intake | 4.48 ± 1.98 | 4.30 ± 1.74 | 4.54 ± 1.70 | 4.21 ± 1.71 | <0.001 | 4.19 ± 1.80 | 4.09 ± 1.57 | 4.30 ± 1.61 | 4.10 ± 1.57 | 0.325 |
MUFA intake, % of total energy intake | 4.78 ± 2.17 | 4.61 ± 1.94 | 4.85 ± 1.85 | 4.56 ± 1.87 | <0.001 | 4.53 ± 1.99 | 4.44 ± 1.79 | 4.63 ± 1.75 | 4.43 ± 1.65 | 0.439 |
PUFA intake, % of total energy intake | 6.60 ± 2.73 | 5.93 ± 2.28 | 6.17 ± 2.31 | 5.80 ± 2.26 | <0.001 | 6.52 ± 2.61 | 6.05 ± 2.40 | 6.18 ± 2.42 | 5.67 ± 2.29 | <0.001 |
DM, n (%) | 38 (3.2%) | 40 (3.2%) | 49 (3.4%) | 24 (1.8%) | 0.054 | 100 (30.3%) | 89 (26.3%) | 115 (32.8%) | 78 (25.4%) | 0.123 |
HTN, n (%) | 406 (33.9%) | 395 (31.1%) | 402 (27.5%) | 318 (23.7%) | <0.001 | 221 (67.0%) | 216 (63.9%) | 202 (57.5%) | 181 (59.0%) | 0.044 |
Dyslipidemia, n (%) | 463 (38.7%) | 476 (37.5%) | 576 (39.5%) | 521 (38.9%) | 0.773 | 247 (74.8%) | 241 (71.3%) | 251 (71.5%) | 236 (76.9%) | 0.301 |
Coffee intake, cups/day | 0.00 [0.00;0.00] | 0.21 [0.11;0.50] | 1.00 [1.00;1.00] | 3.00 [2.00;3.00] | <0.001 | 0.00 [0.00;0.00] | 0.21 [0.08;0.50] | 1.00 [1.00;1.00] | 3.00 [2.00;3.00] | <0.001 |
sweetened beverage intake, cups/day | 0.00 [0.00;0.04] | 0.03 [0.00;0.08] | 0.03 [0.00;0.21] | 0.03 [0.00;0.21] | <0.001 | 0.00 [0.00;0.03] | 0.03 [0.00;0.08] | 0.03 [0.00;0.21] | 0.03 [0.00;0.21] | <0.001 |
NAFLD-liver fat score | −1.891 [−2.331;−1.344] | −1.900 [−2.311;−1.430] | −1.968 [−2.374;−1.440] | −1.922 [−2.341;−1.448] | 0.106 | 0.151 [−0.284;0.817] | 0.047 [−0.315;0.723] | 0.183 [−0.319;0.864] | 0.129 [−0.325;0.877] | 0.659 |
FIB-4 score | 1.17 [0.93;1.49] | 1.11 [0.88;1.46] | 1.08 [0.87;1.37] | 1.01 [0.81;1.28] | <0.001 | 1.09 [0.85;1.34] | 1.06 [0.85;1.44] | 0.99 [0.80;1.27] | 0.90 [0.72;1.22] | <0.001 |
Total Cases | New-Onset MASLD Cases | Person–Years | Incidence Rate per 1000 Person–Years | Unadjusted | Adjusted * | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coffee consumption | HR (95% CI) | p | HR (95% CI) | p | ||||
Without coffee consumption | 1196 | 504 | 12,267.6 | 41.08 | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | ||
>0 and <1 cups/day | 1269 | 564 | 13,117.3 | 43.00 | 1.04 (0.92–1.18) | 0.497 | 1.04 (0.91–1.17) | 0.595 |
≥1 and <2 cups/day | 1460 | 664 | 15,030.2 | 44.18 | 1.07 (0.96–1.21) | 0.231 | 1.05 (0.93–1.19) | 0.447 |
≥2 cups/day | 1341 | 566 | 13,832.6 | 40.92 | 1.00 (0.89–1.13) | 0.970 | 0.98 (0.86–1.18) | 0.769 |
Total Cases | New-Onset ALF Cases | Person–Years | Incidence Rate per 1000 Person–Years | Unadjusted | Adjusted * | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coffee consumption | HR (95% CI) | p | HR (95% CI) | p | ||||
Without coffee consumption | 330 | 70 | 4775.0 | 14.66 | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | ||
>0 and <1 cups/day | 338 | 81 | 4755.1 | 17.03 | 1.20 (0.87–1.65) | 0.276 | 1.04 (0.73–1.49) | 0.820 |
≥1 and <2 cups/day | 351 | 57 | 5176.3 | 11.01 | 0.76 (0.53–1.07) | 0.115 | 0.80 (0.55–1.17) | 0.248 |
≥2 cups/day | 307 | 42 | 4655.7 | 9.02 | 0.62 (0.43–0.91) | 0.015 | 0.57 (0.37–0.90) | 0.014 |
Total Cases | New-Onset ALF Cases | Person–Years | Incidence Rate per 1000 Person–Years | Unadjusted | Adjusted * | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coffee consumption | HR (95% CI) | p | HR (95% CI) | p | ||||
Without coffee consumption | 330 | 70 | 4775.0 | 14.66 | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | ||
>0 and <1 cups/day | 338 | 81 | 4755.1 | 17.03 | 1.20 (0.87–1.65) | 0.276 | 1.04 (0.73–1.49) | 0.829 |
≥1 and <2 cups/day | 351 | 57 | 5176.3 | 11.01 | 0.76 (0.53–1.07) | 0.115 | 0.80 (0.55–1.17) | 0.245 |
≥2 and <3 cups/day | 141 | 19 | 2136.8 | 8.89 | 0.62 (0.37–1.02) | 0.060 | 0.51 (0.30–0.89) | 0.018 |
≥3 cups/day | 166 | 23 | 2518.9 | 9.13 | 0.63 (0.39–1.09) | 0.054 | 0.65 (0.38–1.12) | 0.119 |
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Lee, J.-H.; Park, J.; Ahn, S.B. Different Associations of Coffee Consumption with the Risk of Incident Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease and Advanced Liver Fibrosis. Nutrients 2024, 16, 140. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16010140
Lee J-H, Park J, Ahn SB. Different Associations of Coffee Consumption with the Risk of Incident Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease and Advanced Liver Fibrosis. Nutrients. 2024; 16(1):140. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16010140
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Jun-Hyuk, JooYong Park, and Sang Bong Ahn. 2024. "Different Associations of Coffee Consumption with the Risk of Incident Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease and Advanced Liver Fibrosis" Nutrients 16, no. 1: 140. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16010140