Intakes of Dairy and Soy Products and 10-Year Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Korean Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Collection
2.2. Participants
2.3. Dairy or Soy Products Intake Frequency
2.4. Dairy or Soy Products Intake and General Characteristics
2.5. Dairy or Soy Products Intake and CHD Risk (FRS, AI, and AIP)
2.6. Statistics
3. Results
3.1. Participants’ Intakes of Dairy and Soy Products
3.2. General Characteristics of Participants
3.3. Relative Effects of FRS Factors on 10-Year CHD Risk
3.4. Ten-Year CHD Risk and Relative Factors According to Dairy or Soy Products’ Intake
3.5. Ten-Year CHD Risk According to Dairy or Soy Products’ Intake Frequencies (Age and Sex)
3.6. The Odds Ratio of 10-Year CHD Risk According to Dairy or Soy Products’ Intake Frequencies
3.7. Correlation between 10-Year CHD Risk and Nutrient Intakes or CHD Indices (AI and AIP)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dairy Products | ||||||
Total (n = 8747) | <2/week (n = 4034) | ≥2/week (n = 4713) | ||||
Frequency (times/week) | Intake (g/day) | Frequency (times/week) | Intake (g/day) | Frequency (times/week) | Intake (g/day) | |
Cow’s milk | 2.00 ± 0.04 | 60.68 ± 1.25 | 0.24 ± 0.01 | 6.96 ± 0.2 | 3.60 ± 0.06 | 109.22 ± 1.96 |
Yogurt (Liquid) | 0.99 ± 0.03 | 11.80 ± 0.35 | 0.17 ± 0.01 | 1.89 ± 0.07 | 1.73 ± 0.05 | 20.76 ± 0.6 |
Yogurt (Solid) | 0.73 ± 0.02 | 11.37 ± 0.39 | 0.12 ± 0.00 | 1.70 ± 0.06 | 1.29 ± 0.04 | 20.12 ± 0.68 |
Total | 3.73 ± 0.06 | 83.86 ± 1.49 | 0.52 ± 0.01 | 10.55 ± 0.23 | 6.62 ± 0.07 | 150.1 ± 2.09 |
Soy Products | ||||||
Total (n = 8747) | <2/week (n = 5092) | ≥2/week (n = 2845) | ||||
Frequency (times/week) | Intake (g/day) | Frequency (times/week) | Intake (g/day) | Frequency (times/week) | Intake (g/day) | |
Soymilk | 0.42 ± 0.02 | 11.98 ± 0.45 | 0.09 ± 0 | 2.51 ± 0.1 | 1.12 ± 0.04 | 31.79 ± 1.21 |
Bean curd (Solid) | 0.76 ± 0.01 | 12.76 ± 0.25 | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 5.75 ± 0.09 | 1.62 ± 0.03 | 27.43 ± 0.6 |
Bean curd (Liquid) | 0.39 ± 0.01 | 11.87 ± 0.26 | 0.21 ± 0 | 6.39 ± 0.13 | 0.77 ± 0.02 | 23.32 ± 0.67 |
Soybean (Cooked) | 0.49 ± 0.02 | 1.17 ± 0.05 | 0.11 ± 0 | 0.26 ± 0.01 | 1.3 ± 0.05 | 3.06 ± 0.13 |
Total | 2.07 ± 0.03 | 37.79 ± 0.69 | 0.76 ± 0.01 | 14.92 ± 0.2 | 4.81 ± 0.07 | 85.61 ± 1.45 |
Variables | Total (n = 8747) | Dairy Products | p-Value 2 | Soy Products | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<2/week | ≥2/week | <2/week | ≥2/week | ||||
Sex | |||||||
Men | 49.3 1 | 56.2 | 43.1 | <0.0001 | 48.9 | 50.1 | 0.3516 |
Women | 50.7 | 43.8 | 56.9 | 51.1 | 49.9 | ||
Age group | |||||||
40~49 year | 46.4 | 45.9 | 46.8 | 0.1023 | 46.7 | 45.8 | 0.3711 |
50~59 year | 41.2 | 40.8 | 41.6 | 40.7 | 42.3 | ||
60~69 year | 12.4 | 13.2 | 11.6 | 12.6 | 11.9 | ||
Education (graduate) | |||||||
Elementary | 13.4 | 15.0 | 10.5 | <0.0001 | 13.4 | 14.0 | 0.8789 |
Middle school | 13.1 | 14.3 | 10.8 | 13.0 | 13.6 | ||
High school | 39.8 | 39.2 | 40.8 | 39.8 | 40.2 | ||
≥College | 33.7 | 31.4 | 37.8 | 33.9 | 32.2 | ||
Family income | |||||||
low | 9.3 | 11.2 | 7.5 | <0.0001 | 9.9 | 8.0 | 0.0051 |
Middle–low | 23.3 | 24.9 | 21.8 | 23.8 | 22.1 | ||
Middle–high | 30.6 | 31.2 | 30.0 | 30.7 | 30.2 | ||
high | 36.9 | 32.6 | 40.8 | 35.6 | 39.6 | ||
Living area | |||||||
Large city | 45.5 | 44.5 | 47.1 | 0.0136 | 45.6 | 44.0 | 0.6961 |
Middle city | 37.2 | 37.1 | 37.4 | 37.2 | 37.4 | ||
Rural area | 17.3 | 18.4 | 15.5 | 17.2 | 18.6 | ||
Drinking | |||||||
≥1/month | 85.4 | 85.0 | 86.1 | 0.1828 | 85.5 | 84.1 | 0.3919 |
Obesity 3 | |||||||
Underweight | 2.2 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 0.2301 | 2.1 | 3.5 | 0.0628 |
Normal | 62.0 | 61.3 | 63.2 | 61.9 | 63.0 | ||
Obese | 35.8 | 36.5 | 34.5 | 36.0 | 33.4 |
Parameter | Estimate | Standardized Estimate | Standard Error | t Value | p-Value | Multicollinearity | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tolerance | VIF | ||||||
Intercept | −12.254 | −7 × 1015 | 0.625 | −19.58 | <0.0001 | ||
Age (year) | 0.255 | 0.331 | 0.007 | 34.99 | <0.0001 | 0.89099 | 1.12235 |
sex (Men) | 2.026 | 0.193 | 0.108 | 18.68 | <0.0001 | ||
sex (Women) | Ref. | ||||||
Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 0.042 | 0.288 | 0.001 | 26.57 | <0.0001 | 0.91661 | 1.09097 |
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) | −0.131 | −0.318 | 0.004 | −31.39 | <0.0001 | 0.90332 | 1.10703 |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 0.089 | 0.268 | 0.004 | 21.68 | <0.0001 | 0.91173 | 1.09681 |
Diabetes (No) | 4.518 | −0.223 | 0.302 | −14.93 | <0.0001 | 0.96743 | 1.03367 |
Diabetes (Yes) | Ref. | ||||||
Smoking (No) | −3.708 | −0.294 | 0.181 | −20.42 | <0.0001 | 0.92948 | 1.07588 |
Smoking (Yes) | Ref. |
Variables | Dairy Products | Soy Products | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
<2/week | ≥2/week | <2/week | ≥2/week | ||
age (year) 1 | 51 ± 0.1 2 NS 3 | 50.3 ± 0.2 | 50.6 ± 0.1 * | 51.5 ± 0.3 | 50.5 ± 0.1 |
Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 195.4 ± 0.6 NS | 196.7 ± 0.7 | 195.9 ± 0.5 NS | 195.7 ± 1.9 | 195 ± 0.5 |
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) | 49.7 ± 0.2 * | 51.9 ± 0.3 | 50.3 ± 0.2 NS | 50.7 ± 0.6 | 50 ± 0.2 |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 118.8 ± 0.3 NS | 117.7 ± 0.3 | 118.4 ± 0.2 NS | 118 ± 0.7 | 118 ± 0.2 |
Diabetes status (Yes %) | 8.3 * | 6.0 | 7.1 NS | 7.0 | 7.1 |
Smoking status (Yes %) | 24.6 NS | 24.1 | 22.2 NS | 22.6 | 22.5 |
FRS score | 4.4 ± 0.1 * | 3.8 ± 0.1 | 4.0 ± 0.1 NS | 4.1 ± 0.2 | 4.1 ± 0.1 |
10-year CHD risk (%) | 7.3 ± 0.1 * | 6.2 ± 0.1 * | 6.6 ± 0.1 NS | 6.5 ± 0.1 | 6.7 ± 0.1 |
Low % 4 | 72.4 *** | 78.2 | 74.6 | 73.6 | 73.6 |
Intermediate % | 23.3 | 19.0 | 21.8 | 21.2 | 21.2 |
High % | 4.3 | 2.7 | 3.6 | 5.2 | 5.2 |
AI | 3.15 ± 0.02 NS | 3.03 ± 0.02 | 3.11 ± 0.02 NS | 3.07 ± 0.06 | 3.07 ± 0.02 |
AIP | 0.42 ± 0.01 * | 0.37 ± 0.01 | 0.40 ± 0.01 NS | 0.39 ± 0.02 | 0.39 ± 0.01 |
Sex/Age | Classification | Dairy Products | Soy Products | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<2/week | ≥2/week | <2/week | ≥2/week | |||
Men | ||||||
40~49 | Low | 76.9 1NS2 | 78.6 | 77.3 NS | 79.6 | 77.5 |
Intermediate | 20.9 | 20.6 | 21.0 | 18.7 | 20.8 | |
High | 2.1 | 0.8 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.7 | |
50~59 | Low | 49.1 NS | 50.1 | 48.9 NS | 53.8 | 49.4 |
Intermediate | 41.5 | 44.1 | 42.8 | 36.9 | 42.3 | |
High | 9.4 | 5.9 | 8.2 | 9.3 | 8.3 | |
60~69 | Low | 25.9 NS | 26.4 | 26.2 NS | 24.3 | 26.0 |
Intermediate | 52.7 | 51.1 | 52.7 | 47.4 | 52.2 | |
High | 21.4 | 22.5 | 21.0 | 28.2 | 21.7 | |
Total | Low | 59.5 * | 62.0 | 60.3 NS | 60.1 | 60.3 |
Intermediate | 33.2 | 33.0 | 33.3 | 31.1 | 33.1 | |
High | 7.3 | 5.0 | 6.4 | 8.8 | 6.6 | |
Women | ||||||
40~49 | Low | 99.7 NS | 99.6 | 99.6 NS | 100 | 99.6 |
Intermediate | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.4 | |
High | ||||||
50~59 | Low | 82.4 ** | 88.5 | 84.6 NS | 83.2 | 84.4 |
Intermediate | 16.8 | 11.1 | 14.7 | 15.2 | 14.7 | |
High | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 0.8 | |
60~69 | Low | 63.7 NS | 63.7 | 63.3 NS | 68.6 | 63.7 |
Intermediate | 33.3 | 31.0 | 32.9 | 27.2 | 32.5 | |
High | 3.0 | 5.3 | 3.8 | 4.2 | 3.9 | |
Total | Low | 87.2 ** | 90.3 | 88.5 NS | 88.0 | 88.5 |
Intermediate | 12.0 | 8.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | 10.7 | |
High | 0.8 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.3 | 0.9 |
Model 1 1 | Model 2 2 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR 3 | 95% CI 4 | OR | 95% CI | ||
Age group | 50~64 | 5.485 | (4.620, 6.511) 5*** | 9.869 | (7.360, 13.235) *** |
40~49 | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference | |
Sex | Men | 8.899 | (7.831, 10.948) *** | 21.019 | (15.019, 28.691) *** |
Women | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference | |
Smoking status | Yes | 1.974 | (1.185, 3.288) *** | 6.811 | (4.644, 9.988) *** |
No | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference | |
Education level | Elementary | 3.921 | (2.521, 4.924) *** | 2.140 | (1.444, 3.174) ** |
Middle school | 1.999 | (2.521, 2.529) *** | 1.596 | (1.142, 2.417) * | |
High school | 0.914 | (0.763, 1.094) | 1.169 | (0.908, 1.506) NS | |
University | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference | |
Income | Low | 1.917 | (1.489, 2.598) *** | 1.661 | (1.142, 2.417) * |
Medium-low | 1.540 | (1.250, 1.896) *** | 1.307 | (0.965, 1.770) NS | |
High-low | 1.011 | (0.827, 1.235) | 0.943 | (0.727, 1.224) NS | |
High | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference | |
Living area | Rural area | 1.353 | (1.097, 1.669) * | 0.954 | (0.737, 1.236) NS. |
Middle and Small City | 0.925 | (0.778, 1.099) | 0.855 | (0.674, 1.086) NS | |
Large city | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference | |
Obesity level | Underweight | 0.381 | (0.222, 0.655) ** | 0.340 | (0.164, 0.763) ** |
Obesity | 2.300 | (1.913, 2.765) *** | 2.594 | (2.045, 3.290) *** | |
Normal | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference | |
Dairy products intake | Yes | 0.671 | (0.567, 0.793) *** | 0.742 | (0.619, 0.890) ** |
No | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference | |
Soy products intake | Yes | 1.298 | (0.839, 2.008) NS | 0.732 | (0.383, 1.414) NS |
No | 1 | Reference | 1 | Reference |
Men | Women | Total | |
---|---|---|---|
1 Dairy products intake (g/d) | 2 −0.04813 3** | −0.0463 ** | −0.1321 * |
0.005 | 0.0008 | <0.001 | |
Calcium intake (mg/d) | −0.0120 NS | −0.0359 * | −0.0395 ** |
0.7047 | 0.0106 | 0.0024 | |
Fat intake (g/d) | 0.02364 NS | −0.01727 NS | −0.0292 ** |
0.1646 | 0.2062 | 0.0066 | |
Protein intake (g/d) | 0.00941 NS | −0.0149 | 0.0434 *** |
0.58 | 0.2845 | <0.001 | |
Carbohydrate intake(g/d) | −0.02706 NS | 0.02573 * | 0.064 *** |
0.1116 | 0.0500 | <0.001 | |
4 AI | 0.58693 *** | 0.53287 *** | 0.55167 *** |
<0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | |
5 AIP | 0.48411 *** | 0.49919 *** | 0.531 *** |
<0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
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Hwang, S.; Ha, A.W. Intakes of Dairy and Soy Products and 10-Year Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Korean Adults. Nutrients 2024, 16, 2959. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172959
Hwang S, Ha AW. Intakes of Dairy and Soy Products and 10-Year Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Korean Adults. Nutrients. 2024; 16(17):2959. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172959
Chicago/Turabian StyleHwang, Sinwoo, and Ae Wha Ha. 2024. "Intakes of Dairy and Soy Products and 10-Year Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Korean Adults" Nutrients 16, no. 17: 2959. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172959